Article(id=1320018880332939744, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, issueId=1320018843771187282, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11983/CBB24056, pmid=null, cstr=32102.14.CBB24056, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1713110400000, receivedDateStr=2024-04-15, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1728835200000, acceptedDateStr=2024-10-14, onlineDate=1792646625835, onlineDateStr=2026-10-22, pubDate=1741536000000, pubDateStr=2025-03-10, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792646625835, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-22, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792646625835, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792646625835, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1320018843771187282, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, year='2025', volume='60', issue='2', pageStart='151', pageEnd='306', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1741536000000', pubDateStr='2025-03-10', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792646617118, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792646680189, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1320019108373054318, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, issueId=1320018843771187282, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1320019108373054319, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, issueId=1320018843771187282, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=283, endPage=293, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1320018880710427105, articleId=1320018880332939744, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, language=EN, title=FRET-based Biosensors: Application of Small Molecule Fluorescence Probes in Plants, columnId=1317485676040409248, journalTitle=Chinese Bulletin of Botany, columnName=SPECIAL TOPICS, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Biological small molecules, also known as monomeric compounds with relatively low molecular weight found in organisms, encompass a wide array of substances in plants, such as ions, plant hormones and metabolites. Studying the dynamic fluctuations of these small molecules in plants is crucial for analyzing their corresponding physiological functions, regulatory networks, and enhancing the precision of botanical research. Genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors/probes utilizing Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) technology serves as a valuable tool for real-time monitoring of these small molecules within living organisms. These FRET biosensors/probes allow for the non-invasive visualization of specific small molecule concentrations, providing detailed information at a high resolution. Because of these unique advantages, this technique has been extensively applied in various research fields, including plant physiology, developmental biology, and environmental science. This review provides a comprehensive overview of FRET sensors/probes utilized in plant research in recent years, outlines the key design concepts, and highlights their applications and advances in detecting ions, plant hormones, and metabolites. Furthermore, this review demonstrates practical technological tools and potential research directions for elucidating the functions of small biomolecules in plants.

, authors=Jiayi Lü, Legong Li, Congcong Hou*, authorsList=Jiayi Lü, Legong Li, Congcong Hou, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Congcong Hou, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail:
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生物小分子是指生物体内分子量较小的单体物质, 植物小分子种类繁多, 包括离子、植物激素和代谢物等。了解植物体内这些小分子的动态变化, 有助于解析相关的生理功能和调控网络, 并为植物细胞学的精确观察创造新的机遇。基于Förster共振能量转移(Förster resonance energy transfer, FRET)原理设计的基因编码荧光生物传感器/探针, 为活体内观察这些小分子的动态变化提供了强有力的工具。通过FRET传感器/探针, 能够可视化细胞内特定小分子化合物的浓度, 并实时获取高分辨率图像。这一技术因其独特的优势而被广泛应用于植物生理学、发育生物学和环境科学等研究领域。该文总结了近年来植物学研究中使用的FRET传感器/探针, 概述了它们的主要设计思路, 并阐述了其在检测离子、植物激素及代谢物方面的应用与研究进展, 旨在为植物中生物小分子的功能研究提供实用的技术手段和可能的研究方向。

, authors=吕加一, 李乐攻, 侯聪聪*, authorsList=吕加一, 李乐攻, 侯聪聪, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=侯聪聪, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
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(A) Principle of FRET; (B) Structure of FRET-based biosensors/probes

, figureFileSmall=FrTU0Dg2Cw1tKVSy3pSfJQ==, figureFileBig=3HejIA3dcOf3roAKpM4EDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320018887589085701, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1320018880332939744, language=CN, label=图1, caption=基于Förster共振能量转移(FRET)原理的生物传感器/探针

(A) FRET原理; (B) 基于FRET原理设计的生物传感器/探针结构

, figureFileSmall=FrTU0Dg2Cw1tKVSy3pSfJQ==, figureFileBig=3HejIA3dcOf3roAKpM4EDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320018887962378758, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1320018880332939744, language=EN, label=Table1, caption=

The Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based biosensors/probes for small molecules in plants

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
生物传感器/探针 目标小分子 感知元件 FRET供体 FRET受体 参考文献
YC Ca2+ CaM (calmodulin)-M13 eCFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein) eYFP (enhanced yellow fluorescent protein) Miyawaki et al., 1997
CALWY Zn2+ ATOX1和WD4 eCFP eYFP van Dongen et al., 2007
eCALWY Zn2+ ATOX1和WD4 Cerulean Citrine Vinkenborg et al., 2009
NiTrac1 NO3- NRT1.1 (nitrate transporter 1.1) mCerulean Aphrodite Ho and Frommer, 2014
NitraMeter3.0 NO3- NasR蛋白中的硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐结合结构域 edeCFP edAFP Chen et al., 2022
FLIPPi Pi PiBP (phosphate-binding protein) eCFP eYFP/cpVenus Gu et al., 2006; Mukherjee et al., 2015
ABAleon 脱落酸 全长PYR1 (pyrabactin resistance 1)和截短的ABI1 (ABA insensitive 1) mTurquoise cpVenus73 Waadt et al., 2014
ABACUS 脱落酸 全长PYL1 (PYR-like protein 1)和ABI1催化结构域 edCerulean edCitrine Jones et al., 2014
GPS1 赤霉素 截短的GAI (gibberellic acid insensitive)和全长GID1C (GA insensitive dwarf 1c) edCerulean edAFP Rizza et al., 2017
AuxSen 生长素 TrpR (tryptophan repressor) Aquamarine mNeonGreen Herud-Sikimić et al., 2021
FLIPglus 葡萄糖 GGBP (glucose/galactose-binding protein) eCFP eYFP Fehr et al., 2003
Ateam ATP FoF1-ATP合酶的ε亚基 mseCFP cp173-mVenus Imamura et al., 2009
- 谷氨酰胺 QBP (glutamine binding protein) CFP YFP Yang et al., 2010
), ArticleFig(id=1320018888281145863, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1320018880332939744, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

植物中基于Förster共振能量转移(FRET)原理的小分子生物传感器/探针

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生物传感器/探针 目标小分子 感知元件 FRET供体 FRET受体 参考文献
YC Ca2+ CaM (calmodulin)-M13 eCFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein) eYFP (enhanced yellow fluorescent protein) Miyawaki et al., 1997
CALWY Zn2+ ATOX1和WD4 eCFP eYFP van Dongen et al., 2007
eCALWY Zn2+ ATOX1和WD4 Cerulean Citrine Vinkenborg et al., 2009
NiTrac1 NO3- NRT1.1 (nitrate transporter 1.1) mCerulean Aphrodite Ho and Frommer, 2014
NitraMeter3.0 NO3- NasR蛋白中的硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐结合结构域 edeCFP edAFP Chen et al., 2022
FLIPPi Pi PiBP (phosphate-binding protein) eCFP eYFP/cpVenus Gu et al., 2006; Mukherjee et al., 2015
ABAleon 脱落酸 全长PYR1 (pyrabactin resistance 1)和截短的ABI1 (ABA insensitive 1) mTurquoise cpVenus73 Waadt et al., 2014
ABACUS 脱落酸 全长PYL1 (PYR-like protein 1)和ABI1催化结构域 edCerulean edCitrine Jones et al., 2014
GPS1 赤霉素 截短的GAI (gibberellic acid insensitive)和全长GID1C (GA insensitive dwarf 1c) edCerulean edAFP Rizza et al., 2017
AuxSen 生长素 TrpR (tryptophan repressor) Aquamarine mNeonGreen Herud-Sikimić et al., 2021
FLIPglus 葡萄糖 GGBP (glucose/galactose-binding protein) eCFP eYFP Fehr et al., 2003
Ateam ATP FoF1-ATP合酶的ε亚基 mseCFP cp173-mVenus Imamura et al., 2009
- 谷氨酰胺 QBP (glutamine binding protein) CFP YFP Yang et al., 2010
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基于FRET原理的生物传感器: 小分子荧光探针在植物中的研究进展
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吕加一 , 李乐攻 , 侯聪聪 *
植物学报 | 专题论坛 2025,60(2): 283-293
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植物学报 |专题论坛 2025 , 60 (2) : 283 -293
基于FRET原理的生物传感器: 小分子荧光探针在植物中的研究进展
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吕加一, 李乐攻, 侯聪聪*
作者信息
  • 首都师范大学生命科学学院, 北京 100048
通讯作者:
FRET-based Biosensors: Application of Small Molecule Fluorescence Probes in Plants
Jiayi Lü, Legong Li, Congcong Hou*
Affiliations
  • College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
  • Corresponding Author:
出版时间: 2025-03-10 doi: 10.11983/CBB24056
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生物小分子是指生物体内分子量较小的单体物质, 植物小分子种类繁多, 包括离子、植物激素和代谢物等。了解植物体内这些小分子的动态变化, 有助于解析相关的生理功能和调控网络, 并为植物细胞学的精确观察创造新的机遇。基于Förster共振能量转移(Förster resonance energy transfer, FRET)原理设计的基因编码荧光生物传感器/探针, 为活体内观察这些小分子的动态变化提供了强有力的工具。通过FRET传感器/探针, 能够可视化细胞内特定小分子化合物的浓度, 并实时获取高分辨率图像。这一技术因其独特的优势而被广泛应用于植物生理学、发育生物学和环境科学等研究领域。该文总结了近年来植物学研究中使用的FRET传感器/探针, 概述了它们的主要设计思路, 并阐述了其在检测离子、植物激素及代谢物方面的应用与研究进展, 旨在为植物中生物小分子的功能研究提供实用的技术手段和可能的研究方向。

生物传感器  /  FRET  /  生物小分子  /  植物细胞

Biological small molecules, also known as monomeric compounds with relatively low molecular weight found in organisms, encompass a wide array of substances in plants, such as ions, plant hormones and metabolites. Studying the dynamic fluctuations of these small molecules in plants is crucial for analyzing their corresponding physiological functions, regulatory networks, and enhancing the precision of botanical research. Genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors/probes utilizing Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) technology serves as a valuable tool for real-time monitoring of these small molecules within living organisms. These FRET biosensors/probes allow for the non-invasive visualization of specific small molecule concentrations, providing detailed information at a high resolution. Because of these unique advantages, this technique has been extensively applied in various research fields, including plant physiology, developmental biology, and environmental science. This review provides a comprehensive overview of FRET sensors/probes utilized in plant research in recent years, outlines the key design concepts, and highlights their applications and advances in detecting ions, plant hormones, and metabolites. Furthermore, this review demonstrates practical technological tools and potential research directions for elucidating the functions of small biomolecules in plants.

biosensors  /  FRET  /  biological small molecules  /  plant cell
吕加一, 李乐攻, 侯聪聪. 基于FRET原理的生物传感器: 小分子荧光探针在植物中的研究进展. 植物学报, 2025 , 60 (2) : 283 -293 . DOI: 10.11983/CBB24056
Jiayi Lü, Legong Li, Congcong Hou. FRET-based Biosensors: Application of Small Molecule Fluorescence Probes in Plants[J]. Chinese Bulletin of Botany, 2025 , 60 (2) : 283 -293 . DOI: 10.11983/CBB24056
植物通过复杂的代谢活动和生理过程维持其生长发育, 同时适应不断变化的环境。这些生命活动产生了多种生物小分子, 包括金属离子、中间代谢物、营养物质和植物激素等。深入了解这些小分子在植物体内的时空分布规律, 对于阐明植物生理机制至关重要。然而, 在活体植物中实时监测和定量分析这些小分子的浓度与分布仍面临技术挑战。基因编码的荧光生物传感器/探针为解决这一难题提供了新思路。基于Förster共振能量转移(Förster resonance energy transfer, FRET)原理设计的荧光生物传感器/探针, 能够特异性与目标小分子结合, 并将微小的构象变化转换为可检测的荧光信号变化, 从而实现对小分子的实时监测(Michener et al., 2012; Walia et al., 2018)。
FRET生物传感器/探针在植物学研究中具有独特的优势。首先, 它们能够实时追踪细胞内生物分子的动态变化; 其次, FRET技术的高灵敏度和空间分辨率能够在单细胞甚至亚细胞水平上获取精确数据(Jones et al., 2013; Bhuckory et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019)。本文将重点介绍植物学研究中基于FRET原理设计的小分子荧光传感器/探针(表1), 阐明其设计思路, 并概述这些传感器/探针在植物学领域中的最新应用和发现。传感器/探针的设计和开发为植物学研究提供了新的思路和方向, 随着技术的进一步发展和完善, 其有望在植物育种和作物改良中发挥更大的作用。
FRET是指能量以非辐射方式从激发态的供体荧光基团转移到基态的受体基团(发色团猝灭剂或荧光团)的过程(Förster, 1965)。FRET效应的发生需要满足2个必要条件: 光谱重叠和邻近性, 即: (1) 供体荧光基团的发射光谱与受体基团的吸收光谱之间存在重叠; (2) 供体与受体之间的距离足够近(通常小于10 nm) (图1A) (Lakowicz, 1999)。
基于FRET原理开发的基因编码荧光生物传感器/探针具有广阔的应用前景。这类传感器/探针通常由两侧发射光谱存在重叠的供体和受体荧光蛋白, 以及位于中间的代谢物结合蛋白(metabolite-binding protein, MBP)融合而成(Michener et al., 2012; Turner, 2013; Shi et al., 2018)。当小分子配体与MBP特异性结合后, 会导致结合蛋白质的空间构象发生改变, 从而使供体与受体之间的距离显著缩短(图1B)。此时, 使用供体荧光蛋白的激发光激发供体, 供体吸收能量从基态跃迁至激发态, 并在返回基态的过程中释放荧光, 将能量有效传递给受体, 激发受体蛋白发出荧光(Bhupathi et al., 2023)。在实际应用中, 常通过检测受体蛋白与供体蛋白发出荧光强度的比值来表征配体分子的结合浓度(Michener et al., 2012)。
钙离子(Ca2+)作为许多细胞信号转导途径的中心调节因子, 在植物生长发育过程中扮演重要角色(Tian et al., 2020)。因此, 监测细胞中Ca2+的时空动力学对于理解细胞分子生理机制至关重要。目前, 基于FRET原理设计的生物传感器/探针——YC (Yellow Cameleons)已广泛应用于植物Ca2+动态研究领域, 成为最具代表性的工具之一(Miyawaki et al., 1997; Behera et al., 2015)。
YC由3个核心模块构成: 作为FRET供体的增强型青色荧光蛋白(enhanced cyan fluorescent protein, eCFP)、作为FRET受体的增强型黄色荧光蛋白(enhanced yellow fluorescent protein, eYFP)以及连接两者的Ca2+感知模块——钙调蛋白(calmodulin, CaM)-M13肽(Miyawaki et al., 1997)。当细胞质中游离的Ca2+与CaM-M13模块结合后, CaM的构象发生变化, 包裹M13结构域, 促使YC从哑铃形转变为紧凑的球形, 增强了CFP与YFP之间的FRET效率, 导致YFP/CFP荧光发射比率发生变化, 从而反映出细胞内Ca2+浓度的变化(Miyawaki et al., 1997; Swanson and Gilroy, 2013)。
为了进一步提升传感器/探针的灵敏度、信号强度和酸稳定性等性能, 研究人员对YC进行了持续优化, 开发出一系列性能优越的YC变体。例如, YC2通过引入完整的CaM蛋白提高了对Ca2+的亲和力(Nagai et al., 2004)。YC2.1和YC3.1则分别使用更亮的黄色荧光蛋白Citrine和Venus替代原始YC中的YFP, 显著增强了FRET信号强度(Griesbeck et al., 2001; Nagai et al., 2002)。在YC3.1的基础上, Nagai等(2004)通过环化Venus蛋白, 创造出酸稳定性更强的cp173Venus, 构建了高信噪比的传感器/探针YC3.6。
随后的研究将模式植物拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)的UBIQUITIN10启动子与YC3.6整合在一起, 以满足植物学研究的需求, 并成功在拟南芥、水稻(Oryza sativa)和烟草(Nicotiana tabacum)等物种中稳定表达(Krebs et al., 2012; Behera et al., 2015)。目前, YC3.6传感器/探针已经成为植物Ca2+信号研究领域中不可或缺的工具, 助力揭示了许多关键生理过程的分子机制(Monshausen, 2012)。例如, Zhang等(2017)实时监测了稳定表达YC3.6传感器/探针的拟南芥根毛在伸长过程中细胞内Ca2+浓度的变化, 发现环核苷酸离子门控通道14 (cyclic nucleotide gated channel 14, CNGC14)作为Ca2+通道在维持根毛顶端极性生长的Ca2+波动中发挥重要作用。Wang等(2021)利用稳定表达YC3.6传感器/探针的植物检测了硝酸盐诱导下根尖产生的Ca2+峰。结果表明, 外施10 mmol∙L-1 KNO3-刺激拟南芥幼苗的根尖可引发强烈的Ca2+峰, 而cngc15 (cyclic nucleotide gated channel 15)突变体中的Ca2+响应消失, 表明Ca2+通道CNGC15在植物对硝酸盐的感应中发挥重要作用。Steinhorst等(2022)利用YC3.6监测拟南芥根细胞中的Ca2+浓度, 发现不同刺激会引发特异性的响应。例如, 氯化钠(NaCl)刺激在根部特定的组织和细胞类型中产生特异的Ca2+信号, 证实了植物能够区分不同的环境刺激并启动相应的响应机制。
锌离子(Zn2+)作为必需微量元素, 在所有生物系统中均发挥至关重要的作用。它是蛋白质重要的结构成分和催化辅因子, 参与转录、翻译、光合作用和活性氧代谢等多个重要生理过程(Stanton et al., 2022)。
van Dongen等(2007)基于FRET原理开发了Zn2+生物传感器/探针CALWY (CFP-Atox1-linker-WD4- YFP)。CALWY由2个金属结合结构域ATOX1和WD4以及连接在两侧的荧光蛋白eCFP和eYFP组成。其中, ATOX1和WD4各含有1个CXXC金属结合基序, 能够与Zn2+特异性结合并发生二聚化, 引起FRET效应, 进而导致荧光信号的变化。虽然最初开发设计CALWY是用于检测Cu+, 但是后续研究发现其与Zn2+具有更强的亲和力(van Dongen et al., 2007; Vinkenborg et al., 2009)。然而, CALWY传感器/探针存在着比率变化小和灵敏度低的缺陷。为了解决这一问题, Vinkenborg等(2009)对CALWY进行了优化, 用Cerulean和Citrine替代eCFP和eYFP, 并在荧光蛋白上引入了S208F和V224L两个关键点突变, 构建出新一代Zn2+传感器eCALWY (enhanced CALWY), 显著提升了FRET效率和灵敏度。
Lanquar等(2014)将eCALWY传感器/探针应用于植物学研究, 成功监测了拟南芥根细胞质中Zn2+浓度的动态变化。研究发现, 用10 µmol∙L-1和100 µmol∙L-1 Zn2+溶液分别处理在Zn2+充足条件下的拟南芥幼苗根尖, 根细胞质中Zn2+浓度的增长率相似; 用1 mmol∙L-1 Zn2+处理在Zn2+充足和缺乏条件下生长的幼苗时, 发现细胞质中Zn2+浓度的增长率也相似, 约为用低浓度Zn2+处理时的100倍。这一结果说明拟南芥根细胞中存在2种不同的Zn2+吸收系统: 高亲和力-低容量系统以及低亲和力-高容量系统, 为深入理解植物对Zn2+的吸收和调控机制提供了重要线索(Lanquar et al., 2014)。
氮(N)是植物生长必需的大量元素, 是构成叶绿素、氨基酸、核苷酸和一些次级代谢物的关键成分。土壤中的氮主要以硝酸盐(NO3-)和铵盐(NH4+) 2种形式存在(O’Brien et al., 2016)。为深入了解NO3-在植物生理过程中的作用机制, 开发特异性传感器/探针以监测植物体内的NO3-浓度至关重要。
Ho和Frommer (2014)利用拟南芥NO3-转运蛋白1.1 (nitrate transporter 1.1, NRT1.1)连接2个荧光蛋白mCerulean和Aphrodite, 开发了首个NO3-传感器/探针NiTrac1。通过在酵母细胞中表达NiTrac1, 揭示了NO3-的跨膜转运过程, 并发现NO3-依赖性荧光淬灭可逆。
为了进一步提高传感器/探针的灵敏度和时空分辨率, Chen等(2022)基于pDR-FLIP39 (Jones et al., 2014)设计改造了新一代NO3-传感器/探针NitraMeter- 3.0。通过将细菌的NasR蛋白融合到截短的Aphrodite (edAFP)和CFP (edeCFP)之间, 并去除原有的连接子, 提高了传感器/探针的荧光变化率和灵敏度。使用NitraMeter3.0, 在拟南芥中实现了NO3-的定量成像和动态监测, 为解析植物氮吸收和利用的分子机制提供了有力工具(Chen et al., 2022)。
NiTrac1设计简洁, 适用于酵母系统, 但其在植物体内的实用性仍需进一步验证。NitraMeter3.0则展现出更高的灵敏度和时空分辨率, 并已成功应用于拟南芥, 为植物NO3-动态研究提供了更实用的工具。
磷(P)是植物生长发育必需的大量元素, 参与构成核酸、蛋白质和磷脂等重要生物大分子, 并在光合作用和呼吸作用等关键生理代谢活动中发挥至关重要的作用(Bowler et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2022)。植物主要以无机磷酸盐(Pi)的形式吸收和利用磷。因此, 实现对细胞和组织中Pi浓度的可视化, 对于深入理解植物磷的吸收、转运和利用机制至关重要。
Gu等(2006)将蓝藻来源的Pi结合蛋白(phosphate-binding protein, PiBP)与荧光蛋白eCFP和eYFP融合, 构建了Pi荧光传感器/探针FLIPPi (Fluorescence Indicator Protein for Inorganic Phosphate), 实现了在动物细胞中对细胞膜Pi的监测。随后, Mukherjee等(2015)用环状排列的cpVenus替代了eYFP, 构建了新一代Pi传感器/探针cpFLIPPi, 提高了灵敏度, 将其成功应用于植物研究。利用cpFLIPPi监测了缺磷和再供给磷条件下拟南芥根细胞中Pi的动态变化, 并揭示了磷转运蛋白4;2 (phosphate transport4;2, PHT4;2)在根质体磷外排过程中的重要作用。
植物激素在调节植物生长发育和应对环境压力方面发挥至关重要的作用。脱落酸(abscisic acid, ABA)、生长素(auxin)、细胞分裂素(cytokinin, CTK)、乙烯(ethylene, ET)以及赤霉素(gibberellin, GA)等多种植物激素相互作用, 协同调控植物的各种生理活动(Davies, 2010)。基于FRET原理的生物传感器/探针在监测植物激素动态变化方面具有高灵敏度、可实时监测和优越的空间分辨率, 为植物激素的生物学功能解析提供了重要工具和技术支持(Balcerowicz et al., 2021)。
ABA作为一种重要的植物激素, 参与调控气孔开闭、叶表皮蜡质积累、叶片衰老、芽休眠及种子萌发等植物生长发育和胁迫应答过程中的关键生理活动(Chen et al., 2020)。目前, 已开发了多个特异性探测ABA的生物传感器/探针, 实现了在植物体内对细胞中ABA浓度进行实时定量监测(Jones et al., 2014; Waadt et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2022; Rowe et al., 2023)。
Waadt等(2014)开发的ABA荧光生物传感器/探针ABAleon1.1, 利用ABA受体PYR1 (pyrabactin resistance 1)和截短的蛋白磷酸酶ABI1 (ABA insensitive 1)作为ABA感知模块与两侧的荧光蛋白融合。通过进一步优化, 引入D413L突变使ABI1失去酶活性, 构建了可在植物体内稳定遗传的传感器/探针ABAleon2.1。ABAleon2.1实现了在拟南芥保卫细胞和根细胞中对ABA浓度的实时监测, 并观察到非生物胁迫下胞质ABA浓度的动态变化和外源ABA在植物体内的长距离运输过程。
Jones等(2014)基于FRET原理设计了另一个ABA传感器/探针ABACUS1 (abscisic acid concentration and uptake sensor version 1)。在ABACUS1中, ABA感受模块由受体PYL1 (PYR-like protein 1)与ABI1的ABA互作结构域融合组成。运用该传感器/探针, 监测了拟南芥根细胞对ABA的吸收, 并揭示了细胞内外ABA浓度差异。
最新的研究中, Rowe等(2023)在ABACUS1的基础上, 通过在PYL1上引入H87P突变, 进一步提高了传感器/探针与ABA的亲和力, 开发出高灵敏度的新一代ABA传感器/探针ABACUS2, 解析了胁迫诱导ABA在植物体内的动态分布变化。研究发现, 叶面湿度降低时, ABA会从韧皮部转运至根部并在伸长区积累, 以维持根系生长和水分吸收。这一发现揭示了植物地上与地下组织在水分胁迫响应中的协同调控机制。
GA是一类重要的植物激素, 参与调控种子萌发、茎叶生长、花粉成熟以及花和果实发育等过程(Gao and Chu, 2020)。为深入研究GA在植物体内的作用机制, Rizza等(2017)设计开发了GA传感器/探针GPS1 (gibberellin perception sensor 1)。GPS1由截短为DELLA结构域的GAI (gibberellic acid insensitive)、全长GA受体GID1C (GA insensitive dwarf 1c)以及荧光蛋白edAFP和edCerulean组成。利用GPS1可视化拟南芥细胞中GA浓度的动态变化, 发现根尖伸长区和地上组织细胞核中的GA水平与细胞长度呈正相关, 揭示了GA与光敏色素互作因子(phytochrome interacting factor, PIF)和光敏色素之间的关系。研究发现, pif四突变体在黑暗条件下GA水平降低; 而在光敏色素双突变体中, 光照条件下GA水平升高, 这表明PIF在黑暗中可能促进GA合成, 而光敏色素通过抑制PIF来降低光照条件下GA水平, 从而共同调控拟南芥下胚轴伸长(Rizza et al., 2017)。
吲哚-3-乙酸(indole-3-acetic acid, IAA)是高等植物中最主要的生长素形式, 参与植物生长发育的多个生物学过程, 并在植物对外界环境变化响应中发挥关键作用(Lam et al., 2015)。为了实现对IAA的动态监测, Herud-Sikimić等(2021)开发了一种新型基因编码的生物传感器/探针AuxSen。该传感器/探针利用大肠杆菌的色氨酸阻遏蛋白(tryptophan repressor, TrpR)作为IAA感受模块, 并通过对色氨酸结合域周围进行突变提高了其对IAA的亲和力, 同时消除了其与色氨酸及类似物的结合, 使其成为特异性指示植物体内IAA浓度的传感器/探针。利用AuxSen在拟南芥根细胞中成功实现了对IAA浓度和亚细胞定位的动态监测, 为深入解析IAA的复杂调控网络提供了重要工具(Herud-Sikimić et al., 2021)。
植物的基础代谢物不仅参与基本生理活动, 在植物生长发育和应对环境变化中也发挥重要作用。基于FRET原理设计的生物传感器/探针可用于监测植物基础代谢物的浓度和动态变化, 深入了解植物在不同生理状态下的代谢活动, 从而揭示植物代谢通路的调控机制和生理功能(Uslu and Grossmann, 2016)。
葡萄糖作为植物体内重要的碳源和信号分子, 参与植物从萌发到衰老整个生命周期中的多种生理过程(Sami et al., 2019; Siddiqui et al., 2020)。糖纳米生物传感器/探针FLIP (fluorescent indicator protein)的应用, 为在单细胞水平研究植物中葡萄糖的复杂功能提供了有效工具(Fehr et al., 2002, 2003)。
FLIPglu是基于大肠杆菌葡萄糖/半乳糖结合蛋白(glucose/galactose-binding protein, GGBP)和FRET供体-受体对(eCFP-eYFP)构建的葡萄糖传感器/探针(Fehr et al., 2003)。Deuschle等(2006)率先将FLIPglu应用于植物研究, 通过在拟南芥sgs3和rdr6突变体中表达FLIPglu, 揭示了外部葡萄糖水平对细胞内葡萄糖水平的影响, 并发现根细胞中葡萄糖水平显著低于表皮细胞和保卫细胞。
Chaudhuri等(2008)在拟南芥细胞中表达了3种不同的葡萄糖传感器/探针: FLIPglu-2μΔ13、FLIPglu-600μΔ13和FLIPglu-3.2, 深入探究了拟南芥中葡萄糖的动态变化。研究发现, 在不同pH条件下, 拟南芥根细胞质中葡萄糖和蔗糖的积累量相似, 由此提出葡萄糖内流和外排可能由独立的质子转运系统介导的假设(Chaudhuri et al., 2008)。后续研究在野生型拟南芥幼苗中成功表达了FLIPglu, 并实时监测了葡萄糖的动态变化(Chaudhuri et al., 2011)。
除了监测葡萄糖浓度, FLIPglu还被用于研究植物葡萄糖转运体。Chen等(2010)从拟南芥膜蛋白数据库Aramemnon (http://aramemnon.uni-koeln.de)中选择了潜在参与葡萄糖转运过程的基因, 并在HEK293T细胞中与FLIPglu-600μΔ13V共表达, 鉴定到关键转运蛋白AtSWEET1。在缺乏全部18个己糖转运体的酵母突变体中表达AtSWEET1, 证实了AtSWEET1作为葡萄糖转运体的功能(Wieczorke et al., 1999; Chen et al., 2010)。
FLIPglu传感器/探针在水稻等作物中也有广泛应用。Zhu等(2017)利用改进的FLIPglu-2μΔ13以及FLIPglu-600μΔ13传感器/探针, 检测了水稻根部不同区域细胞中葡萄糖的动态变化, 以及在非生物胁迫(如渗透压、高盐和极端温度)条件下葡萄糖的响应模式。研究结果表明, 细胞质中的葡萄糖可能在植物对外界刺激的生理响应中起到次级信号分子的作用。这一发现为深入理解植物细胞响应环境刺激的机制提供了重要线索。
三磷酸腺苷(adenosine 5′-triphosphate, ATP)作为生物体内最主要的能量供体, 为各种生理过程提供所需的能量, 包括生物大分子的合成和分解、跨膜转运及呼吸代谢等(Imamura et al., 2009)。借助基于FRET原理设计的生物传感器/探针ATeam (adenosine 5′- triphosphate indicator based on epsilon subunit for analytical measurements), 能够有效可视化单个细胞内的ATP浓度, 这不仅帮助我们准确理解ATP调控细胞生理活动的分子机制, 还对探究单细胞ATP水平的调节具有重要意义(Imamura et al., 2009; Yoshida et al., 2017)。
ATeam中的ATP感受结构域源自细菌FoF1-ATP合酶的ε亚基, 该亚基具有与ATP特异性结合的能力, 且不参与水解反应。FoF1-ATP合酶的ε亚基与ATP的亲和力远高于核苷酸(如ADP、GTP、CTP和UTP)等。当ATP与ATeam结合时, ATP感受域发生显著的构象变化, 使2个α螺旋紧密结合, 从而引起ATP感受域两侧的荧光蛋白mseCFP和cp173-mVenus之间的距离显著缩小, 导致FRET信号的强烈变化(Imamura et al., 2009; Yoshida et al., 2017)。
近年来, De Col等(2017)将ATeam应用于植物研究, 在拟南芥的细胞质、线粒体和质体的基质中表达了ATP传感器/探针ATeam1.03-nD/nA, 实现了在活体植物细胞中测定MgATP2-的浓度。利用ATeam传感器/探针, 发现拟南芥幼苗不同组织及根毛不同细胞类型之间的MgATP2-浓度差异, 揭示了正常发育及缺氧诱导的能量应激过程中MgATP2-的时空分布特征(De Col et al., 2017)。
氨基酸为植物生长所必需的氮源, 参与核苷酸和叶绿素等生物大分子的合成, 在植物的代谢活动中具有重要功能。谷氨酰胺(glutamine, Gln)是植物氨基酸代谢的中心分子。绿色植物从土壤中吸收无机氮(即NO3-和NH4+), 通过初级氮同化将无机氮元素转化为Gln和谷氨酸(glutamate, Glu), 随后通过次级同化反应将其转化为其它氨基酸(Forde and Lea, 2007; Tegeder and Rentsch, 2010; Okumoto and Pilot, 2011)。因此, 测定植物中Gln浓度对于揭示植物氮同化机制具有重要意义。
Yang等(2010)报道了一种能够实时检测植物内Gln浓度的传感器/探针, 并利用该传感器/探针研究了Gln转运体CAT8的功能。该传感器/探针利用大肠杆菌谷氨酰胺结合蛋白(glutamine binding protein, QBP)作为特异性Gln结合域, 并通过修饰其结合口附近的关键残基, 获得了能够响应毫摩尔级Gln浓度变化的传感器/探针。借助该传感器/探针监测拟南芥根尖组织中Gln的动态变化, 发现在弱碱性环境和酸性环境中存在显著的Gln依赖FRET效应, 由此提出在拟南芥根尖中可能存在不依赖于质子的Gln促进剂的假设(Sun et al., 1998; Laube et al., 2004; Bogner and Ludewig, 2007; Yang et al., 2010)。
揭示细胞内生物小分子的浓度变化对于解析生物重要生理活动的分子机制至关重要, 而基因编码的荧光生物传感器/探针为这一研究提供了有力的工具。近10年来, 随着生物技术的飞速发展, 各种具有广泛应用价值的荧光生物传感器/探针相继问世, 使我们能够在活体中可视化金属离子、植物激素、活性氧以及小分子代谢物等重要的生物小分子物质, 有助于进一步解析植物体内复杂的生理过程(Balcerowicz et al., 2021; Yoshinari et al., 2021; 胡海涛等, 2022)。
尽管基于FRET原理设计的传感器/探针具有明显优势, 但也存在一定的局限性。(1) 可用的结合域有限。目前可用于开发FRET传感器/探针的代谢物结合蛋白的结构域数量非常有限, 导致可供使用的传感器/探针数量较少(Walia et al., 2018)。(2) 性能有待提升。已报道的FRET传感器/探针在荧光强度及特异性方面存在不足, 受到信噪比低、荧光分辨率不足、稳定性差和易产生假阳性等的限制(Wu and Jiang, 2022; Verma et al., 2023)。(3) 多细胞成像的挑战。多细胞生物中FRET信号需要经过多层细胞成像, 可能导致信号散射和背景信号增强, 使荧光信号减弱(Hamers et al., 2014)。目前, 绝大多数的FRET传感器/探针主要运用于动物细胞和医学诊断, 在植物等多细胞系统中的应用仍处于起步阶段(Hamers et al., 2014; Walia et al., 2018)。优化这些传感器/探针的选择性和特异性, 同时减少信号干扰等问题仍面临挑战。
近年来, 人工智能(artificial intelligent, AI)和机器学习(machine learning, ML)等生物信息学工具的快速发展为FRET生物传感器/探针的设计带来了革命性进步。通过分析现有传感器/探针的性能数据, AI和ML算法能够识别关键的影响因素, 如荧光蛋白序列、结构特征和结合域, 从而指导传感器/探针的开发设计持续优化, 提高选择性和特异性, 并减少假阳性结果的干扰(Ding et al., 2021; Wu and Jiang, 2022; Verma et al., 2023)。相信随着生命科学和生物技术的不断发展, AI和ML驱动的设计策略将推动更多高性能FRET生物传感器/探针的出现, 实现对深层组织进行微创甚至无创成像和实时动态监测, 为植物研究及其相关领域提供更强大的工具。
吕加一: 撰写论文和绘制图片; 李乐攻和侯聪聪: 构思和修改论文。
  • 国家自然科学基金重点项目(31930010)
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2025年第60卷第2期
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doi: 10.11983/CBB24056
  • 接收时间:2024-04-15
  • 首发时间:2026-10-22
  • 出版时间:2025-03-10
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  • 收稿日期:2024-04-15
  • 录用日期:2024-10-14
基金
国家自然科学基金重点项目(31930010)
作者信息
    首都师范大学生命科学学院, 北京 100048

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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