Article(id=1317882041606197403, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, issueId=1317882040293376452, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12133/j.smartag.SA202508029, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1756224000000, receivedDateStr=2025-08-27, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1792137163782, onlineDateStr=2026-10-16, pubDate=1785340800000, pubDateStr=2026-07-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792137163782, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-16, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792137163782, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792137163782, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1317882040293376452, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, year='2026', volume='8', issue='4', pageStart='1', pageEnd='267', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1785340800000', pubDateStr='2026-07-30', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792137163470, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792137254218, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1317882421022933964, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, issueId=1317882040293376452, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1317882421027128269, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, issueId=1317882040293376452, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=180, endPage=191, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1317882041769775260, articleId=1317882041606197403, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, language=EN, title=Machine Learning Reveals the Driving Effects of Soil Nutrients on Maize Yield Formation: A Case Study of Yunnan, China, columnId=1281692351299039265, journalTitle=Smart Agriculture, columnName=Information Processing and Decision Making, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
[Objective] Maize production in Yunnan‑representative mountainous regions is strongly shaped by rugged terrain, fragmented cropland, and steep vertical climatic gradients, which drive pronounced spatial heterogeneity in soil nutrients and yield. Unlike homogeneous plains, yield variation here stems from the combined effects of soil fertility, climate, and topography rather than any single nutrient factor, making traditional statistics or isolated soil indicators inadequate. To this end, an interpretable machine learning framework integrating soil nutrients and spatial information was developed to enhance maize yield prediction and identify the dominant drivers of yield disparities across sub‑regions of such landscapes. [Methods] Soil testing and formula fertilization data from Yunnan province during 2005—2020 were combined with 5 km gridded maize yield data. Four soil nutrient indicators were selected, including soil organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium. Longitude and latitude were also used as input variables. In this study, these two variables were not treated simply as location labels. They were included because spatial position can partly reflect regional environmental gradients that are difficult to describe using soil nutrient data alone, such as differences in elevation, heat and moisture conditions, terrain fragmentation, and cropping background. Based on these variables, particle swarm optimization was used to tune the main hyperparameters of the XGBoost model, forming a PSO-XGBoost yield prediction model. The optimized model was compared with LightGBM, CatBoost, random forest, support vector regression, and the original XGBoost model. Considering that nearby samples may share similar environmental conditions, random partitioning alone may overestimate model performance. Therefore, spatial block cross-validation was further used to examine the model's ability to predict yield under spatial separation. In addition, longitude and latitude were removed in an ablation experiment to test the contribution of spatial background information. Finally, SHAP was used to interpret the trained model, quantify the contribution of each variable, analyze the response of yield prediction to soil nutrients and spatial factors, and identify the dominant limiting factors in different maize-growing areas. [Results and Discussions] PSO-XGBoost showed the best performance among the tested models. Under random data partitioning, the model achieved an R2 of 0.91, indicating that it could effectively capture the relationship among soil nutrients, spatial background, and maize yield. Compared with LightGBM, CatBoost, and the unoptimized XGBoost model, PSO-XGBoost gave more accurate and stable predictions. This result suggested that particle swarm optimization improved the parameter configuration of XGBoost and made it more suitable for yield prediction in complex mountainous regions. Under spatial block cross-validation, the R2 decreased to 0.847. Although this value was lower than that obtained from random partitioning, it still showed good predictive performance under a stricter validation strategy. This also indicated that the model did not rely only on the similarity between neighboring samples, but retained a certain ability to predict yield in spatially separated areas. The ablation experiment further confirmed the importance of spatial information. After longitude and latitude were removed, the model R2 dropped sharply to 0.698. This decline showed that maize yield patterns in Yunnan cannot be well explained by soil nutrient indicators alone. Spatial variables probably contain information related to elevation-induced climatic differences, regional hydrothermal conditions, terrain fragmentation, and differences in the cropping environment. The SHAP results led to a similar conclusion. Longitude and latitude had relatively large contributions, suggesting that regional environmental gradients played an important role in yield formation. Among the soil nutrient variables, soil organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium were all related to maize yield, but their roles differed across Yunnan. In some areas, yield was more closely associated with organic matter and nitrogen supply, while in others phosphorus or potassium appeared to be more limiting. This spatial difference suggested that the main constraints on maize production were not the same across the province. For this reason, a province-wide fertilization scheme would be difficult to apply effectively. Nutrient management in Yunnan should instead be adjusted according to local soil conditions and the environmental background of different mountainous regions. [Conclusions] Maize yield in Yunnan province is affected by both soil nutrient conditions and broader spatial environmental factors. Soil fertility is still an important basis for yield formation in mountainous farmland, but it does not explain the spatial yield differences on its own. By combining PSO-XGBoost with SHAP, this study provides a way to improve yield prediction while also tracing the main factors related to regional yield variation. The framework can be used to identify areas where nutrient constraints are more likely to occur, as well as areas where terrain, climate background, or other regional environmental factors may have a stronger influence. These results can support more targeted fertilization, cultivated land quality improvement, and sustainable maize production in the mountainous agricultural areas of Yunnan.
, authors=Jiaze SUN
1, 2, Mingshan QU
3, Jizhong YANG
4, Chuixin LOU
4, Guangwei LI
2, Zhonglili ZHANG
5, authorsList=Jiaze SUN, Mingshan QU, Jizhong YANG, Chuixin LOU, Guangwei LI, Zhonglili ZHANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Zhonglili ZHANG, authorNote=
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【目的/意义】 云南省玉米种植区地形破碎、气候垂直分异明显,土壤养分与产量均存在较强空间差异。本研究旨在明确主要土壤养分对玉米产量差异的影响,提高复杂山地环境下产量预测结果的可解释性,构建融合空间信息与土壤养分特征的机器学习模型,为分区施肥和耕地质量提升提供依据。 【方法】 基于2005—2020年云南省测土配方施肥土壤基础养分数据和5 km玉米产量栅格数据,选取有机质、全氮、有效磷、速效钾及经纬度变量,采用粒子群优化-极端梯度提升模型(Particle Swarm Optimization-Extreme Gradient Boosting, PSO-XGBoost)开展产量预测,并与多种机器学习模型进行对比。为检验空间相邻样本可能导致的精度高估风险,进一步设置空间分块交叉验证和去除经纬度的消融实验;同时引入沙普利加和解释(SHapley Additive exPlanations, SHAP)方法分析各变量贡献及主导因子的空间分布。 【结果和讨论】 PSO-XGBoost在随机划分下决定系数R2为0.91,优于LightGBM(Light Gradient Boosting Machine)、CatBoost(Categorical Boosting)和未优化极端梯度提升模型等;空间分块验证下R2为0.847,说明模型在更严格的空间验证条件下仍保持较好的预测能力。去除经纬度后R2降至0.698,表明空间背景信息对云南玉米产量预测具有重要作用。SHAP分析显示,经纬度反映的区域环境差异贡献较高,有机质、全氮、有效磷和速效钾均对产量形成具有影响,且不同区域主导因子存在差异。 【结论】 云南玉米产量受土壤养分与空间环境共同影响,单一养分难以完全解释产量差异。PSO-XGBoost结合SHAP可用于识别区域产量差异及主要养分约束,为云南山地玉米分区施肥和耕地质量管理提供参考。
, authors=孙佳泽
1, 2, 曲明山
3, 杨积忠
4, 娄垂新
4, 李光伟
2, 张钟莉莉
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1, 2, address=
1.College of Information and Electrical Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
2.Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China, bio={"content":"
SUN Jiaze, E-mail: sunjiaze@cau.edu.cn
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SUN Jiaze, E-mail: sunjiaze@cau.edu.cn
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1, 2, address=
1.中国农业大学信息与电气工程学院,北京 100083,中国
2.北京市农林科学院信息技术研究中心,北京 100097,中国, bio={"content":"
孙佳泽,博士研究生,研究方向为智慧水肥调控技术与装备。E-mail:sunjiaze@cau.edu.cn
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孙佳泽,博士研究生,研究方向为智慧水肥调控技术与装备。E-mail:sunjiaze@cau.edu.cn
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1.中国农业大学信息与电气工程学院,北京 100083,中国)]), AuthorCompany(id=1317882045104246957, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, xref=2., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1317882045108441262, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, companyId=1317882045104246957, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
2.Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1317882045116829871, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, companyId=1317882045104246957, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
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3, address=
3.Beijing Agricultural Technology Extension Station, Beijing 100029, China, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null), CN=AuthorExt(id=1317882047327228099, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, authorId=1317882047109124288, language=CN, stringName=曲明山, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=
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4, address=
4.Yunnan Supply and Marketing Industrial Investment Co. , Ltd. , Kunming 650000, China, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null), CN=AuthorExt(id=1317882047553720520, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, authorId=1317882047402725573, language=CN, stringName=杨积忠, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=
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4.云南供销产业投资有限公司,云南 昆明 650000,中国, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null)}, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1317882045267824819, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, xref=4., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1317882045272019124, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, companyId=1317882045267824819, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
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2, address=
2.Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null), CN=AuthorExt(id=1317882049680232658, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, authorId=1317882049495683279, language=CN, stringName=李光伟, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=
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Structure of the PSO-XGBoost corn yield prediction model, figureFileSmall=5IbqEuwza6nvr1jVZ8oqYA==, figureFileBig=kxz5UPr8ZFzEtBrduHlYsg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051282456805, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=图1, caption=
PSO-XGBoost玉米产量预测模型结构图, figureFileSmall=5IbqEuwza6nvr1jVZ8oqYA==, figureFileBig=kxz5UPr8ZFzEtBrduHlYsg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051521532134, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=
Spatial distribution of major soil nutrients in Yunnan province (2005-2020), figureFileSmall=efxN473pofyWJo4YbWaBiQ==, figureFileBig=HS2LNsxdkSqb0u5QxXHLnQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051601223911, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=图2, caption=
云南省2005—2020年主要土壤养分空间分布图注:颜色由红到绿表示养分水平由低到高。该图基于自然资源部标准地图服务网站下载的审图号为GS(2019)3333号标准地图制作,底图无修改。
, figureFileSmall=efxN473pofyWJo4YbWaBiQ==, figureFileBig=HS2LNsxdkSqb0u5QxXHLnQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051685109992, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=
Statistical distribution and fitting relationship of predicted yield by the PSO-XGBoost model, figureFileSmall=5xygfOMzesItYvL4Dd/4YQ==, figureFileBig=W2Bsnd7IXw/getDE7dbGww==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051764801769, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=图3, caption=
PSO-XGBoost 模型预测结果的统计分布与拟合关系图a. 观测产量与预测产量频数分布 b. 观测产量与预测产量拟合关系
, figureFileSmall=5xygfOMzesItYvL4Dd/4YQ==, figureFileBig=W2Bsnd7IXw/getDE7dbGww==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051844493546, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=
Input features by mean absolute SHAP values in the PSO-XGBoost model, figureFileSmall=VQ4t07PL7F4b/z7L9/PWyA==, figureFileBig=BB9xRO2ufL76mE/9TkOkkA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051928379627, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=图4, caption=
PSO-XGBoost模型各输入特征的平均绝对SHAP值, figureFileSmall=VQ4t07PL7F4b/z7L9/PWyA==, figureFileBig=BB9xRO2ufL76mE/9TkOkkA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882051999682796, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=
SHAP beeswarm distribution of input features and their positive and negative effects on maize yield prediction, figureFileSmall=Ntn5ntOGcuiil7U2QHnhZw==, figureFileBig=cd2xxqddTlG0EZ8uKnIaDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882052070985965, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=图5, caption=
各输入特征SHAP值的蜂群分布及其对玉米产量预测的正负效应, figureFileSmall=Ntn5ntOGcuiil7U2QHnhZw==, figureFileBig=cd2xxqddTlG0EZ8uKnIaDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882052129706222, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=
Spatial distribution of dominant drivers of maize yield in Yunnan province, represented by the feature with the highest absolute SHAP value, figureFileSmall=d+Pa4rWuhkWAo8ZUON/slA==, figureFileBig=haQuZbWwBtQyEBcGwU9I6Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882053765484783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=图6, caption=
云南省玉米产量主导驱动因子空间分布图(以绝对SHAP值最大特征表征)注:该图基于自然资源部标准地图服务网站下载的审图号为GS(2019)3333标准地图制作,底图无修改。
, figureFileSmall=d+Pa4rWuhkWAo8ZUON/slA==, figureFileBig=haQuZbWwBtQyEBcGwU9I6Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1317882053840982256, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=
Statistical characteristics of soil nutrients
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 土壤养分 | 样本数/个 | 平均值 | 标准差 | 变异系数/% | 5%~95%范围 |
|---|
| 2005—2014 | 有机质/(g/kg) | 242 085 | 32.94 | 15.66 | 47.50 | 12.52~63.43 |
| 全氮/(g/kg) | 112 899 | 1.84 | 0.95 | 51.60 | 0.75~3.46 |
| 速效钾/(mg/kg) | 240 665 | 136.10 | 88.50 | 65.10 | 37.03~320.01 |
| 有效磷/(mg/kg) | 241 856 | 21.30 | 20.50 | 96.30 | 2.84~63.92 |
| 2015—2020 | 有机质/(g/kg) | 55 886 | 31.50 | 14.20 | 45.03 | 11.43~58.71 |
| 全氮/(g/kg) | 32 005 | 1.67 | 0.80 | 47.73 | 0.24~3.12 |
| 速效钾/(mg/kg) | 53 537 | 152.30 | 88.70 | 58.22 | 43.04~335.03 |
| 有效磷/(mg/kg) | 54 519 | 29.50 | 26.60 | 90.08 | 3.32~87.84 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317882053920674033, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=表1, caption=
土壤养分统计特征
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 土壤养分 | 样本数/个 | 平均值 | 标准差 | 变异系数/% | 5%~95%范围 |
|---|
| 2005—2014 | 有机质/(g/kg) | 242 085 | 32.94 | 15.66 | 47.50 | 12.52~63.43 |
| 全氮/(g/kg) | 112 899 | 1.84 | 0.95 | 51.60 | 0.75~3.46 |
| 速效钾/(mg/kg) | 240 665 | 136.10 | 88.50 | 65.10 | 37.03~320.01 |
| 有效磷/(mg/kg) | 241 856 | 21.30 | 20.50 | 96.30 | 2.84~63.92 |
| 2015—2020 | 有机质/(g/kg) | 55 886 | 31.50 | 14.20 | 45.03 | 11.43~58.71 |
| 全氮/(g/kg) | 32 005 | 1.67 | 0.80 | 47.73 | 0.24~3.12 |
| 速效钾/(mg/kg) | 53 537 | 152.30 | 88.70 | 58.22 | 43.04~335.03 |
| 有效磷/(mg/kg) | 54 519 | 29.50 | 26.60 | 90.08 | 3.32~87.84 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317882054004560114, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=
Comparison of prediction accuracy among different machine learning models for maize yield prediction in Yunnan province
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 模型 | RMSE/(kg/hm2) | MAE/(kg/hm2) | R2 |
|---|
| Ridge Regression | 1 564.87 | 1 248.30 | 0.72 |
| Lasso Regression | 1 635.42 | 1 305.76 | 0.70 |
| Random Forest Regressor | 1 036.58 | 802.41 | 0.84 |
| Decision Tree Regressor | 1 210.54 | 918.27 | 0.78 |
| KNN Regressor | 1 128.36 | 864.52 | 0.75 |
| LightGBM | 734.43 | 587.07 | 0.88 |
| CatBoost | 645.28 | 502.64 | 0.90 |
| XGBoost | 603.17 | 475.92 | 0.89 |
| PSO-XGBoost(本模型) | 564.00 | 458.54 | 0.91 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317882054101029107, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=表2, caption=
不同机器学习模型在云南省玉米产量预测中的精度对比
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 模型 | RMSE/(kg/hm2) | MAE/(kg/hm2) | R2 |
|---|
| Ridge Regression | 1 564.87 | 1 248.30 | 0.72 |
| Lasso Regression | 1 635.42 | 1 305.76 | 0.70 |
| Random Forest Regressor | 1 036.58 | 802.41 | 0.84 |
| Decision Tree Regressor | 1 210.54 | 918.27 | 0.78 |
| KNN Regressor | 1 128.36 | 864.52 | 0.75 |
| LightGBM | 734.43 | 587.07 | 0.88 |
| CatBoost | 645.28 | 502.64 | 0.90 |
| XGBoost | 603.17 | 475.92 | 0.89 |
| PSO-XGBoost(本模型) | 564.00 | 458.54 | 0.91 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317882054205886708, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=
Accuracy evaluation of the PSO-XGBoost model for maize yield prediction in Yunnan province under different validation schemes
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 验证方案 | 输入特征 | R2 | RMSE/(kg/hm2) | MAE/(kg/hm2) |
|---|
| 随机划分 | 土壤养分 + 经纬度 | 0.910 | 564.00 | 458.54 |
| 空间分块交叉验证 | 土壤养分 + 经纬度 | 0.847 | 734.43 | 587.07 |
| 随机划分消融实验 | 仅土壤养分 | 0.698 | 1 032.41 | 829.31 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317882054302355701, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212937352253451, articleId=1317882041606197403, language=CN, label=表3, caption=
不同验证方案下 PSO-XGBoost 模型对云南省玉米产量预测的精度评价结果
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| 验证方案 | 输入特征 | R2 | RMSE/(kg/hm2) | MAE/(kg/hm2) |
|---|
| 随机划分 | 土壤养分 + 经纬度 | 0.910 | 564.00 | 458.54 |
| 空间分块交叉验证 | 土壤养分 + 经纬度 | 0.847 | 734.43 | 587.07 |
| 随机划分消融实验 | 仅土壤养分 | 0.698 | 1 032.41 | 829.31 |
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