Article(id=1319998815260754277, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, issueId=1319998767835754596, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11983/CBB25149, pmid=null, cstr=32102.14.CBB25149, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1755273600000, receivedDateStr=2025-08-16, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1756742400000, acceptedDateStr=2025-09-02, onlineDate=1792641841949, onlineDateStr=2026-10-22, pubDate=1757433600000, pubDateStr=2025-09-10, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792641841949, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-22, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792641841949, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792641841949, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1319998767835754596, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, year='2025', volume='60', issue='5', pageStart='669', pageEnd='853', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1757433600000', pubDateStr='2025-09-10', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792641830643, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792641943258, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1319999240240222831, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, issueId=1319998767835754596, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1319999240240222832, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, issueId=1319998767835754596, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=679, endPage=692, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1319998815453692262, articleId=1319998815260754277, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, language=EN, title=Salicylic Acid-mediated Plant Immune Responses: From Metabolism and Perception to Immune Activation, columnId=1317485696684773674, journalTitle=Chinese Bulletin of Botany, columnName=SPOTLIGHTS, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Salicylic acid (SA) is a natural phenolic compound in plants that plays a crucial regulatory role in plant immune responses. Plants primarily synthesize SA through two pathways: the isochorismate synthase (ICS) pathway and the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway. The synthesized SA is perceived by receptors such as nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1), which subsequently activate immune responses. In Brassicaceae species like Arabidopsis thaliana, SA is mainly synthesized via the ICS pathway, whereas monocots and non-Brassicaceae dicots predominantly rely on the PAL pathway. For a long time, understanding of SA biosynthesis via the PAL pathway has been incomplete, hindering research on SA-mediated immunity in crops and significantly limiting progress in crop disease-resistant breeding. Recently, three research groups from China independently elucidated the PAL-mediated SA biosynthesis pathway in crops. Building on these breakthroughs, this review summarizes recent advances in the study of SA-mediated plant immune responses. We primarily focus on the biosynthetic pathways of SA within plants, the mechanisms by which SA is perceived and activates immune responses, and discuss current challenges and future directions in SA-mediated immunity research. We hope this review provides new insights and perspectives for both theoretical studies and practical applications in crop disease-resistant breeding.

, authors=Zhu Xiaobo, Wang Liyin, Chen Xuewei*, authorsList=Zhu Xiaobo, Wang Liyin, Chen Xuewei, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Chen Xuewei, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail:
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水杨酸(SA)是一种植物酚类天然合成产物, 对免疫反应具有重要的调控作用。植物主要通过异分支酸合酶(ICS)途径和苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)途径合成水杨酸, 并被水杨酸受体NPR1等感知, 激活植物免疫反应。拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)等十字花科植物主要通过ICS途径合成水杨酸, 而单子叶植物和非十字花科双子叶植物则主要通过PAL途径合成水杨酸。长期以来, 人们对水杨酸PAL合成途径的认识不完整, 导致水稻(Oryza sativa)等作物中水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应研究滞后, 极大地制约了作物抗病育种改良进程。近期, 我国3个研究团队独立破解了水杨酸在水稻等作物中的PAL合成途径。该文以此为契机, 综述了水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应研究进展, 着重梳理了植物体内的水杨酸合成途径, 总结了水杨酸被植物感知并激活免疫反应的机制, 展望了水杨酸调控植物免疫反应研究中存在的问题和未来的研究方向, 以期为相关理论研究和抗病育种应用提供新思路和新方向。

, authors=朱孝波, 王立印, 陈学伟*, authorsList=朱孝波, 王立印, 陈学伟, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=陈学伟, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
陈学伟, 教授, 先后于四川农业大学获得学士(1997年)及硕士学位(2000年), 于中国科学院遗传与发育生物学研究所获博士学位(2003年), 并于2004年赴美国University of California从事水稻抗病分子机理研究。2011年回国就职于四川农业大学, 从事水稻抗病与病原菌致病的理论创新与应用研究。入选新基石研究员、长江学者特聘教授, 获国家杰出青年科学基金资助及首批延续资助, 担任国家自然科学基金创新研究群体学术带头人。获得首届腾讯科学探索奖、第15届谈家桢生命科学创新奖、四川省杰出人才奖等。
陈学伟团队聚焦水稻抗病与病原菌致病的理论创新与应用研究, 取得了系统性原创成果, 实现了水稻等作物广谱与高抗兼顾、抗病与生长协调、抗病与高产协同、病害防控绿色与高效统一等重大科学突破。在Cell、Science、Cell Research、Nature Microbiology和Nature Communications等期刊发表论文93篇, 育成抗病高产优质水稻新品种32个。部分成果入选2017年度“中国生命科学领域十大进展”、2017和2018年度“中国农业科学领域重大科研进展”、最具影响力“细胞出版社2017中国年度论文”, 获2020年度“四川省科学技术进步奖自然科学类一等奖”、2025年度“教育部高等学校科学研究优秀成果奖自然科学一等奖”。
*E-mail:
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PLoS Genet 12, e1006311., articleTitle=The multivesicular bodies (MVBs)-localized AAA ATPase LRD6-6 inhibits immunity and cell death likely through regulating MVBs-mediated vesicular trafficking in rice, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1319998818880438668, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, awardId=32425005, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(32425005), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1319998818968519053, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, awardId=32472565, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(32472565), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1319998819039822222, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, awardId=2024NSFSC0326, language=CN, fundingSource=四川省自然科学基金(2024NSFSC0326), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1319998816607125868, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1319998816619708781, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, companyId=1319998816607125868, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=New Cornerstone Science Laboratory/State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1319998816628097390, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, companyId=1319998816607125868, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=四川农业大学, 西南作物基因资源发掘与利用国家重点实验室/新基石科学实验室, 成都 611130)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1319998818381316488, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, language=EN, label=Figure 1, caption=Biosynthesis, transcriptional regulation, and metabolism of salicylic acid (SA)

(A) Biosynthetic pathways of SA (plants synthesize SA via two main pathways: the isochorismate synthase (ICS) pathway and the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway. Both originate in the chloroplast, using chorismate as the precursor. ICS1: Isochorismate synthase 1; ICS2: Isochorismate synthase 2; EDS5: Isochorismate transporter; PBS3: Amide transferase; EPS1: Acyl transferase; OSD1/CNL: Cinnamoyl-CoA ligase; AIM1/CHD: Cinnamoyl-CoA hydratase/dehydrogenase; KAT: 3-ketoacyl- CoA thiolase; OSD2/BEBT: Benzyl alcohol O-benzoyltransferase; OSD3/BB2H/BBH/BBO: Benzyl benzoate 2-hydroxylase; OSD4/BSH/BSE: Benzyl salicylate hydrolase; ER: Endoplasmic reticulum; question marked circles indicate unknown transporter); (B) Transcriptional regulation of SA biosynthesis (transcription factors SARD1 and CBP60g are major regulators of ICS1, PBS3, and EDS5 gene expression. EIN3 and several ANAC transcription factors repress ICS1 expression, while DEL1 suppresses EDS5 expression. PHB3 stabilizes the ICS1 protein. SA itself inhibits the enzymatic activity of PBS3, forming a feedback loop to regulate its own synthesis. Transcription factors D53, WRKY75, and OsMYB30 regulate the expression of multiple PAL genes. RNA-binding protein BSR-K1 can bind to the mRNA of the PAL genes and degrade them, thereby regulating their expression at the mRNA level); (C) Metabolism of SA (SA can be hydroxylated by salicylic acid 5-hydroxylase (S5H) to form 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,5-DHBA), and by S3H to produce 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHBA). It can also be glycosylated by UGT74F1 and UGT76B1 to form salicylic acid glucoside (SAG), or by UGT74F2 to form salicylic acid glucose ester (SGE). SAG and SGE are transported into vacuoles for storage. SA can also be methylated by the carboxyl methyltransferase BSMT1 to produce methyl salicylate (MeSA), which is converted back to SA by methyl esterase MES9. SA can be converted into sulfonated SA under the catalysis of sulfite transferase SOT12. Additionally, SA can conjugate with aspartic acid (Asp) via the action of acyl acid amido synthetase GH3.5 to form SA-Asp).

, figureFileSmall=FLN+wqLqnTuqjGxJwMkCqg==, figureFileBig=3yJzCYVnvhtLZHX6zygl8Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319998818452619657, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, language=CN, label=图1, caption=水杨酸(SA)的生物合成与转录调控和代谢

(A) 水杨酸的生物合成途径(植物通过分支酸合酶(ICS)途径和苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)途径合成水杨酸, 2条合成途径均起始于叶绿体, 以分支酸为前体。ICS1: 异分支酸合酶1; ICS2: 异分支酸合酶2; EDS5: 异分支酸转运蛋白; PBS3: 酰胺转移酶, EPS1: 酰基转移酶; OSD1/CNL: 肉桂酰辅酶A连接酶; AIM1/CHD: 肉桂酰辅酶A水合酶/脱氢酶; KAT: 3-酮酰辅酶A硫解酶; OSD2/BEBT: 苯甲醇苯甲酰转移酶; OSD3/BB2H/BBH/BBO: 苯甲酸苄酯2-羟化酶; OSD4/BSH/BSE: 水杨酸苄水解酶; ER: 内质网; 问号圆圈表示未知转运蛋白); (B) 水杨酸合成的转录调控(转录因子SARD1和CBP60g是ICS1、PBS3和EDS5基因表达的主要调控因子, 转录因子EIN3和多个ANAC可以抑制ICS1的表达, DEL1能够抑制EDS5的表达。PHB3可以稳定ICS1蛋白, 水杨酸可抑制PBS3的酶活性, 从而反馈调控水杨酸的合成。转录因子D53、WRKY75和OsMYB30可以调控多个PALs基因的表达。RNA结合蛋白BSR-K1可结合PAL基因的mRNA并降解, 在mRNA水平调控其表达); (C) 水杨酸的代谢(水杨酸可由水杨酸羟化酶S5H转化为2,5-二羟基苯甲酸(2,5-DHBA), 由S3H转化为2,3-二羟基苯甲酸(2,3-DHBA); 被UGT74F1和UGT76B1转化为水杨酸葡萄糖苷(SAG), 被UGT74F2转化为水杨酸葡萄糖酯(SGE), SAG和SGE可转运到液泡中进行储存; 还可被羧基甲基转移酶BSMT1甲基化, 生成甲基水杨酸(MeSA), MeSA可由甲基酯酶MES9转化为水杨酸; 水杨酸可在磺基转移酶SOT12的催化下生成磺基化的水杨酸; 还可在酰基酸氨基合成酶GH3.5的作用下, 与天门冬氨酸(Asp)结合, 生成SA-Asp)。

, figureFileSmall=FLN+wqLqnTuqjGxJwMkCqg==, figureFileBig=3yJzCYVnvhtLZHX6zygl8Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319998818670723466, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1316781310003478668, articleId=1319998815260754277, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Perception and activation of salicylic acid (SA) signaling

At low intracellular SA levels, NPR1 proteins are present in the cytosol as oligomers linked by disulfide bonds (S-S). Meanwhile, NPR3 and NPR4 proteins interact with TGA transcription factors in the nucleus to repress the expression of SA-responsive genes. When intracellular SA levels rise, NPR3/4 bind to SA, relieving their repression of downstream SA-responsive gene expression. SA also induces changes in the cellular redox state, and the disulfide bonds between NPR1 molecules are reduced by TRXh3/5, leading to monomerization of NPR1. Cytoplasmic NPR1 binds SA and acts as a substrate recognition protein for the CRL3 E3 ubiquitin ligase. It forms SA-induced NPR1 cytoplasmic protein condensates (cSINC) with disease resistance proteins (NLRs) and stress-related proteins, regulating their degradation and homeostasis to modulate plant immune responses. Additionally, cytoplasmic NPR1 undergoes a series of post-translational modifications before entering the nucleus, such as phosphorylation by protein kinase SnRK2.8 (orange circle labeled “P”), dephosphorylation at Ser55/99 by unknown phosphatases, and SUMOylation by SUMO3 (green circle labeled “S”). When enters in the nucleus, NPR1 forms dimers and is phosphorylated at Ser11/15 by unknown kinases, and undergoes mono- or short-chain ubiquitination (single blue circle labeled “Ub”) mediated by CRL3 E3 ligase. These modifications change NPR1’s conformation, enabling SA binding and interaction with TGA transcription factors to activate SA-responsive genes. Nuclear NPR1, together with TGAs, protein modifiers, and other transcriptional regulators, forms nuclear protein condensates known as SA-induced NPR1 nuclear condensates (nSINC), which orchestrate SA-responsive genes’ expression. Subsequently, NPR1 undergoes polyubiquitination (multiple blue circles labeled “Ub”) mediated by the ubiquitin ligase UBE4/MUSE3, targeting it for degradation via the 26S proteasome. However, NPR1 can be deubiquitinated by proteasome-associated deubiquitinases UBP6/7, preventing its degradation and restoring its transcriptional activation function.

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在低浓度水杨酸条件下, NPR1蛋白通过二硫键(S-S)连接, 以寡聚体的形式存在于细胞质中; 而NPR3/4蛋白则在细胞核中与TGAs转录因子互作, 抑制水杨酸响应基因的表达。当细胞内水杨酸浓度升高时, 一方面NPR3/4可与水杨酸结合, 解除NPR3/4对下游水杨酸响应基因表达的抑制作用。另一方面, 水杨酸诱导细胞氧化还原状态改变, 在TRXh3/5的还原作用下, NPR1间的二硫键被破坏, NPR1解聚为单体; 解聚的NPR1在胞质中与水杨酸结合, 随后作为CRL3 E3泛素连接酶的底物识别蛋白, 与胞质中抗病蛋白(NLRs)及胁迫响应相关蛋白等形成水杨酸诱导的细胞质蛋白聚集体(cSINC), 调控这些蛋白的降解和稳态, 从而调控植物免疫反应。此外, 胞质中的NPR1蛋白还可经过蛋白激酶SnRK2.8的磷酸化(橘黄色圆形P)、未知蛋白磷酸酶对Ser55/99的去磷酸化及类泛素化修饰酶SUMO3的类泛素化修饰(绿色圆形S)等系列蛋白翻译后修饰作用后进入细胞核; 在细胞核中NPR1形成二聚体, Ser11/15被未知激酶磷酸化, 并在CRL3 E3泛素连接酶作用下发生单泛素化或短链泛素化修饰(单个蓝色圆形Ub); NPR1构象改变并与水杨酸结合, 与TGAs转录因子互作激活水杨酸响应基因的表达。在细胞核内, NPR1与TGAs转录因子和蛋白修饰酶及其它转录调控蛋白互作, 形成调控水杨酸响应基因表达的蛋白聚集体, 称为水杨酸诱导的细胞核蛋白聚集体(nSINC)。随后, 在泛素连接酶UBE4/MUSE3的作用下, NPR1的泛素化修饰链延长(多个蓝色圆形Ub), 促使NPR1进入26S蛋白酶体进行降解; 进入蛋白酶体的NPR1蛋白可在蛋白酶体相关去泛素化酶UBP6/7的作用下, 发生去泛素化作用, 解除NPR1的泛素蛋白酶体降解, 恢复其转录激活活性。

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水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应: 从代谢、感知到免疫激活
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朱孝波 , 王立印 , 陈学伟 *
植物学报 | 热点评述 2025,60(5): 679-692
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植物学报 |热点评述 2025 , 60 (5) : 679 -692
水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应: 从代谢、感知到免疫激活
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朱孝波, 王立印, 陈学伟*
作者信息
  • 四川农业大学, 西南作物基因资源发掘与利用国家重点实验室/新基石科学实验室, 成都 611130
通讯作者:
陈学伟, 教授, 先后于四川农业大学获得学士(1997年)及硕士学位(2000年), 于中国科学院遗传与发育生物学研究所获博士学位(2003年), 并于2004年赴美国University of California从事水稻抗病分子机理研究。2011年回国就职于四川农业大学, 从事水稻抗病与病原菌致病的理论创新与应用研究。入选新基石研究员、长江学者特聘教授, 获国家杰出青年科学基金资助及首批延续资助, 担任国家自然科学基金创新研究群体学术带头人。获得首届腾讯科学探索奖、第15届谈家桢生命科学创新奖、四川省杰出人才奖等。
陈学伟团队聚焦水稻抗病与病原菌致病的理论创新与应用研究, 取得了系统性原创成果, 实现了水稻等作物广谱与高抗兼顾、抗病与生长协调、抗病与高产协同、病害防控绿色与高效统一等重大科学突破。在Cell、Science、Cell Research、Nature Microbiology和Nature Communications等期刊发表论文93篇, 育成抗病高产优质水稻新品种32个。部分成果入选2017年度“中国生命科学领域十大进展”、2017和2018年度“中国农业科学领域重大科研进展”、最具影响力“细胞出版社2017中国年度论文”, 获2020年度“四川省科学技术进步奖自然科学类一等奖”、2025年度“教育部高等学校科学研究优秀成果奖自然科学一等奖”。
Salicylic Acid-mediated Plant Immune Responses: From Metabolism and Perception to Immune Activation
Zhu Xiaobo, Wang Liyin, Chen Xuewei*
Affiliations
  • New Cornerstone Science Laboratory/State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
  • Corresponding Author:
出版时间: 2025-09-10 doi: 10.11983/CBB25149
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水杨酸(SA)是一种植物酚类天然合成产物, 对免疫反应具有重要的调控作用。植物主要通过异分支酸合酶(ICS)途径和苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)途径合成水杨酸, 并被水杨酸受体NPR1等感知, 激活植物免疫反应。拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)等十字花科植物主要通过ICS途径合成水杨酸, 而单子叶植物和非十字花科双子叶植物则主要通过PAL途径合成水杨酸。长期以来, 人们对水杨酸PAL合成途径的认识不完整, 导致水稻(Oryza sativa)等作物中水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应研究滞后, 极大地制约了作物抗病育种改良进程。近期, 我国3个研究团队独立破解了水杨酸在水稻等作物中的PAL合成途径。该文以此为契机, 综述了水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应研究进展, 着重梳理了植物体内的水杨酸合成途径, 总结了水杨酸被植物感知并激活免疫反应的机制, 展望了水杨酸调控植物免疫反应研究中存在的问题和未来的研究方向, 以期为相关理论研究和抗病育种应用提供新思路和新方向。

水杨酸  /  合成途径  /  水杨酸感知  /  NPR1  /  免疫反应

Salicylic acid (SA) is a natural phenolic compound in plants that plays a crucial regulatory role in plant immune responses. Plants primarily synthesize SA through two pathways: the isochorismate synthase (ICS) pathway and the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway. The synthesized SA is perceived by receptors such as nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1), which subsequently activate immune responses. In Brassicaceae species like Arabidopsis thaliana, SA is mainly synthesized via the ICS pathway, whereas monocots and non-Brassicaceae dicots predominantly rely on the PAL pathway. For a long time, understanding of SA biosynthesis via the PAL pathway has been incomplete, hindering research on SA-mediated immunity in crops and significantly limiting progress in crop disease-resistant breeding. Recently, three research groups from China independently elucidated the PAL-mediated SA biosynthesis pathway in crops. Building on these breakthroughs, this review summarizes recent advances in the study of SA-mediated plant immune responses. We primarily focus on the biosynthetic pathways of SA within plants, the mechanisms by which SA is perceived and activates immune responses, and discuss current challenges and future directions in SA-mediated immunity research. We hope this review provides new insights and perspectives for both theoretical studies and practical applications in crop disease-resistant breeding.

salicylic acid  /  biosynthesis pathway  /  salicylic acid perception  /  NPR1  /  immune responses
朱孝波, 王立印, 陈学伟. 水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应: 从代谢、感知到免疫激活. 植物学报, 2025 , 60 (5) : 679 -692 . DOI: 10.11983/CBB25149
Zhu Xiaobo, Wang Liyin, Chen Xuewei. Salicylic Acid-mediated Plant Immune Responses: From Metabolism and Perception to Immune Activation[J]. Chinese Bulletin of Botany, 2025 , 60 (5) : 679 -692 . DOI: 10.11983/CBB25149
在植物与病原微生物长期相互作用和协同进化过程中, 植物形成了有效监控并抵御病原微生物侵染的免疫系统。该系统可简单归纳如下: 在侵染植物时, 病原微生物保守的组分鞭毛蛋白、几丁质和肽聚糖等分子被植物细胞膜上的模式识别受体(pattern-recognition receptors, PRRs) FLS2、CERK1和PEPR1/2等识别, 从而激活植物免疫反应。这些保守的病原菌组分被称为病原菌相关分子模式(pathogen- associated molecular patterns, PAMPs), 由PRRs识别PAMPs引发的植物免疫反应称为模式分子触发的免疫反应(PAMP-triggered immunity, PTI) (Jones and Dangl, 2006; 张杰等, 2019; 朱孝波等, 2020)。除PAMPs外, 病原菌侵染时植物自身也会产生一些与损伤相关的小分子DAMPs (damage-associated molecular patterns), 如systemin、PEPs和oligo- galacturonides, 这些DAMPs也可被细胞膜表面特定的受体(如SYR1、PEPRs和WAKs)识别, 引发与PTI类似的植物第一层级免疫反应(Choi and Klessig, 2016)。病原菌通过向植物分泌效应因子(effectors)来抑制PTI并使植物感病, 该过程即为效应因子引发的感病(effector-triggered susceptibility, ETS)反应。为了抵御病原菌侵染, 植物进化出第二层级免疫反应系统, 该层级免疫反应主要由包含核苷酸结合结构域和亮氨酸富集重复区的受体类蛋白(nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat receptors, NLRs)介导。NLRs通过不同方式识别病原菌分泌的效应因子, 激发更为强烈的免疫反应, 即效应因子触发的免疫反应(effector-triggered immunity, ETI) (Jones and Dangl, 2006; 张杰等, 2019; 朱孝波等, 2020)。PTI和ETI相互协调、相辅相成, 共同完成植物对病原菌的抵御作用(Zhao et al., 2022)。
除蛋白分子外, 作为植物天然产物, 植物激素在感知病原物入侵、传递免疫反应信号和增强植物抗病性等过程中也具有重要作用(Pieterse et al., 2012)。水杨酸(salicylic acid, SA)是一种植物酚类天然合成产物, 也称作2-羟基苯甲酸(2-hydroxybenzoic acid), 是最重要的植物免疫反应调控激素, 对PTI和ETI的建立均具有不可替代的作用; 水杨酸还能诱导植物系统获得性抗性(systemic acquired resistance, SAR), 赋予植物广谱持久抗病性(Peng et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022; Fang et al., 2025)。鉴于其在植物免疫反应中的重要调控作用, 水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应研究备受关注并取得了长足进展, 但水杨酸在植物中, 尤其是水稻(Oryza sativa)等主要粮食作物中的合成途径和作用机制等仍有待研究和完善。目前, 植物中已知的水杨酸合成途径主要有2条: 异分支酸合酶(isochorismate synthase, ICS)途径和苯丙氨酸解氨酶(phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, PAL)途径(Peng et al., 2021)。已有关于水杨酸合成途径的认识大多基于模式植物拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)中ICS途径的解析, 水稻等作物中水杨酸的合成通路有待阐明。近期, 我国3个研究团队独立报道并完善了水杨酸在水稻等作物中的PAL合成途径, 为解析水杨酸在不同植物中的抗病作用机制差异提供了重要分子基础(Liu et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2025b; Zhu et al., 2025)。基于该背景, 本文梳理了水杨酸在植物体内的合成途径, 综述了水杨酸如何被植物感知并激活免疫反应的研究进展, 提出了存在的问题并展望了未来的研究方向, 以期为水杨酸调控植物免疫反应的理论研究和抗病育种应用提供新思路和新方向。
研究表明, ICS和PAL两条水杨酸合成途径均起始于叶绿体, 从催化分支酸合成开始(Ullah et al., 2023)。ICS途径的发现主要基于模式植物拟南芥的研究, 该途径主要在叶绿体和细胞质中发生(图1A)。在叶绿体中, 异分支酸合酶(ICS)催化分支酸(chorismate)转化为异分支酸(isochorismate) (Ullah et al., 2023)。随后, 异分支酸由定位于叶绿体膜上的转运蛋白EDS5 (enhanced disease susceptibility 5)转运到细胞质中, 并在酰胺转移酶PBS3 (AvrPphB susceptible 3)的作用下, 与谷氨酸反应生成异分支酸-9-谷氨酸(isochorismate-9-glutamate) (Yamasaki et al., 2013; Rekhter et al., 2019)。异分支酸-9-谷氨酸可在酰基转移酶EPS1 (enhanced pseudomonas susceptibility 1)的作用下最终分解形成水杨酸(Rekhter et al., 2019; Torrens-Spence et al., 2019)。值得注意的是, 异分支酸-9-谷氨酸也可通过自发的分解作用, 不依赖EPS1而形成水杨酸, 且该自发过程的效率可能与EPS1催化的水杨酸合成效率相当(Rekhter et al., 2019)。
拟南芥中, 约90%的水杨酸由ICS途径合成, 该合成途径中关键限速酶ICS由2个基因ICS1和ICS2编码。ICS1基因编码的ICS1负责大于90%的水杨酸合成, 是调控水杨酸合成的关键基因(Wildermuth et al., 2001; Yokoo et al., 2018)。
PAL途径是植物合成水杨酸的另一重要途径, 该合成途径从被发现至今已超过30年。研究表明, 该途径中分支酸经多步反应生成苯丙氨酸(phenylalanine), 苯丙氨酸在PAL的作用下生成反式肉桂酸(trans-cinnamic acid), 随后经过氧化反应生成苯甲酸(benzoic acid, BA) (Yalpani et al., 1993)。推测植物中存在苯甲酸2-羟化酶(benzoic acid 2-hydroxylase, BA2H),可催化苯甲酸生成水杨酸, 但一直未能在植物中鉴定到BA2H, 极大地限制了植物PAL途径合成水杨酸的相关研究进程(León et al., 1995; Xu et al., 2017)。
近期, 我国3个研究团队在Nature杂志独立报道完善了植物水杨酸PAL合成途径。Zhu等(2025)以水稻为模式植物, 通过突变体筛选和基因共表达分析等方法, 鉴定到PAL合成途径的4个关键酶OSD1- OSD4 (Oryza sativa SA-DEFICIENT GENE 1 to 4)。OSD1是肉桂酰辅酶A连接酶(cinnamoyl-CoA ligase, CNL), 催化反式肉桂酸生成肉桂酰辅酶A; OSD2是苯甲醇苯甲酰转移酶(benzyl alcohol O-benzoyltransferase, BEBT), 催化苯甲醇与苯甲酰辅酶A生成苯甲酸苄酯(benzyl benzoate); OSD3是苯甲酸苄酯2-羟化酶(benzyl benzoate 2-hydroxylase, BB2H), 催化苯甲酸苄酯生成水杨酸苄酯(benzyl salicylate); OSD4是水杨酸苄酯水解酶(benzyl salicylate hydrolase, BSH), 催化水杨酸苄酯水解生成水杨酸(Zhu et al., 2025)。Liu等(2025)以烟草(Nicotiana tabacum)为研究对象, 鉴定到催化苯甲酰辅酶A最终生成水杨酸的3个关键酶, 苯甲醇苯甲酰转移酶NbBEBT与OSD2同源; 苯甲酸苄酯氧化酶(benzyl benzoate oxidase, BBO) NbBBO与OSD3同源; 水杨酸苄酯水解酶NbBSH与OSD4同源。Wang等(2025b)以水稻为模式植物也鉴定到相应的3个关键酶OsBEBT、OsBBH (benzyl benzoate hydroxylase)和OsBSE (benzyl salicylate esterase)。
基于这些重大发现, 完整的PAL合成途径可归纳为如图1A所示。在叶绿体中, 分支酸经过多步反应生成苯丙氨酸; 随后苯丙氨酸被转运到细胞质中, 在PAL的作用下生成反式肉桂酸(Fang et al., 2025)。反式肉桂酸被转移到过氧化物酶体(peroxisome)中, 在肉桂酰辅酶A连接酶CNL/OSD1的作用下生成肉桂酰辅酶A, 随后在肉桂酰辅酶A水合酶/脱氢酶AIM1/ CHD (abnormal inflorescence meristem 1/cinnamoyl-CoA hydratase/dehydrogenase)的催化下, 形成苯甲酰乙酰辅酶A (Liu et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2025)。苯甲酰乙酰辅酶A在3-酮酰辅酶A硫解酶(3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase, KAT)的作用下转化为苯甲酰辅酶A (benzoyl-CoA) (Kotera et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2025)。随后, 在OSD2/OsBEBT/NbBEBT的作用下, 苯甲酰辅酶A生成苯甲酸苄酯, 后者被转移到细胞质中, 并在内质网定位的OSD3/OsBB2H/NbBBO/ OsBBH作用下生成水杨酸苄酯。最后, 细胞质中OSD4/NbBSH/OsBSE水解水杨酸苄酯, 生成水杨酸(Liu et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2025b; Zhu et al., 2025)。PAL途径的解析打破了PAL途径合成水杨酸的传统认知, 表明苯甲酸苄酯才是该途径的重要中间产物, 而非原有研究认为的苯甲酸。该途径的解析也标志着植物水杨酸合成研究进入“双途径并行”的新时代。
PAL途径合成水杨酸的反应步骤较ICS途径更为复杂。例如, 目前已发现水稻中至少有9个基因(OsPAL1-9)可以编码苯丙氨酸解氨酶PAL, 3-酮酰辅酶A硫解酶(KAT)在水稻中也至少由2个基因(OsKAT1和OsKAT2)编码(Zhou et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2025)。为阐明PAL途径在植物中的保守性, 研究人员在多种植物中对PAL途径合成水杨酸的重要酶进行比较基因组分析, 发现红藻中除AIM1外, 其它酶如OSD1、OsKAT1/KAT2、OSD2、OSD3和OSD4均不存在同源蛋白; OSD1和OsKAT1/KAT2的同源蛋白在绿藻中开始出现, 说明OSD1-AIM1-KAT1/KAT2介导的苯甲酸衍生物合成起源于绿藻, 但在进化到陆生植物时, 一些早期的陆生植物丢失了OSD1 (Zhu et al., 2025)。OSD3在进化中首先出现在简单维管植物如卷柏(Selaginella tamariscina)中, 在多数维管植物中保守存在; OSD2和OSD3同源蛋白则主要在裸子植物中被检索到, 在种子植物中高度保守; 在拟南芥和萝卜(Raphanus sativus)等十字花科植物中, 仅鉴定到NbBEBT的同源蛋白, 而未检索到NbBBO以及NbBSH同源蛋白(Liu et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2025)。上述研究表明, 在植物进化过程中PAL途径是逐步演化而来, 该途径起始于绿藻的氧化复合物, 在维管植物时期进化产生羟化酶, 到裸子植物时期又进化出酯酶模块, 最终在裸子植物分化之前形成了在大多数种子植物中高度保守的BEBT-BBH-BSE通路。
水杨酸作为重要的免疫反应调控激素, 其对植物的生长发育及非生物胁迫抗性也具有调控作用, 因此其稳态的维持需要严格监控。植物主要通过调控水杨酸合成关键蛋白编码基因的表达水平、蛋白的稳定性或活性, 以及水杨酸的修饰形式和储存等途径维持水杨酸的稳态。研究发现, 水杨酸合成过程中的多个酶编码基因是植物或病原菌调控水杨酸合成的主要靶标。在ICS合成途径(图1B)中, 病原菌侵染时, 转录因子SARD1 (SAR-deficient 1)和CBP60g (calmodulin binding protein 60 like g)直接靶向水杨酸合成酶ICS1和PBS3以及异分支酸转运蛋白EDS5编码基因的启动子, 促进这些基因的表达, 增强水杨酸合成(Sun et al., 2015)。作为水杨酸合成的关键限速酶ICS1, 其编码基因表达还受到多个WRKY类转录因子的正调控(Peng et al., 2021; Fang et al., 2025)。此外, 还发现转录因子EIN3 (ethylene insensitive 3)和多个ANACs可以抑制ICS1基因的表达, 发现DEL1 (DP-E2F-like 1)可抑制EDS5的表达(Peng et al., 2021)。在PAL合成途径中, 也鉴定到多个转录因子可以靶向PALs基因并调控其表达量, 如OsMYB30、WRKY75和D53 (He et al., 2020; Meng et al., 2024; Ye et al., 2024)。更为有趣的是, 研究还鉴定到水稻中1个RNA结合蛋白BSR-K1可以结合PALs的mRNA, 在转录后水平调控PALs mRNA的丰度, 但抑制Bsr-k1基因以提高PALs的mRNA水平时促进了木质素合成, 却未明显改变水杨酸含量(Zhou et al., 2018)。由于PAL途径的中间代谢物也可合成木质素等调控植物免疫反应与抗病性的代谢物, 植物对水杨酸PAL合成途径的调控方式可能更为复杂。除转录水平调控外, 蛋白翻译后水平的调控对于植物维持水杨酸稳态也具有重要作用。研究发现, PROHIBITIN家族蛋白PHB3可与ICS1形成复合物, 稳定ICS1并促进水杨酸合成; 水杨酸可以靶向PBS3以抑制其酶活性, 从而调控水杨酸合成(Seguel et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2021) (图1B)。
游离的水杨酸通常是发挥功能的主要形式, 因此调控水杨酸自身的修饰及储存形式对于维持水杨酸信号稳态具有不可替代的作用。研究发现, 水杨酸至少可被转换为其它5种化学修饰形式以存储或发挥不同功能(图1C)。在无病原菌侵染时, 水杨酸在水杨酸羟化酶S5H (salicylic acid 5-hydroxylase)的作用下转化为2,5-二羟基苯甲酸(2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 2,5-DHBA) (Zhang et al., 2017); 在衰老的植物中, 水杨酸可被水杨酸羟化酶S3H (salicylic acid 3- hydroxylase)转化为2,3-二羟基苯甲酸(2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 2,3-DHBA) (Zhang et al., 2013); DHBA可被UDP-糖基转移酶(UDP-glycosyltransferases) UGT76D1进行糖基化修饰, 糖基化的DHBA可能参与水杨酸合成的反馈调控(Huang et al., 2018)。在病原菌侵染时, 大量新合成的水杨酸会被UGT74F1和UGT76B1转化为水杨酸葡萄糖苷(SA glucoside, SAG); UGT74F2还可将水杨酸转化为水杨酸葡萄糖酯(SA glucose ester, SGE); SAG和SGE可转运到液泡中进行储存(Dean and Delaney, 2008; Noutoshi et al., 2012)。水杨酸还可被羧基甲基转移酶BSMT1 (benzoic acid/SA carboxyl methyltransferase 1)甲基化, 生成甲基水杨酸(methyl salicylate, MeSA); MeSA具有挥发性, 可以通过挥发释放到植物体外; MeSA也可由甲基酯酶MES9 (methyl esterase 9)转化为水杨酸(Chen et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2008)。水杨酸还可在酰基酸氨基合成酶GH3.5 (acyl acid amido synthetase GH3.5)的作用下, 与天门冬氨酸(aspartate, Asp)结合, 生成具有免疫调控性的SA-Asp (Chen et al., 2013; Mackelprang et al., 2017); SA-Asp在植物中的含量及其对水杨酸稳态调控的具体作用还有待进一步研究(Peng et al., 2021)。此外, 磺基转移酶SOT12介导的水杨酸磺化修饰可能也对植物维持水杨酸稳态及免疫反应具有调控作用, 但具体机制还有待深入研究(Baek et al., 2010)。
为了解析植物如何感知水杨酸以启动免疫反应, 研究人员通过正向遗传学手段筛选到系列对水杨酸不敏感的植物突变体, 发现一些突变体基因编码NPR1 (nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1)蛋白(Cao et al., 1994; Delaney et al., 1995)。冷冻电镜分析发现, NPR1蛋白主要包含1个BTB/POZ (Broad- complex, Tramtrack, and Bric-à-brac/poxvirus and zinc finger)结构域、1个BHB结构域(BTB and carboxyterminal Kelch helix bundle)、由4个ankyrin组成的锚蛋白重复结构域ANKs (ankyrin repeats)和1个柔性的水杨酸结合结构域(SA binding domain, SBD), 其中BTB结构域包含1个独特的锌指结构(Kumar et al., 2022; Zavaliev and Dong, 2024)。NPR1可以形成飞鸟形的同源二聚体, 其BTB/POZ结构域对同源二聚体的形成至关重要; 锚蛋白重复结构域ANKs则为NPR1与TGAs转录因子(TGACG motif-binding transcription factors)相互作用所必需; 羧基端反式激活结构域具有转录激活活性(Kumar et al., 2022; Zavaliev and Dong, 2024)。蛋白结构分析发现, NPR1具有水杨酸结合口袋, 可直接结合水杨酸分子。生化实验表明, NPR1蛋白可以直接结合水杨酸分子(解离常数Kd=176.7±28.31 nmol·L-1), 其预测的水杨酸结合口袋中R432Q突变破坏了NPR1对水杨酸分子的结合能力, 且表达NPR1R432Q不能恢复npr1突变体对水杨酸的响应, 进一步证实NPR1可以直接识别水杨酸分子, 是水杨酸的受体(Wu et al., 2012; Ding et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2021)。
NPR1蛋白主要分布在细胞质和细胞核中, 细胞质中NPR1主要以寡聚体形式存在, 而细胞核中的NPR1则主要以单体或二聚体形式存在(Wu et al., 2012)。NPR1感知水杨酸最初发生在细胞质中(图2), NPR1识别水杨酸后可招募大量胁迫响应蛋白和E3泛素连接酶复合物CRL3 (cullin3-based RING E3 ubiquitin ligase)形成水杨酸诱导的NPR1胞质聚集体cSINC (SA-induced NPR1 cytoplasmic condensates), 该聚集体可能调控NLRs、EDS1/PAD4、WRKYs和胁迫响应蛋白等的稳态, 但具体作用还有待深入研究(Zavaliev et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2021; Fang et al., 2025)。胞质中的NPR1识别水杨酸后, 还可诱导NPR1氧化还原状态的改变, 从而引起NPR1构象变化, 促进胞质中的NPR1蛋白进入细胞核。NPR1构象的改变得益于其含有17个对氧化还原状态敏感的半胱氨酸残基, 构象改变后NPR1能够进入细胞核与其羧基端含有细胞核定位信号(nuclear localization signal, NLS)有关。进入细胞核的NPR1蛋白通过与TGAs转录因子互作, 激活水杨酸响应基因表达, 完成水杨酸信号传递(Zhang et al., 2003; Chern et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2022)。
除NPR1蛋白外, 植物还编码其它NPR蛋白。例如, 拟南芥中至少还包括其它5个NPR1同源蛋白NPR2、NPR3、NPR4、BOP1 (blade on petiole 1)和BOP2可以调控水杨酸介导的免疫反应信号(Canet et al., 2012; Castelló et al., 2018; Ding et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020)。NPR2、NPR3和NPR4对水杨酸有较强的结合能力, 但BOP1和BOP2对水杨酸的结合能力很弱(Canet et al., 2012; Castelló et al., 2018)。表达NPR2可以部分恢复npr1突变体对水杨酸的响应, 表明NPR2具有与NPR1相似的功能, 但其作用相比NPR1更弱(Castelló et al., 2018)。值得注意的是, NPR3/4蛋白虽与NPR1高度同源, 但其功能却与NPR1相反: NPR1发挥转录激活作用, 而NPR3/4行使转录抑制功能(Ding et al., 2018)。这可能是由于NPR3/4的羧基端包含1个NPR1不具备的类EAR (ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression)结构域, 推测该结构域可能促进NPR3/4与某些未知的转录共抑制因子互作, 阻止下游基因的转录起始。NPR3与NPR1结合水杨酸的能力相近, 但NPR4具有更强的水杨酸结合能力(约为NPR1的5倍) (Ding et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2021; Fang et al., 2025)。研究发现, 水杨酸的结合并不影响NPR3/4与TGAs转录因子的互作及对下游基因启动子的结合, 推测水杨酸可能通过影响NPR3/ 4与转录共抑制因子的互作, 解除对下游基因表达的抑制(图2)。NPR3/4与NPR1发挥相反作用的另一种可能是NPR3/4作为CRL3 E3泛素连接酶复合物的组成部分, 介导NPR1蛋白的稳定性调控, 从而影响水杨酸信号的激活(Ding et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2021; Fang et al., 2025)。NPR1与NPR3/4对水杨酸响应基因表达的相反调控作用使得植物可以有效实现逆境下对水杨酸信号的精准调控。
为了更深入地解析植物对水杨酸的识别和信号转导, 已有研究还鉴定到其它水杨酸结合蛋白(SA-binding proteins, SABPs)。这些SABPs种类繁多、功能各异, 包括过氧化氢酶、碳酸酐酶、谷胱甘肽S-转移酶、甘油醛3-磷酸脱氢酶、MeSA酯酶和硫氧还蛋白等(Manohar et al., 2015; Fang et al., 2025)。例如, SABP1是一个胞质过氧化氢酶, 能够被水杨酸结合并失活(Chen et al., 1993); SABP2是MeSA酯酶, 可以催化MeSA转化为SA (Park et al., 2007); SABP3是β-碳酸酐酶, 可与NPR1在有水杨酸时相互作用, 其酶活可被水杨酸抑制(Slaymaker et al., 2002)。此外, 蛋白磷酸酶PP2AA1 (phosphatase 2A subunit A1)也是一个SABP, 其激酶活性可被水杨酸抑制, PP2AA1可磷酸化生长素转运蛋白PIN2, 从而调控植物的生长发育(Tan et al., 2020)。上述研究表明, SABPs蛋白在植物感知水杨酸及调控免疫反应和生长发育等过程中具有重要作用, 相关研究值得继续开展和深入探索。
水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应激活依赖于NPR1。如前文所述, NPR1感知水杨酸后, 发生构象变化, 从细胞质进入细胞核。然而, 并非所有进入细胞核的NPR1均可发挥免疫激活作用, 核内的NPR1还需要与水杨酸结合才能被激活(Ding et al., 2018)。NPR1不具有DNA结合能力, 其通过与TGAs和WRKYs等转录因子互作, 激活下游免疫反应相关基因的表达; 转录因子对启动子的结合不依赖其与NPR1的互作(Wu et al., 2012; Fang et al., 2025)。冷冻电镜分析表明, 水杨酸激活的NPR1以二聚体形式与转录因子TGA3互作, 形成如TGA32-NPR12-TGA32的异源多聚体。在该复合体中, 每个NPR1蛋白均与TGA3互作; 进一步分析发现, 受水杨酸诱导的基因中, 其启动子至少包含2个TGAs结合的顺式元件as-1 (Kumar et al., 2022; Spoel and Dong, 2024; Zavaliev and Dong, 2024)。电泳迁移率实验(electrophoretic mobility shift assay, EMSA)发现, 只有当2个以上的as-1元件被TGAs结合时, TGAs-DNA条带才会发生迁移(Kumar et al., 2022)。上述结果表明, 激活的NPR1形成二聚体, 可能通过连接结合多个as-1基序的TGAs转录因子以形成转录增强复合体(enhanceosome), 该复合体还包括中介子复合物(mediator complex)和组蛋白乙酰转移酶(histone acetyltransferases, HACs)等, 共同促进下游免疫相关基因的表达, 激活水杨酸介导的免疫反应(Jin et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2022; Spoel and Dong, 2024)。
水杨酸激活的下游基因不仅包括病程相关基因以及胼胝质、木质素和抗菌代谢物等合成基因, 还包括内质网分泌和内质网胁迫反应相关基因(Wang et al., 2005)。这些内质网相关基因的激活表达, 可能是植物避免因免疫反应过度激活而带来毁灭性伤害的一种蛋白水平的保障措施。研究发现, 这些响应水杨酸的内质网相关基因启动子包含1个保守的顺式作用元件TL1 (GAAGAAGAA), 类热休克转录因子TBF1 (heat shock factor-like TL1-binding factor 1)能够结合TL1并调控这些基因的表达(Pajerowska-Mukhtar et al., 2012; Zavaliev and Dong, 2024)。TBF1在转录水平和蛋白翻译水平均能响应免疫信号诱导, 使得其蛋白表达受到严格调控, 以保障下游免疫相关蛋白的稳态。另一方面, NPR1在细胞质中可能与CRL3形成复合物, 发挥底物识别蛋白的作用, 依赖于水杨酸信号, 调控NPR1胞质复合物中免疫反应相关蛋白的泛素化水平和蛋白稳态(图2) (Pajerowska-Mukhtar et al., 2012; Zavaliev and Dong, 2024)。这些发现进一步表明, NPR1不仅介导水杨酸信号激活免疫反应, 其对免疫反应程度也具有重要调控作用。
作为水杨酸信号的关键受体, NPR1的活性受到包括S-亚硝基化修饰(S-nitrosylation)、磷酸化修饰和泛素化修饰在内的多种蛋白翻译后修饰的精细调控(Zavaliev and Dong, 2024)。在细胞质中, NPR1第156位半胱氨酸(Cys156)的S-亚硝基化修饰(形成二硫键)保障了NPR1的寡聚体形成, 使得NPR1处于静止状态, 不激活植物免疫反应(Tada et al., 2008)。水杨酸含量的升高和感知, 改变了细胞的氧化还原状态, 促进硫氧还蛋白(TRXh3和TRXh5等)还原NPR1 Cys156, 破坏二硫键, 使得NPR1寡聚体解聚为单体或二聚体(Mou et al., 2003; Tada et al., 2008)。解聚后的NPR1在蛋白激酶SnRK2.8 (SNF1-related protein kinase 2.8)的作用下发生Ser589以及Thr373的磷酸化, 该磷酸化修饰促进NPR1进入细胞核(Lee et al., 2015; Saleh et al., 2015)。进入细胞核的NPR1随即发生Ser55/59的去磷酸化作用, 促进NPR1与类泛素化修饰酶SUMO3互作并发生类泛素化修饰; 类泛素化修饰保障了NPR1在细胞核中滞留以及与TGAs转录因子互作; NPR1的类泛素化修饰也是其Ser11/15位磷酸化修饰的前提, Ser11/15磷酸化的NPR1在CRL3的作用下发生泛素化修饰, 激活NPR1的转录活性, 促进NPR1的泛素化降解(Saleh et al., 2015; Zavaliev and Dong, 2024)。CRL3对NPR1的泛素化修饰可能首先是单泛素化修饰或短链泛素化修饰, 该修饰激活NPR1的转录活性; 随后, 在泛素连接酶UBE4/MUSE3的作用下, NPR1的泛素化修饰链延长, 促使NPR1进入蛋白酶体进行降解(Skelly et al., 2019)。NPR1的泛素化和类泛素化修饰可能是改变NPR1构象、促进NPR1与水杨酸结合的重要途径, 但是相关推测还需进一步研究证实(Skelly et al., 2019)。NPR1进入细胞核发生系列修饰被激活后形成的复合物称为水杨酸诱导的NPR1核内聚集体(SA- induced NPR1 nuclear condensates, nSINC) (Saleh et al., 2015) (图2)。
泛素化修饰作为调控NPR1活性的重要蛋白翻译后修饰形式, 其对核内NPR1是否发挥转录活性以及是否进行蛋白酶体降解还存在第二层次的调控方式。Ser11/15磷酸化的NPR1可与SCF (SKP1-CULLIN1- F-BOX) E3泛素连接酶中的F-box蛋白HOS15互作, 被SCFHOS15泛素化后直接进入蛋白酶体降解途径, 而不被CRL3泛素化激活(Shen et al., 2020)。进入蛋白酶体的NPR1蛋白可在蛋白酶体相关的去泛素化酶UBP6/ 7作用下, 发生去泛素化作用, 解除NPR1的泛素蛋白酶体降解, 恢复其转录激活活性(Skelly et al., 2019) (图2)。上述研究表明, 植物利用系列蛋白翻译后修饰精准调控NPR1活性, 从而确保水杨酸介导的植物免疫信号的及时有效激活和传递。
系统获得性抗性(systemic acquired resistance, SAR)是指因病原微生物初次侵染植物局部叶片而被激活的整株水平上的广谱持久抗性(Gaffney et al., 1993)。SAR的建立与水杨酸和NPR1蛋白有关, 因此最初认为水杨酸是从病原菌侵染部位移动到远端产生SAR的主要信号分子, 但最终证实水杨酸不是SAR建成的移动信号。随后, 又发现MeSA、壬二酸、3-磷酸甘油醛和脱氢枞酸等可能是SAR建成的移动信号, 但这些分子作为移动信号激活SAR都存在一些局限性(Gaffney et al., 1993; Fu and Dong, 2013; 吴楠等, 2022)。近年的研究发现, 哌啶酸(pipecolic acid, Pip)及其衍生物N-羟基哌啶酸(N-hydroxy-pipecolic acid, NHP)是植物系统获得性抗性建成的重要移动信号分子(吴楠等, 2022; Li et al., 2023)。
哌啶酸是一种杂环非蛋白氨基酸, 是赖氨酸的分解代谢产物, N-羟基哌啶酸是哌啶酸在N-羟化酶FMO1作用下生成的产物(吴楠等, 2022)。水杨酸和Pip/NHP的合成相对独立但也存在相互调控, Pip/ NHP的从头合成需要水杨酸信号, Pip/NHP诱导的SAR依赖NPR1, Pip/NHP又可能提高NPR1作为水杨酸受体的活性, 增强水杨酸介导的免疫反应, 但尚不清楚NPR1如何协调Pip/NHP和水杨酸介导的免疫激活(Huang et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Li et al., 2023; Lim, 2023)。总之, 植物受到病原菌侵染时, 会在侵染部位诱导合成水杨酸, 水杨酸进一步诱导Pip/NHP的合成, Pip/NHP作为移动信号分子可从侵染部位移动到远端的系统叶片中, 诱导远端部位的水杨酸合成, 并可通过NPR1依赖的转录重编程激活远端叶片的免疫反应, 实现SAR的建立(吴楠等, 2022; Lim, 2023)。
水杨酸最初是从柳树(Salix)皮中鉴定的一种具有抗炎和止痛作用的活性成分, 其作为药物使用的历史已超过200年(Vlot et al., 2009)。过去30年中, 水杨酸作为一种可调控植物生物和非生物胁迫的激素逐渐被人们知晓, 其在植物免疫反应中的调控作用受到广泛关注, 相关研究取得了显著进展, 为深入理解植物抗病机制提供了重要理论基础(图1, 图2)。然而, 关于水杨酸调控植物免疫反应及抗病性的相关理论主要来自模式植物拟南芥, 其在水稻等作物中的合成和功能研究还比较缺乏, 极大地限制了水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应在作物抗病改良中的应用。
目前的研究发现, 水杨酸在十字花科植物和非十字花科植物中的合成和作用方式可能存在较大差异。ICS和PAL是植物合成水杨酸的2条主要途径, 拟南芥主要通过ICS途径合成水杨酸, 而水稻则主要通过PAL途径合成水杨酸; 拟南芥中本底水杨酸含量较低且含量受病原菌侵染迅速诱导, 水稻中水杨酸本底浓度很高且其含量受病原菌侵染影响不大(Silverman et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2025a; Zhu et al., 2025)。因此, 近年来非十字花科植物中水杨酸合成与信号转导研究备受关注。近期, 我国科研人员成功鉴定出PAL途径合成水杨酸过程中的多个关键酶, 建立了水稻等作物中较为完整的水杨酸合成通路, 为后续深入研究水杨酸在作物免疫中的作用机制、比较水杨酸介导的免疫反应在十字花科植物和非十字花科植物间的异同奠定了重要基础(Liu et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2025b; Zhu et al., 2025)。另一方面, 水杨酸PAL合成途径需要在叶绿体、过氧化物酶体、内质网和细胞质中完成, 合成过程的中间代谢物如何在这些细胞器间转运还不清楚, 相关转运蛋白有待鉴定和研究。此外, PAL途径的中间产物反式肉桂酸也是合成木质素的前体, 木质素对植物的免疫反应和抗病性同样具有重要调控作用。研究表明, 植物对于反式肉桂酸是合成水杨酸还是合成木质素具有严格的调控作用。在水稻bsr-k1和lrd6-6突变体中, 上调PALs家族基因的表达可增强木质素合成, 但不影响水杨酸合成(Zhu et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2018); 在d53突变体中, 降低PALs家族基因的表达量会削弱木质素和水杨酸的合成(Ye et al., 2024)。然而, 植物如何平衡水杨酸和木质素的合成以及水杨酸和木质素对植物抗病性的贡献等问题尚不清楚。
水稻中本底水杨酸含量很高, 且水杨酸含量不因病原菌侵染而出现明显改变(Zhu et al., 2025)。推测水杨酸在水稻中可能以低活性形式存在或储存于某些特殊的细胞器中, 以保障无病原菌条件下免疫反应维持在较低水平。另一种可能性是, 水稻中水杨酸可能不是激活免疫反应的主要形式, 其需要经过某种修饰才能激活免疫反应。当然, 上述推测还需围绕单子叶植物水杨酸信号感知和传递开展更多的研究才能最终回答。总之, 只有通过深入研究水杨酸介导的免疫信号, 明确水杨酸与其它激素信号的互作机制, 才能建立有效的育种利用策略, 将水杨酸介导的植物免疫反应研究成果应用于抗病育种实践。
朱孝波: 论文构思、撰写、修改和绘图; 王立印: 文献收集与整理; 陈学伟: 论文构思及指导文章修改。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32425005)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32472565)
  • 四川省自然科学基金(2024NSFSC0326)
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2025年第60卷第5期
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doi: 10.11983/CBB25149
  • 接收时间:2025-08-16
  • 首发时间:2026-10-22
  • 出版时间:2025-09-10
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  • 收稿日期:2025-08-16
  • 录用日期:2025-09-02
基金
国家自然科学基金(32425005)
国家自然科学基金(32472565)
四川省自然科学基金(2024NSFSC0326)
作者信息
    四川农业大学, 西南作物基因资源发掘与利用国家重点实验室/新基石科学实验室, 成都 611130

通讯作者:

陈学伟, 教授, 先后于四川农业大学获得学士(1997年)及硕士学位(2000年), 于中国科学院遗传与发育生物学研究所获博士学位(2003年), 并于2004年赴美国University of California从事水稻抗病分子机理研究。2011年回国就职于四川农业大学, 从事水稻抗病与病原菌致病的理论创新与应用研究。入选新基石研究员、长江学者特聘教授, 获国家杰出青年科学基金资助及首批延续资助, 担任国家自然科学基金创新研究群体学术带头人。获得首届腾讯科学探索奖、第15届谈家桢生命科学创新奖、四川省杰出人才奖等。
陈学伟团队聚焦水稻抗病与病原菌致病的理论创新与应用研究, 取得了系统性原创成果, 实现了水稻等作物广谱与高抗兼顾、抗病与生长协调、抗病与高产协同、病害防控绿色与高效统一等重大科学突破。在Cell、Science、Cell Research、Nature Microbiology和Nature Communications等期刊发表论文93篇, 育成抗病高产优质水稻新品种32个。部分成果入选2017年度“中国生命科学领域十大进展”、2017和2018年度“中国农业科学领域重大科研进展”、最具影响力“细胞出版社2017中国年度论文”, 获2020年度“四川省科学技术进步奖自然科学类一等奖”、2025年度“教育部高等学校科学研究优秀成果奖自然科学一等奖”。
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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