Article(id=1151591707151266037, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031787341344770, issueId=1151591705854751239, articleNumber=1003-3033(2024)05-0186-09, orderNo=null, doi=10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2024.05.0104, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1700496000000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-21, revisedDate=1708876800000, revisedDateStr=2024-02-26, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1752490458523, onlineDateStr=2025-07-14, pubDate=1716825600000, pubDateStr=2024-05-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1752490458523, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-14, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1752490458523, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752490458523, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1151591705854751239, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031787341344770, year='2024', volume='34', issue='5', pageStart='1', pageEnd='251', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1752490458214, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757398693384, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172178336315985942, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031787341344770, issueId=1151591705854751239, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172178336315985943, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031787341344770, issueId=1151591705854751239, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=186, endPage=194, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1151591707960766712, articleId=1151591707151266037, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031787341344770, language=EN, title=Study on inhibition effect of hydrogel on thermal runaway of ternary lithium-ion battery, columnId=1149733269173878863, journalTitle=China Safety Science Journal(CSSJ), columnName=Safety engineering technology, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In order to quickly and effectively extinguish the lithium-ion battery fire,solve the problems concerned in the fire protection field,such as long fire extinguishing time and high water consumption,and explore the inhibition effect of hydrogel extinguishing agent on the thermal runaway of large capacity lithium-ion batteries. Firstly,the microstructure of hydrogel at high temperatures was analyzed by an environmental scanning electron microscope. Then,by building a lithium battery combustion test platform,the hydrogel fire extinguishing test was carried out. Taking the 135 Ah square aluminium case ternary lithium-ion battery pack for vehicles as the test object,the electric heating method was used to induce its thermal runaway and explore the cooling inhibition effect of hydrogel on lithium batteries. The results show that the pore structure of the hydrogel is destroyed after being heated,which is conducive to its adhesion to the surface of the object and continuous cooling. When using hydrogel for fire extinguishing and cooling,the maximum cooling rate of the battery surface is twice that of water. After the hydrogel is sprayed,the temperature of the lithium battery rises slowly,and the heating rate is only half that of water. Compared with water,the hydrogel can delay the thermal runaway of adjacent batteries for a longer time,which can bring longer safety time for rescue and escape.

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为快速有效扑灭锂离子电池火灾,解决灭火时间长、耗水量大等消防领域关注的难题,探究水凝胶灭火剂对大容量锂离子电池热失控的抑制效果。首先,借助环境扫描电镜,分析水凝胶在高温下微观结构的变化;然后,搭建锂电池燃烧试验平台,开展水凝胶灭火试验;最后,以车用135 Ah方形铝壳三元锂电池组为试验对象,采用电加热的方法诱导其发生热失控,探究水凝胶对锂电池的降温抑制效果。结果表明:水凝胶受热后,内部孔状结构被破坏,有利于其黏附在物体表面持续降温;使用水凝胶灭火降温时,电池表面最大降温速率是水的2倍,水凝胶喷放结束后,锂电池温度回升速率较为缓慢,升温速率仅为水的一半;与水相比,水凝胶延缓相邻电池发生热失控的时间更长,这可以为救援逃生带来更长的安全时间。

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刘淳元 (1999—),男,河南安阳人,博士研究生,研究方向为锂离子电池火灾防控技术。E-mail :

张国维 教授

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刘淳元 (1999—),男,河南安阳人,博士研究生,研究方向为锂离子电池火灾防控技术。E-mail :

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刘淳元 (1999—),男,河南安阳人,博士研究生,研究方向为锂离子电池火灾防控技术。E-mail :

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张国维 教授

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张国维 教授

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Test conditions

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序号 灭火剂 喷放时长/s 喷放速率/(L·s-1)
1 0 0
2 20 0.5
3 30
4 40
5 水凝胶 20
6 水凝胶 30
7 水凝胶 40
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试验工况

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序号 灭火剂 喷放时长/s 喷放速率/(L·s-1)
1 0 0
2 20 0.5
3 30
4 40
5 水凝胶 20
6 水凝胶 30
7 水凝胶 40
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Comparison of cooling rate and delayed thermal runaway time under various working conditions

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 灭火剂 喷放时长/s A电池最大
降温速率/
(℃·s-1)
灭火剂喷放结束A
电池升温速率/
(℃·s-1)
灭火剂喷放结束B
电池热失控间隔
时间/s
灭火剂喷放结束C
电池热失控间隔
时间/s
1 78 173
2 20 32 22 82 199
3 30 42 19 158 282
4 40 45 21.5 166 288
5 水凝胶 20 89.5 11.5 294 604
6 水凝胶 30 105.5 8 475 665
7 水凝胶 40 108 9.5 619 722
), ArticleFig(id=1172491027681260132, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031787341344770, articleId=1151591707151266037, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

各工况降温速率和延缓热失控时间对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 灭火剂 喷放时长/s A电池最大
降温速率/
(℃·s-1)
灭火剂喷放结束A
电池升温速率/
(℃·s-1)
灭火剂喷放结束B
电池热失控间隔
时间/s
灭火剂喷放结束C
电池热失控间隔
时间/s
1 78 173
2 20 32 22 82 199
3 30 42 19 158 282
4 40 45 21.5 166 288
5 水凝胶 20 89.5 11.5 294 604
6 水凝胶 30 105.5 8 475 665
7 水凝胶 40 108 9.5 619 722
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水凝胶对三元锂电池热失控抑制效果研究
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刘淳元 1, 2 , 张国维 1, 2 , 杨林 3 , 欧阳晨亮 1, 2 , 张作睿 1, 2
中国安全科学学报 | 安全工程技术 2024,34(5): 186-194
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中国安全科学学报 | 安全工程技术 2024, 34(5): 186-194
水凝胶对三元锂电池热失控抑制效果研究
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刘淳元1, 2 , 张国维1, 2, 杨林3, 欧阳晨亮1, 2, 张作睿1, 2
作者信息
  • 1 中国矿业大学 深圳研究院,广东 深圳 518057
  • 2 中国矿业大学 安全工程学院,江苏 徐州 221116
  • 3 北京市海淀区消防救援支队,北京 100080
  • 刘淳元 (1999—),男,河南安阳人,博士研究生,研究方向为锂离子电池火灾防控技术。E-mail :

    张国维 教授

Study on inhibition effect of hydrogel on thermal runaway of ternary lithium-ion battery
Chunyuan LIU1, 2 , Guowei ZHANG1, 2, Lin YANG3, Chenliang OUYANG1, 2, Zuorui ZHANG1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1 Shenzhen Research Institute,China University of Mining and Technology,Shenzhen Guangdong 518057
  • 2 School of Safety Engineering,China University of Mining and Technology,Xuzhou Jiangsu 221116
  • 3 Haidian District Fire Rescue Brigade of Beijing,Beijing 100080
出版时间: 2024-05-28 doi: 10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2024.05.0104
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为快速有效扑灭锂离子电池火灾,解决灭火时间长、耗水量大等消防领域关注的难题,探究水凝胶灭火剂对大容量锂离子电池热失控的抑制效果。首先,借助环境扫描电镜,分析水凝胶在高温下微观结构的变化;然后,搭建锂电池燃烧试验平台,开展水凝胶灭火试验;最后,以车用135 Ah方形铝壳三元锂电池组为试验对象,采用电加热的方法诱导其发生热失控,探究水凝胶对锂电池的降温抑制效果。结果表明:水凝胶受热后,内部孔状结构被破坏,有利于其黏附在物体表面持续降温;使用水凝胶灭火降温时,电池表面最大降温速率是水的2倍,水凝胶喷放结束后,锂电池温度回升速率较为缓慢,升温速率仅为水的一半;与水相比,水凝胶延缓相邻电池发生热失控的时间更长,这可以为救援逃生带来更长的安全时间。

水凝胶  /  热失控  /  三元锂电池  /  抑制效果  /  降温速率  /  安全时间

In order to quickly and effectively extinguish the lithium-ion battery fire,solve the problems concerned in the fire protection field,such as long fire extinguishing time and high water consumption,and explore the inhibition effect of hydrogel extinguishing agent on the thermal runaway of large capacity lithium-ion batteries. Firstly,the microstructure of hydrogel at high temperatures was analyzed by an environmental scanning electron microscope. Then,by building a lithium battery combustion test platform,the hydrogel fire extinguishing test was carried out. Taking the 135 Ah square aluminium case ternary lithium-ion battery pack for vehicles as the test object,the electric heating method was used to induce its thermal runaway and explore the cooling inhibition effect of hydrogel on lithium batteries. The results show that the pore structure of the hydrogel is destroyed after being heated,which is conducive to its adhesion to the surface of the object and continuous cooling. When using hydrogel for fire extinguishing and cooling,the maximum cooling rate of the battery surface is twice that of water. After the hydrogel is sprayed,the temperature of the lithium battery rises slowly,and the heating rate is only half that of water. Compared with water,the hydrogel can delay the thermal runaway of adjacent batteries for a longer time,which can bring longer safety time for rescue and escape.

hydrogel  /  thermal runaway  /  ternary lithium ion battery  /  inhibition effect  /  cooling rate  /  safety time
刘淳元, 张国维, 杨林, 欧阳晨亮, 张作睿. 水凝胶对三元锂电池热失控抑制效果研究. 中国安全科学学报, 2024 , 34 (5) : 186 -194 . DOI: 10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2024.05.0104
Chunyuan LIU, Guowei ZHANG, Lin YANG, Chenliang OUYANG, Zuorui ZHANG. Study on inhibition effect of hydrogel on thermal runaway of ternary lithium-ion battery[J]. China Safety Science Journal(CSSJ), 2024 , 34 (5) : 186 -194 . DOI: 10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2024.05.0104
锂离子电池具有能量密度大、循环寿命长、运行无污染等优点,被广泛应用于电力储能和电动汽车等领域[1]。然而,在滥用条件下,锂离子电池极易发生热失控,释放大量热和有害易燃气体[2]。由电池热失控引起的电动汽车火灾已成为消防部门面临的棘手问题。因此,寻找一种快速、高效的灭火技术,扑灭锂电池火灾,对抑制热失控发展具有重要意义。
现阶段,针对锂离子电池火灾灭火技术的研究,主要集中在全氟己酮、液氮、气体灭火剂及水系灭火剂。如WANG Qingsong等[3]研究发现,七氟丙烷能迅速扑灭钛酸锂电池明火,但并不能使其温度下降,灭火药剂释放后电池仍会发生复燃。XU Jiajia等[4]对比分析二氧化碳和细水雾对三元锂电池火灾的抑制效果,发现被二氧化碳作用后电池发生了复燃,而使用细水雾的试验中电池并未复燃,且细水雾能够使电池温度大幅下降。ZHANG Lin等[5]在真实储能场景下,开展全氟己酮抑制243 Ah磷酸铁锂电池模组火灾试验,发现全氟己酮能够抑制电池模组内热失控的传播。谢卓衡等[6]研究发现,全氟己酮相比于细水雾,虽然能够快速灭火,但随着灭火剂浓度的下降,电池后续发生了复燃,而细水雾的降温效果优于全氟己酮,但存在用水量较大的缺点,难以开展实际应用。WANG Zhirong等[7]发现,液氮在受限空间内能有效抑制热失控的传播。美国联邦航空管理局研究指出,锂电池火灾的本质是内部活性反应物质的热失控,灭火剂必须具备足够的冷却降温能力,才能有效阻止锂电池组的火灾蔓延[8]。上述研究证明,全氟己酮、液氮等灭火剂可以有效抑制受限空间内锂离子电池热失控,但并不适用于电动汽车火灾这种开放空间下的灭火。因此,水系灭火剂成为解决开放空间下锂电池火灾的研究重点。水凝胶作为一种优良水系灭火剂,被广泛用于矿井防灭火[9]。经不断改良后,水凝胶灭火剂在密集堆垛火[10]、建筑火灾[11]、森林火灾[12]、火灾逃生装备[13]等多个领域的应用中都展示出优异效果[14]。如陆剑心等[15]研究发现,水凝胶对1 500 mAh磷酸铁锂电池火灾具有较好的灭火效果。张作睿等[16]发现,大流量的水凝胶可以完全阻止热失控在单体电池间的传播。综上,针对锂离子电池灭火技术的研究主要集中在储能电池上,然而,在受限空间内有良好灭火效果的灭火剂并不适用于电动汽车火灾。同时,水凝胶因其独特的热敏性和降温能力,已经被应用到越来越多的领域,但将水凝胶应用到锂电池热失控的研究都集中在小容量的磷酸铁锂电池,对于大容量锂离子电池热失控的研究还较少。
鉴于此,文中利用环境扫描电镜观察水凝胶微观结构变化并开展灭火试验,揭示水凝胶微观结构在不同温度下的变化特性,分析热失控电池温度变化曲线、速率及热失控延缓时间,探究水凝胶对135 Ah三元锂电池热失控抑制效果,以期为开放空间下锂电池火灾防治提供依据。
为确保灭火剂的效果更好地贴近工程应用,试验电池均来自新能源汽车电池包。单体电池尺寸为170 mm(长)×50 mm(宽)×115 mm(高),额定容量135 Ah,额定电压4.2 V,正极和负极材料分别为Li(NiCoMn)O2和石墨,安全阀位于电池上方中间位置。试验开始前,使用充放电循环测试仪,以恒压恒流将试验锂电池充电至100%荷电状态。
试验所使用水凝胶灭火剂由木质纤维素(密度1.8 g/cm3,颗粒大小106μm)、氟碳类表面活性剂、阻燃剂、发泡剂、pH调节剂等多种成分组成。试验时按照剂水混合比将水凝胶与水混合形成液体灭火剂。试验材料如图1所示。
试验装置包括燃烧室、电池架、灭火系统、排气系统和数据采集系统如图2a所示。试验在长×宽×高为2 m×2 m×2.5 m的燃烧室内进行,使用额定功率为450 W的加热片进行加热,诱导电池发生热失控,加热片尺寸为200 mm×150 mm×5 mm。为防止试验过程中电池热失控所产生的巨大冲击力造成电池倾倒,用细铁丝将试验电池捆起来作固定处理。灭火系统由灭火剂储罐、水泵和喷嘴组成,喷嘴正对安全阀,布置在试验电池右上方100 cm处,与水平方向夹角30°,试验中水泵保持恒定功率工作。通过调研,消防员所使用的背负式细水雾灭火装置最大喷射速率为0.5 L/s,能长时间工作30 s左右,故灭火剂喷放速率选为0.5 L/s。电池热失控产生的烟气通过上方集烟罩排出。电池表面布置6个K 型热电偶(测量范围:0~1 300 ℃,探头直径2 mm)记录温度变化,试验全过程由摄像机和红外热成像仪记录。
每组工况选用3块锂离子电池水平叠放,从下至上依次记为A、B和C单体电池。加热板作为外部热源放置在最下方,与A电池均匀、紧密接触,每块电池的上下表面均布置1个热电偶记录温度变化。热电偶布置如图2b所示。自下而上依次记为TC1—TC6。试验过程中,当加热片开始加热时,记试验时间为0 s。在A电池安全阀开始排气时,断开加热片开关。随即等待A电池进入急剧热失控后喷放灭火剂,观察B电池和C电池的状态。试验工况设置见表1。每种工况进行3次重复试验,取最接近平均值的数据作为该工况下的最优数据进行分析。
为探究水凝胶在高温下的失水率及微观结构变化。首先,采用恒温箱对水凝胶溶液进行失水率测试,设置4组试验,各组试验温度分别为100、150、200和250℃,将恒温箱加热到指定温度,然后保持恒温。在培养皿中加入20 g水凝胶溶液,放入恒温箱内,每2 min记录1次质量,连续记录20 min,进行3次试验,记录平均值[17]。失水率计算见下式:
η = M 0 - M M 0 × 100 %
式中: η为样品质量M的失水率,%;M0为样品的初始质量,g;M为某时刻的样品质量,g。
失水试验结束后,将4组凝胶样品各取约30 mg,用导电胶粘在样品台上进行喷金处理,在环境扫描电镜低真空模式下放大1 200倍观察凝胶内部结构。
4组水凝胶失水率和热处理后的微观结构图像如图3图4所示。
图4可以看出,相同热处理时间下,随着温度升高,水凝胶表面结构呈现差异。在100 ℃下,水凝胶内部较为完整,其表面为褶皱状,此时水凝胶流动性大;在150和200 ℃下,水凝胶内部相对光滑,孔洞有序分布;在250 ℃下,水凝胶内部杂乱无章,多丝状物,此时凝胶流动性差,粘附在培养皿壁上。造成这种微观结构差异的原因可能是:不同热处理温度条件下,凝胶的失水率不同,对凝胶的膜结构和骨架结构的破坏程度也不同。
典型的锂离子电池热失控场景如图5所示,工况1的温度变化曲线如图6所示。A电池温度逐渐升高,试验时间为426 s时开始膨胀变形,鼓包导致电池与加热片贴合不再紧密,温度上升速率变缓。试验时间为663 s时,A电池形变膨胀至安全阀瞬间开启,排出大量烟气。关闭加热片,此时A电池上表面温度为134 ℃,11 s后,安全阀前方出现喷射火,火焰长度可达80 cm,最高温度可达890 ℃,喷射火持续28 s后,火势逐渐减弱,进入缓慢燃烧阶段。试验时间为741 s,B电池发生热失控,其上表面温度为143 ℃,受到A电池持续火焰燃烧的影响,此时B电池下表面温度为624 ℃。试验时间为836 s时,C电池发生热失控,受A、B电池火焰影响,上表面温度达到204℃。由图6可以看出,试验电池的上下表面存在温度差异,下表面温度到达峰值的时间早于上表面,这是因为下表面热电偶受前一块电池温度影响较大。因此,将电池上表面温度作为主要的研究对象。
在工况2—4中,使用水作为灭火剂对电池热失控作灭火效果研究。在工况3中,在A电池热失控后,进行30 s水柱直流喷射,试验过程中的火灾场景如图7所示。试验过程中,3块电池上表面温度变化曲线和温度速率变化图如图8所示。在加热861 s后,A单体安全阀打开向外泄压排气,随后出现喷射火,开始热失控,A电池表面温度迅速上升,最大升温速率为74 ℃/s。立即对电池喷放水,3 s后火焰消失,此时A电池表面温度达到第1个峰值。在持续水柱直射的降温效果下,电池表面温度以最高42 ℃/s降温速率迅速下降。灭火剂喷射30 s后停止,在此期间A电池表面温度从最高点463 ℃降低到136 ℃。由于电池内部反应仍在进行,温度开始逐渐上升,最大升温速率为19℃ /s。在喷水结束158 s后,B单体发生热失控。喷水结束282 s后,C单体发生热失控,试验中最高温度为710 ℃,随后温度开始缓慢下降。
在喷放灭火剂后,3块电池的温度均有不同程度的下降。此外,A电池的温度曲线出现2个峰值,其中第2次峰值出现的原因是喷水暂时阻止了热失控反应的进行,使得A电池并未完全热失控,随后,B电池热失控产生明火引起A电池的复燃。火焰叠加导致TC2第2次峰值温度高于TC4,同时TC4的峰值温度也高于TC6。与工况1相比,采取喷水30 s干预措施后,B电池和C电池发生热失控的时间分别延缓到了158和282 s,表明水对锂电池热失控有一定的延缓效果。
工况2和工况4的热失控情况与工况3相似,温度变化如图9所示。在工况2中,B电池在喷水结束82 s后发生热失控,C电池在喷水结束199 s后发生热失控,而在工况4中这2个时间分别为166和288 s。在工况2中,C电池热失控瞬间由于膨胀产生巨大的冲击力,将固定的铁丝炸开,C电池位置发生偏移,使得TC4和TC6直接暴露于空气中,因此,在温度变化曲线中表现为达到峰值温度后急剧下降的趋势。在工况4中TC2的表现同理,为B电池热失控瞬间的爆炸冲击所致。从延缓时间上来看,随着喷水时间的增加,B电池和C电池发生热失控被延缓的时间均增加,说明足够量的水可以达到有效延缓热失控的效果。
工况6为A电池热失控后,喷射30 s水凝胶,试验现象和温度变化曲线分别如图10图11所示。
试验时间为715 s时,A电池安全阀打开向外泄压排气,随后A电池出现喷射火,开始热失控。试验时间为728 s时立即对电池喷放水凝胶,3 s后火焰消失,此时A电池表面温度达到第1个峰值。A电池温度在水凝胶持续30 s作用下迅速下降到90 ℃。喷放结束后,冷却效果持续50 s左右,在此期间,可以观察到不断有白雾从电池表面冒出,这是因为电池内部继续发生反应产生热量,吸附在电池表面的水凝胶吸收大量热后蒸发。试验时间为809 s时,水凝胶作用效果失效,温度急剧回升,超过第1个峰值温度达到390 ℃。在水凝胶喷放结束475 s后,B电池发生热失控。喷放结束665 s后,C电池发生热失控,试验过程中最高温度为732 ℃,随后温度开始缓慢下降。由图11可知:B电池和C电池热失控的时间被大大延缓。水凝胶灭火剂在电池上可以持续停留一段时间,吸收大量热量。在B电池发生热失控之前,A电池升温速率逐渐变小。随后,B电池热失控产生明火使得A电池发生复燃,火焰进入平稳燃烧阶段后,C电池发生热失控,火焰叠加导致TC4的温度高于TC2和TC6。
工况5和工况7的热失控情况与工况6相似,温度变化如图12所示。在工况5中,B电池在水凝胶喷放结束294 s后发生热失控,C电池在喷放结束604 s后发生热失控,而在工况7中这2个时间分别为619和722 s。从延缓时间上来看,随着喷水凝胶的时间增加,B电池和C电池发生热失控的间隔时间均大大增加。
各工况下不同阶段降温速率和延缓热失控时间对比情况见表2
灭火剂喷放结束后,至下一块电池发生热失控之间的间隔时间称为安全时间。不论何种灭火药剂,随着喷射时间的增加,安全时间均增加。当喷射时间相同时,与水相比,水凝胶作用下的安全时间最大可提高至3倍以上。
从温度变化速率来看,随着灭火剂喷射时间增加,A电池最大降温速率也逐渐增加,增速逐渐变缓。2种灭火剂的冷却能力从降温速率可以反映出来,当使用水时,A电池最大降温速率为32~45 ℃/s,而当使用水凝胶时,A电池最大降温速率为89.5~108 ℃/s。灭火剂喷放结束后,电池经短暂冷却又迅速升温,当使用水时,A电池升温速率在19~22 ℃/s,而使用水凝胶时这一数值为8~11.5 ℃/s。由此可见:水凝胶的冷却降温能力和抑制电池温度回升的效果明显优于水。
1) 水凝胶作用到高温物体上后,失水速率先增大后减小,凝胶内部结构由完整表面向多孔洞、丝状物转变,表现为水凝胶可黏附在物体表面,达到持续降温的目的。
2) 与水相比,水凝胶作用到热失控电池表面时,其降温效果和抑制温度回升的效果可达到水的2倍以上。
3) 与水相比,水凝胶可以大幅度延缓相邻电池发生热失控的时间。15 L的水凝胶灭火剂相比同剂量的水,可获得3倍的安全时间。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2022YFC3090503)
  • 深圳市自然科学基金面上项目资助(JCYJ20220530164601004)
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2024年第34卷第5期
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doi: 10.16265/j.cnki.issn1003-3033.2024.05.0104
  • 接收时间:2023-11-21
  • 首发时间:2025-07-14
  • 出版时间:2024-05-28
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-21
  • 修回日期:2024-02-26
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国家重点研发计划(2022YFC3090503)
深圳市自然科学基金面上项目资助(JCYJ20220530164601004)
作者信息
    1 中国矿业大学 深圳研究院,广东 深圳 518057
    2 中国矿业大学 安全工程学院,江苏 徐州 221116
    3 北京市海淀区消防救援支队,北京 100080
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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