Article(id=1274300097294819609, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, issueId=1274300092707266809, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3724/1000-6915.jrme.2025.0521, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1753027200000, receivedDateStr=2025-07-21, revisedDate=1758470400000, revisedDateStr=2025-09-22, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1781746418483, onlineDateStr=2026-06-18, pubDate=1769875200000, pubDateStr=2026-02-01, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1781746418483, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-06-18, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1781746418483, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1781746418483, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1274300092707266809, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, year='2026', volume='45', issue='2', pageStart='321', pageEnd='638', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1781746417452, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1781746463571, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1274300286466335306, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, issueId=1274300092707266809, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1274300286466335307, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, issueId=1274300092707266809, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=594, endPage=612, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1274300097793941787, articleId=1274300097294819609, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, language=EN, title=An approach to assess the seepage stability of geotextile filters based on soil-water interaction theory and its application, columnId=null, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

How can the essential requirements of retention, hydraulic conductivity, and clogging for geotextile filters be simultaneously satisfied? Coordinating the assessment of their seepage stability performance is crucial. To achieve this, sixteen soil-geotextile column hydraulic gradient ratio tests were conducted using four typical geotextiles. The seepage stability was evaluated based on hydraulic conductivity, stable hydraulic gradient ratio, and the washout of soil fines observed during the tests. Additionally, both the grain size of the soil and the constriction size of the geotextile were treated as random variables. Utilizing soil-water interaction theory, a retention assessment approach was proposed based on the probability of ineffective retention. The performance limits of retention were determined using data from eighty-five experimentally assessed soil-geotextile columns. Furthermore, a hydraulic conductivity assessment approach was developed, considering the partial clogging of the geotextile due to the formation of a bridging structure. The results indicate that the proposed design criterion surpasses previously published criteria in effectively distinguishing between clogging or blinding in ineffective and effective systems. It was found that polypropylene long-filament geotextiles with a high mass per unit area are particularly well-suited for use as filters.

, correspAuthors=Zhao ZHANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
* ZHANG Zhao (1983–), professor, is engaged in meso-macro scopic hydraulic and mechanical behavior for unsaturated soils and special soils. E-mail:
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如何同时满足土工织物滤土、透水性能及其淤堵程度的要求,是协同发挥其作为反滤料时的渗透稳定性能的关键。为此,先通过物性试验选取4种典型的无纺土工织物为研究对象,进而在常水头条件下开展16组含土工织物土柱的水力坡降比试验,通过测算其渗透系数、平衡时的水力坡降比和细粒冲刷流失量评估其渗透稳定性能;其次,基于水–土相互作用理论,以被保护土的粒径和土工织物的孔径为随机变量,提出用失效概率表示的土工织物滤土性能判别方法,进而依据现有文献和本文试验评估的85组含土工织物土柱数据划分滤土性能界限;最后,采用土工织物淤堵后的渗透系数比值判定其表面形成桥接结构时的透水性能及其局部淤堵程度,并将提出的土工织物性能判别方法应用于反滤料设计中,结果表明:提出的方法对性能有效和堵塞或闭塞型失效的划分准确度优于现有方法,在设计时建议选取单位面积质量较大的聚丙烯纤维长丝土工织物作为反滤料。

, correspAuthors=张昭, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
* 张昭(1983–),现任教授,主要从事非饱和土与特殊土的细–宏观水力与力学特性方面的教学与研究工作。E-mail:
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GB/T 50123—2019土工试验方法标准[S]. 北京:中国计划出版社,2019., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1274369034661471056, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[30], rfOrder=33, authorNames=The National Standards Compilation Group of People's Republic of China, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=(The National Standards Compilation Group of People's Republic of China. GB/T 50123—2019 Standard for geotechnical test methods[S]. 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GB/T 17634—2019土工布及其有关产品有效孔径的测定——湿筛法[S]. 北京:中国标准出版社,2019., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1274369035441611610, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[38], rfOrder=43, authorNames=The National Standards Compilation Group of People's Republic of China, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=(The National Standards Compilation Group of People's Republic of China. GB/T 17634—2019 Determination of effective pore size of geotextiles and related products-wet sieve method[S]. 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GB/T 15789—2016土工布及其有关产品无负荷时垂直渗透特性的测定[S]. 北京:中国标准出版社,2016., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1274369035575829340, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2016, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[39], rfOrder=45, authorNames=The National Standards Compilation Group of People's Republic of China, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=(The National Standards Compilation Group of People's Republic of China. GB/T 15789—2016 Determination of vertical permeability characteristics of geotextiles and related products without load[S]. 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Sample No. d10/mm Cu Cc Gs emax emin
Soil No. fine-30.094.810.732.610.780.43
Soil No. fine-150.049.981.722.610.680.35
Soil No. fine-600.018.060.982.610.650.30
Soil No. coarse-700.1311.506.592.610.710.41
), ArticleFig(id=1274369031196975910, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Index physical properties of four test soils

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Sample No. d10/mm Cu Cc Gs emax emin
Soil No. fine-30.094.810.732.610.780.43
Soil No. fine-150.049.981.722.610.680.35
Soil No. fine-600.018.060.982.610.650.30
Soil No. coarse-700.1311.506.592.610.710.41
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Sample No.Kenney-Lau approach[33]Kezdi approach[34]Sherard approach[35]Experimental assessment
Soil No. fine-3StableStableStableStable
Soil No. fine-15StableUnstableUnstableStable
Soil No. fine-60StableStableStableStable
Soil No. coarse-70UnstableUnstableUnstableUnstable
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Internally stability assessment of four test soils

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Sample No.Kenney-Lau approach[33]Kezdi approach[34]Sherard approach[35]Experimental assessment
Soil No. fine-3StableStableStableStable
Soil No. fine-15StableUnstableUnstableStable
Soil No. fine-60StableStableStableStable
Soil No. coarse-70UnstableUnstableUnstableUnstable
), ArticleFig(id=1274369031394108201, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Raw materialManufacture method η(gt)/(g·m2)GeotextileO95/mmt(gt)/mmd(fb)/mm ρ(fb)/(g·cm3)k(gt)/(cm·s1)
Polyester fiberMicroneme and needle punched200PET-D–2000.0812.230.020 31.3440.200 0
400PET-D–4000.0723.470.020 51.3680.290 0
Filament and needle punched200PET-C–2000.1082.750.014 80.2730.260 0
400PET-C–4000.0755.290.016 80.1340.190 0
Thermally bonded100PET-R–1000.0530.420.012 20.4860.002 2
200PET-R–2000.0480.410.013 70.6830.002 5
Polypropylene fiberMicroneme and needle punched200PP-D–2000.0612.610.027 30.8940.280 0
400PP-D–4000.0523.590.021 70.9310.160 0
Filament and needle punched200PP-C–2000.1243.480.032 90.8720.160 0
400PP-C–4000.1253.850.036 20.6230.090 0
), ArticleFig(id=1274369031465411370, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, language=CN, label=Table 3, caption=

Index physical properties of ten geotextiles compared

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Raw materialManufacture method η(gt)/(g·m2)GeotextileO95/mmt(gt)/mmd(fb)/mm ρ(fb)/(g·cm3)k(gt)/(cm·s1)
Polyester fiberMicroneme and needle punched200PET-D–2000.0812.230.020 31.3440.200 0
400PET-D–4000.0723.470.020 51.3680.290 0
Filament and needle punched200PET-C–2000.1082.750.014 80.2730.260 0
400PET-C–4000.0755.290.016 80.1340.190 0
Thermally bonded100PET-R–1000.0530.420.012 20.4860.002 2
200PET-R–2000.0480.410.013 70.6830.002 5
Polypropylene fiberMicroneme and needle punched200PP-D–2000.0612.610.027 30.8940.280 0
400PP-D–4000.0523.590.021 70.9310.160 0
Filament and needle punched200PP-C–2000.1243.480.032 90.8720.160 0
400PP-C–4000.1253.850.036 20.6230.090 0
), ArticleFig(id=1274369031616406315, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Sample No.GeotextileHGR stable valueWashout of soil fines/(g·m2)Experimental assessment
i = 2i = 5i = 8
Soil No. fine-3PET-C–4000.450.620.5788Effective
PET-D–4000.110.120.43126Effective
PP-C–2000.120.500.56154Effective
PP-C–4000.800.630.45131Effective
Soil No. fine-15PET-C–4000.290.350.21127Effective
PET-D–4000.100.190.63165Effective
PP-C–2000.180.310.53264Effective
PP-C–4000.560.600.49198Effective
Soil No. fine-60PET-C–4000.400.270.26176Effective
PET-D–4000.390.180.18648Effective
PP-C–2000.860.660.65872Effective
PP-C–4000.290.410.40525Effective
Soil No. coarse-70PET-C–40011.9215.0715.84144Clogging/Blinding
PET-D–4006.146.269.21528Clogging/Blinding
PP-C–20013.2816.2317.88850Clogging/Blinding
PP-C–4007.259.6413.34633Clogging/Blinding
), ArticleFig(id=1274369031696098092, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1272208980697911299, articleId=1274300097294819609, language=CN, label=Table 4, caption=

The amount of washout fines,HGR at equilibrium,and experimental assessment for soil-textile columns

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Sample No.GeotextileHGR stable valueWashout of soil fines/(g·m2)Experimental assessment
i = 2i = 5i = 8
Soil No. fine-3PET-C–4000.450.620.5788Effective
PET-D–4000.110.120.43126Effective
PP-C–2000.120.500.56154Effective
PP-C–4000.800.630.45131Effective
Soil No. fine-15PET-C–4000.290.350.21127Effective
PET-D–4000.100.190.63165Effective
PP-C–2000.180.310.53264Effective
PP-C–4000.560.600.49198Effective
Soil No. fine-60PET-C–4000.400.270.26176Effective
PET-D–4000.390.180.18648Effective
PP-C–2000.860.660.65872Effective
PP-C–4000.290.410.40525Effective
Soil No. coarse-70PET-C–40011.9215.0715.84144Clogging/Blinding
PET-D–4006.146.269.21528Clogging/Blinding
PP-C–20013.2816.2317.88850Clogging/Blinding
PP-C–4007.259.6413.34633Clogging/Blinding
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基于水–土相互作用理论的土工织物渗透稳定性能判别方法及应用
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张昭 1, 2, * , 马浩 1 , 张远傲 1 , 张钊 3 , 周子豪 1 , 沈栎萱 1
岩石力学与工程学报 | 土工基础 2026,45(2): 594-612
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岩石力学与工程学报 | 土工基础 2026, 45(2): 594-612
基于水–土相互作用理论的土工织物渗透稳定性能判别方法及应用
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张昭1, 2, * , 马浩1, 张远傲1, 张钊3, 周子豪1, 沈栎萱1
作者信息
  • 1.西安理工大学 土木建筑工程学院,陕西 西安 710048
  • 2.西安理工大学 旱区水工程生态环境全国重点实验室,陕西 西安 710048
  • 3.中建三局一公司马来西亚公司,马来西亚 吉隆坡 50000

通讯作者:

* 张昭(1983–),现任教授,主要从事非饱和土与特殊土的细–宏观水力与力学特性方面的教学与研究工作。E-mail:
An approach to assess the seepage stability of geotextile filters based on soil-water interaction theory and its application
Zhao ZHANG1, 2, * , Hao MA1, Yuan'ao ZHANG1, Zhao ZHANG3, Zihao ZHOU1, Yuexuan SHEN1
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Xi'an University of Technology, Shaanxi, Xi'an 710048, China
  • 2.State Key Laboratory of Water Engineering Ecology and Environment in Arid Area, Xi'an University of Technology, Shaanxi, Xi'an 710048, China
  • 3.China Construction Yangtze River (Malaysia) SDN BHD, Kuala Lumpur 50000, Malaysia
出版时间: 2026-02-01 doi: 10.3724/1000-6915.jrme.2025.0521
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如何同时满足土工织物滤土、透水性能及其淤堵程度的要求,是协同发挥其作为反滤料时的渗透稳定性能的关键。为此,先通过物性试验选取4种典型的无纺土工织物为研究对象,进而在常水头条件下开展16组含土工织物土柱的水力坡降比试验,通过测算其渗透系数、平衡时的水力坡降比和细粒冲刷流失量评估其渗透稳定性能;其次,基于水–土相互作用理论,以被保护土的粒径和土工织物的孔径为随机变量,提出用失效概率表示的土工织物滤土性能判别方法,进而依据现有文献和本文试验评估的85组含土工织物土柱数据划分滤土性能界限;最后,采用土工织物淤堵后的渗透系数比值判定其表面形成桥接结构时的透水性能及其局部淤堵程度,并将提出的土工织物性能判别方法应用于反滤料设计中,结果表明:提出的方法对性能有效和堵塞或闭塞型失效的划分准确度优于现有方法,在设计时建议选取单位面积质量较大的聚丙烯纤维长丝土工织物作为反滤料。

土力学  /  土工织物  /  渗透稳定  /  滤土  /  透水  /  淤堵  /  反滤料

How can the essential requirements of retention, hydraulic conductivity, and clogging for geotextile filters be simultaneously satisfied? Coordinating the assessment of their seepage stability performance is crucial. To achieve this, sixteen soil-geotextile column hydraulic gradient ratio tests were conducted using four typical geotextiles. The seepage stability was evaluated based on hydraulic conductivity, stable hydraulic gradient ratio, and the washout of soil fines observed during the tests. Additionally, both the grain size of the soil and the constriction size of the geotextile were treated as random variables. Utilizing soil-water interaction theory, a retention assessment approach was proposed based on the probability of ineffective retention. The performance limits of retention were determined using data from eighty-five experimentally assessed soil-geotextile columns. Furthermore, a hydraulic conductivity assessment approach was developed, considering the partial clogging of the geotextile due to the formation of a bridging structure. The results indicate that the proposed design criterion surpasses previously published criteria in effectively distinguishing between clogging or blinding in ineffective and effective systems. It was found that polypropylene long-filament geotextiles with a high mass per unit area are particularly well-suited for use as filters.

soil mechanics  /  geotextile  /  seepage stability  /  retention  /  hydraulic conductivity  /  clogging  /  filter
张昭, 马浩, 张远傲, 张钊, 周子豪, 沈栎萱. 基于水–土相互作用理论的土工织物渗透稳定性能判别方法及应用. 岩石力学与工程学报, 2026 , 45 (2) : 594 -612 . DOI: 10.3724/1000-6915.jrme.2025.0521
Zhao ZHANG, Hao MA, Yuan'ao ZHANG, Zhao ZHANG, Zihao ZHOU, Yuexuan SHEN. An approach to assess the seepage stability of geotextile filters based on soil-water interaction theory and its application[J]. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2026 , 45 (2) : 594 -612 . DOI: 10.3724/1000-6915.jrme.2025.0521
土工构筑物内的渗流作用会将细粒带走而诱发失稳破坏[1]。反滤料既能控制渗透侵蚀,同时也能确保水不受阻碍地流动。土工织物因其具有经济、可持续使用等优点,已广泛应用于反滤料设计中[2-3]。土工织物的渗透稳定性能应满足滤土性能、透水(亦称排水减压)性能和淤堵程度3个基本要求[4]。滤土透水性能判别方法与粗粒反滤料类似[5];淤堵程度评估方法需要保证土工织物在结构设计全寿期内透水性能不失效。现有研究大多孤立地采用特征粒径判别土工织物的渗透稳定性能,然而,土工织物的上述3个基本要求是相互制约的[4]。因此,在设计土工织物时,如何同时满足这3个基本要求是协同发挥其渗透稳定性能的关键,有助于提升土工织物在土工构筑物中的安全服役性能。
土工织物的滤土性能主要取决于被保护土的颗粒级配分布和土工织物的孔径分布[6-7]。粗粒先被土工织物保留,而细粒通过粗粒堆积形成的稳定骨架结构(下文简称桥接结构)被保留[8-9]。因此,滤土性能判别方法的核心内容在于估算能形成桥接结构的被保留粒径。太沙基针对粗粒反滤料提出的滤土性能判别方法可推广至土工织物:即土工织物的特征孔径O95需小于滤土比ϑ与被保护土特征粒径dy(颗粒级配曲线上过筛率为y%对应的粒径)的乘积。学者们依据dyO95ϑ的不同取值提出了相应的判别方法:S. K. Bhatia和Q. Huang[10]dy = d85,并依据曲率系数Cc、土工织物的孔隙率n(gt)ϑ的3个取值范围进行判别;加拿大基础工程手册(Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual,简称CFEM方法)[11]基于J. Lafleur[6]的试验研究,针对不同形状的颗粒级配曲线、4个dy值、3个ϑ值进行判别;J. P. Giroud[9]对颗粒级配曲线进行线性化,采用相对密实度Dr和修正后的特征粒径、不均匀系数(d'85C'u)进行判别。这些方法皆通过试验观测或将粗粒反滤料的孔径转换为土工织物的等效孔径提出的。
关于土工织物的透水性能判别方法,若土工织物截面的渗透系数k(gt)与被保护土的渗透系数k(s)之比不小于经验常数γ,则表明水流可以畅通无阻地通过土工织物。至于γ的建议取值,依据试验研究可分别取1[312],10[12],100[13],10i(s)[14]i(s)[9](i(s)为被保护土的水力坡降)。值得注意的是,这种判别方法适用于内部稳定土,此时土工织物不易发生淤堵。然而,对内部不稳定土是否适用,值得深入研究。
关于土工织物的淤堵机制,桥接结构的形成会阻止细粒的运移,从而在土工织物内部产生局部淤堵。本文主要研究土工织物在工程实际中广泛出现的物理淤堵。这种淤堵形式主要表现为闭塞和堵塞,前者表现为细粒积聚在土工织物表面形成透水性低的“滤饼”引发的淤堵,后者表现为细粒随水流进入土工织物内部并被截留造成的淤堵[15-17]
关于土工织物的淤堵程度判别方法,常通过室内试验评估,以水力坡降比试验应用较为广泛[18]。这种试验主要测定被保护土–土工织物系统在不同水力坡降条件下的渗透系数和水力坡降比HGR。理想条件下,被保护土–土工织物系统的HGR值应小于1,而HGR值远小于1表明被保护土出现潜蚀。反之,HGR值远大于1表明土工织物出现堵塞或闭塞。土工织物能够接受轻微程度的淤堵,但HGR值必须小于3[918]。R. D. Holtz等[2]依据临界条件下的水力坡降比试验结果提出了被保护土–土工织物系统出现淤堵的判别方法。除试验评估方法外,K. H. Kim等[19-22]将数值模拟与试验分析相结合,不仅能判别土工织物的淤堵程度,还可估算其孔径。D. Cazzuffi等[23]在土工织物设计中考虑了被保护土的内部稳定性,而A. Miszkowska等[24-25]通过试验研究了收缩层数对被保护土–土工织物系统的影响。N. Moraci等[26]为评价土工织物与内部稳定、不稳定土的兼容性,提出了几何、试验和细观结构方法。
综上所述,现有滤土性能判别方法大多仅考虑被保护土的特征粒径和土工织物的特征孔径,并未考虑被保护土的颗粒级配分布和土工织物的孔径分布。实质上,这2种分布均属随机变量,故而在判别土工织物的滤土性能时,可采用概率统计方法进一步研究随机直径土粒进入随机直径孔隙的概率。现有透水性能和淤堵程度的判别方法大多基于土工织物和被保护土的初始性质,未考虑被保护土–土工织物系统性能的极限状态和被保护土的内部稳定性。此外,土工织物的渗透稳定性能如何在滤土和透水的基础上同时满足淤堵程度的要求,亟待深入研究。值得注意:被保护土–反滤料系统的渗透稳定性能本质上是水–土相互作用的结果[27-28]。水–土相互作用理论和试验研究方法可用于评估该系统在渗流作用下的长期服役性能[28]
为此,先开展含土工织物土柱在常水头条件下的水力坡降比试验,通过测算其渗透系数、平衡时的水力坡降比和细粒冲刷流失量来评估其渗透稳定性能;其次,以水–土相互作用理论为基础,将土的粒径和土工织物的孔径作为随机变量,通过引入反滤路径中的土工织物孔隙分布,将滤土性能失效的概率与面向透水性能和淤堵程度要求的土工织物渗透系数建立关系,兼顾考虑土工织物厚度及其局部淤堵的影响,研究同时适用于内部稳定土和内部不稳定土的土工织物渗透稳定性能判别方法;最后,结合已有文献和本文的试验结果,验证、评价本文方法在判别土工织物滤土、透水性能及其淤性程度时的有效性与适用性,并将其应用于反滤料设计中。
(1)被保护土的选取
土工织物的滤土、透水性能和淤堵程度会受到与之接触的被保护土类显著影响。为此,依据粗、细粒含量选取了4种典型土来模拟可能发生的被保护土–土工织物系统性能失效或渗透破坏的极限状态。为简化起见,依据每种土的细粒或粗粒含量将其分别编为细–3号、细–15号、细–60号和粗–70号。前三者表示粒径为0.075 mm时的过筛率(即细粒含量),分别为3%,15%,60%;粗–70号土表示其粗粒含量为70%。依据标准[29]可确定这4种土分别为级配不良砂、粉土质砂、含砂细粒土和级配不良粗砂,相应的颗粒级配曲线和基本物性参数分别如图1表1所示。表1中,d10为有效粒径,Cu为不均匀系数,Cc为曲率系数,Gs为土粒相对密度,这4种土的最大、最小孔隙比(emaxemin)依据标准[30]所述的相对密实度试验方法测得。
至于这4种土的内部稳定性的试验评估结果,可对其土柱试样开展常水头条件下的向上渗透试验,通过流速随水力坡降变化的曲线形态获得(试验装置、方法和步骤详见张 钊[31])。具体而言,当流速随水力坡降呈线性递增趋势时,土内部是稳定的;当流速与水力坡降呈非线性递增趋势时,土内部是不稳定的[32]。此外,还可采用几何方法——Kenney- Lau方法[33]、Kezdi方法[34]和Sherard方法[35]评估这4种土的内部稳定性,如图2所示。Kenney-Lau方法[33]规定(H/F)min<1时、Kezdi方法[34]和Sherard方法[35]分别规定(d15(粗)/d85(细))max>4和5时,土的内部是不稳定的(其中,d为任意粒径;F为粒径0~d的土粒所占质量分数,即过筛率;H为粒径d~4d的土粒所占质量分数;d15(粗)d85(细)分别为粗粒组和细粒组中过筛率为15%和85%对应的粒径)。利用上述3种几何方法对4种土的内部稳定性判定结果如表2所示,Kenney-Lau方法[33]与试验评估结果吻合——细–3号土、细–15号土、细–60号土属内部稳定土,而粗–70号土属内部不稳定土。
(2)土工织物的选取
本文以无纺土工织物为试验对象,原因在于:这种材料不仅具有良好的延展性、力学性能和反滤性能,而且生产效率较高、成本较低,故其应用率占土工织物的70%[36]。通过综合考虑这种材料的加固与成网方法、原料与单位面积质量η(gt),比选了10种土工织物,如表3所示,每种织物的编号以短横线划分为3个部分信息:①表示原料——PET表示聚酯纤维,PP表示聚丙烯纤维,原因在于:这2种合成纤维在土工织物中广泛使用[37];②表示加固与成网方法,依据R. Koerner[36]选取3种方法——D表示短丝针刺,C表示长丝针刺,R表示热熔黏合;③数字表示单位面积质量(g/m2)。
这10种土工织物的基本物性参数测定依据如下规范:①特征孔径O95依据规范[38]测得;②渗透系数k(gt)依据规范[39]测得;③纤维密度ρ(fb)依据规范[40]中密度梯度法测得;④纤维直径d(fb)依据规范[41]所述扫描电镜法测得;⑤依据规范[42]所述方法测得土工织物在2 kPa压力下的厚度t(gt)
依据这10种土工织物的基本物性参数,即可算得相应的孔径分布曲线(计算方法详见下文),如图3所示。对比图13所示4种试验用土的颗粒级配曲线可知,热熔黏合的土工织物(PET-R–100,PET-R–200)孔径和渗透系数过小,难以满足土工织物作为反滤料的透水要求,故可不考虑;此外,短丝针刺的聚丙烯纤维土工织物(PP-D–200,PP-D–400)在表3所示的物性参数与长丝针刺的聚丙烯纤维土工织物(PP-C–200,PP-C–400)相近的条件下,前者的力学性能远不如后者,且后者的应用范围更广[43],故本文试验不选取PP-D–200,PP- D–400号土工织物。
需注意:本文还将探讨土工织物的基本性质(原料、加固与成网方法、单位面积质量)对其渗透稳定性能的影响,故在选取土工织物时需对比其不同性质。为此,先对比加固与成网方法对土工织物性能的影响,选取PET-D–400和PET-C–400号土工织物;再对比原料对土工织物性能的影响,选取PET-C–400和PP-C–400号土工织物;最后,对比单位面积质量对土工织物性能的影响,选取PP-C–200与PP-C–400号土工织物。综上所述,本文最终选取了4种土工织物(PET-D–400,PET- C–400,PP-C–200和PP-C–400),在表3中用上标▲进行标注。
(3)试验装置和方法
采用如图4所示试验装置,对选取的4种被保护土与4种土工织物构成的土柱开展了16组常水头条件下的水力坡降比试验,旨在判别这4种土工织物的渗透稳定性能。试样筒的内径和高度分别为190和100 mm;其顶部和底部采用法兰分别与盖板和流失土粒收集槽连接;其盖板上设置排气阀排除筒内的气泡,以消除气泡对试验结果可能产生的不良影响。在开展试验前,需将4种土工织物裁剪成与土柱底面直径相同的圆片试样,进而将其放置在土柱底部之下、多孔金属板之上。在进、出水口处设置常水头条件以控制水流在土柱内的向下渗透过程,在其出口处设置高精度流量计来测定含土工织物土柱内的流量。沿土柱高度设置一组测压管[18](在读数板上)与测压计,取这2种装置读数的平均值为土柱在不同高度处的压力水头。
不仅如此,在试验前还需预先制备含水率为5%的试样,以防止在压实过程中出现颗粒分离现象,随后将土样分3次等量装入试样筒内,并使用振捣锤均匀压实(控制筒内各层土深度)至设定的相对密实度Dr = 0.5。随后,确保试验装置连接无误,再给土柱中加入无气水,并在100 cm的常水头条件下静置24 h后饱和。通过在进、出水口保持常水头差来模拟向下渗透过程。试验开始后,采用升降台调节出水口处的压力水头分别施加水力坡降为2,5,8。依据标准[30],每组开展3次平行试验。试验施加的水力坡降明显高于内部稳定土、内部不稳定土发生渗透侵蚀时的临界水力坡降(分别采用太沙基公式和张 钊[31]所述公式算得)。在施加了每级水力坡降后,实时测定距土柱底部不同高度处的压力水头,同时采用高精度流量计测定土柱出水口处的流量。试验结束后,从收集槽集取从土工织物流出的细粒并烘干称重。
整理16组含土工织物土柱的渗透系数k及其水力坡降比HGR随时间的变化曲线如图5所示(图中,i为水力坡降)。本文所选的4种土工织物对细–3号土、细–15号土和细–60号土的HGR在试验过程中始终小于1;含这4种土工织物的细–3号土、细–15号土k在试验开始约4 h内虽有小幅下降(对PET-D–400和PP-C–200号土工织物),但随后均趋于稳定,表明含这4种土工织物的细–3号土、细–15号土内未出现淤堵;含这4种土工织物的细–60号土k在试验开始时总体先增大,直至约8 h后稳定。究其原因可能在于:细–60号土的细粒含量对应的土粒直径远小于土工织物的特征孔径,致使水流对这种土在试验前8 h内的冲刷程度强烈。综上所述,这4种土工织物对细–3号土、细–15号土和细–60号土性能是有效的;在其与土工织物的分界面处,可能有土粒搭接形成了桥接结构。值得注意:对这3种土柱,当增大水力坡降时,其HGRk均不同程度地出现了突变现象,表明这3种土柱对水力加载和水流特征变化是灵敏的。反之,这4种土工织物对粗–70号土的HGR均大于3且持续增长,同时其渗透系数k持续减小,这表明土工织物内出现淤堵。对比粗–70号土的颗粒级配分布和这4种土工织物的特征孔径可以看出,其淤堵状态更接近闭塞。此外,亦可整理含土工织物土柱的细粒冲刷流失量、HGR稳定值和试验评估结果,如表4所示,细粒冲刷流失量均小于J. Lafleur[6]所述发生潜蚀破坏的临界值2 500 g/m2,表明本节试验的土工织物滤土性能均未失效。
节1所述现有滤土性能判别方法大多是围绕被保护土的特征粒径和土工织物的特征孔径所提出的。然而,在土工织物的过滤过程中,随机直径的土粒会渗入随机直径的孔隙内,可见被保护土的粒径和土工织物的孔径均为服从特定分布的随机变量。因此,在判别土工织物的滤土性能时,需采用概率统计方法考虑这种随机现象。
依据毛昶熙等[27-28]所述的水–土相互作用机制可知,在水流作用下,均匀直径土粒渗入反滤料(由粗粒料或土工织物构成)内均匀直径孔隙的过程与筛分过程类似。这种相似关系可通过引入面向滤土要求的安全裕度极限状态函数Ms(GV),推广至随机直径土粒渗入随机直径孔隙的情况:
Ms(GV)=GiVj
式中:GiVj分别为取自被保护土颗粒级配分布和土工织物孔径分布的样本。当Ms≥0时,土工织物的滤土性能有效;当Ms<0时,土工织物的滤土性能失效。
由于GiVj为随机变量,则存在与每个变量值相关的概率。因此,土工织物滤土性能失效的情况是由所有大于被保护土粒径的收缩层孔径集合导致的。要生成颗粒级配曲线和孔径分布曲线的样本,可先在0~1的区间内生成均匀分布的随机数(uiuj),再过该随机数的水平线与颗粒级配曲线和孔径分布曲线相交所得交点的横坐标即为所求样本,如图6所示(以粗–70号土和PET-D–400号土工织物为例)。
当被保护土的级配极好或级配不连续时,则需考虑细粒从被保护土的桥接结构中随水流迁移至被保护土–土工织物分界面的情况,这是“滤饼”的主要成因[9]。为此,可通过构成桥接结构的细粒组和粗粒组的分离粒径d*对被保护土重新分级,将小于d*的土粒过筛率与d*对应的过筛率相除,求得重新分级后的颗粒级配曲线。本文对不连续级配土在拐点处进行重新分级;对内部不稳定的宽级配土在最大收缩孔径(dv(max))处重新分级。此外,对由砾石和卵石构成的土料,可采用d*<2 mm的约束条件限定d*
至于最大收缩孔径dv(max)的计算,可依据Y. Wang等[44-45]将粗粒土简化为四颗粒集合体,通过张 昭等[45]所述方法算得不同相对密实度(Dr)和最大粒径(d100)条件下的孔径分布曲线,进而估算出dv(max)。然而,这种方法未能给出dv(max)的显式计算公式,但值得注意的是,d100Dr共同影响dv(max)[44-45]。为在本文的渗透稳定性能判别方法中能够实现对dv(max)的简便计算,在DESIGN-EXPERT软件环境中,采用响应曲面法求取dv(max)d100Dr之间的函数关系。具体步骤如下:(1)将d100Dr作为输入变量,将dv(max)作为输出变量;(2)在d100 = 0.075~60 mm和Dr = 0~1(依据土力学对粗粒土粒组及其密实程度的界定)的取值范围内选取104d100Dr的组合数据;(3)依据上述估算方法求得不同组合下的dv(max)值;(4)利用响应曲面法进行回归分析、比选,求得相关系数R2值最大(R2 = 0.990 5)的含二阶交互项的回归方程如下:
dv(max)=β1d100β2d100Dr
式中:β1β2均为回归方程参数,且β1= 0.272 8,β2= 0.169 7。需注意,这2个参数是通过方差分析确定的,依据P值检验,由于式(2)等号右边第1和2项的P值均小于0.01的显著性水平,因此这两项是显著的。式(2)没有Dr的一阶项,原因在于该一阶项的P值大于0.01,表明该项是不显著的,故应在式(2)中删除该项。采用式(2)可绘制出dv(max)关于d100Dr的响应曲面,如图7所示,由于式(2)是在d100 = 0.075~60 mm和Dr = 0~1的范围求取的,因此该式对粗粒土是适用的。
土工织物滤土性能失效的概率p(ir)(下标(ir)表示滤土失效,下文相同)既可定义为土工织物孔径大于被保护土粒径的概率,亦可定义为土工织物无法保留的土粒含量占比。p(ir)可通过对式(1)所示安全裕度极限状态函数Ms进行蒙特卡洛模拟后采用下式算得,其计算结果会随样本数N增大而收敛:
p(ir)=(Ms0)/N
如节1所述,桥接结构的形成主要受收缩层孔径和土工织物厚度影响。土工织物由若干个平行的收缩层组成,J. P. Giroud[14]给出了收缩层数m的计算公式如下:
m=(t(gt)/d(fb))n(gt)1
式中:d(fb)t(gt)n(gt)分别为土工织物的纤维直径(mm)、厚度(mm)和孔隙率。依据J. P. Giroud[9]n(gt)可表示为
n(gt)=1η(gt)/(ρ(fb)t(gt))
式中:ρ(fb)为土工织物的纤维密度(g/m3),η(gt)为土工织物的单位面积质量(g/m2)。式(4)和(5)仅适用于各向同性、均质且无制造缺陷的土工织物。
本文假定每个收缩层的孔径分布相同,则过滤路径由多个收缩孔径组成,故可将收缩孔径视为随机变量。因此,当收缩层的孔径较小或较大时,通过设置较少或较多的收缩层,均可实现对土粒的保留。然而,要使土工织物同时满足透水性能要求,还需使收缩孔径足够大,此时可能出现细粒的冲刷流失,渗透侵蚀程度随之增强,直至发生渗透破坏。
为限制细粒的过度冲刷流失,从被保护土渗入土工织物的细粒应尽可能地被保留在土工织物中,因此通过能从分界面渗入土工织物的被保护土细粒含量占比亦可算得p(ir)。渗入土工织物的细粒在其厚度范围内的迁移过程中,既可能会被更小的收缩孔隙保留,也可能会流失。由此可见,在被保护土–土工织物系统中,随着被保留的土粒逐渐增多,p(ir)会沿着过滤路径在每个收缩层中逐渐减小,故而在判别土工织物的滤土性能时,需计算第m个收缩层处的p(ir),计算流程如图8所示(图中,GSD为颗粒级配曲线,VSD为孔径分布曲线)。
以含PP-C–200号织物的粗–70号土为例,其p(ir)值随收缩层数的变化曲线如图9所示,被保护土–土工织物分界面处的p(ir) = 0.26,并在前几个收缩层中骤减,之后随着收缩层数量增加而逐渐减缓;此外,被保护土–土工织物系统很难完全保留细粒,即p(ir)≠0。此外,通过调用MATLAB软件中的ecdf函数,可求得保留在土工织物内土粒样本的经验累积分布函数,从而求得淤堵土粒的级配曲线。以含PET-D–400号织物的粗–70号土为例,被保护土流失的和土工织物内淤堵的土粒级配曲线如图10所示。
土工织物孔径分布曲线的试验测定方法可分为2类:其一是测定特征孔径的试验方法,包括干筛法、湿筛法和水力筛分法[46],通过干筛法和湿筛法测得的孔径,即特征孔径O95已广泛用于大多数滤土性能判别方法之中,但其准确度仍有待提升[14]。其二是测定完整孔径分布曲线的试验方法,主要包括压汞试验、毛细流动试验和图像分析法[46],其中以毛细流动试验测得的特征点,即气泡点O98相较于其他2种方法更为准确[47]
除试验测定方法外,J. P. Giroud[14]根据土工织物的物性参数提出了其孔径OF的估算公式:
OF=d(fb)[δ1n(gt)1+ξn(gt)d(fb)t(gt)(1n(gt))]
式中:δξ均为参数,依据J. P. Giroud[14],当采用水力筛分法估算OF时,δξ可分别取1和10。
M. G. Gardoni和E. M. Palmeira[48]发现,从水力坡降比试验所用的无纺土工织物中流失的土粒最大粒径与ξ= 15时采用式(6)所估算的OF密切相关。E. M. Palmeira和H. L. Trejos Galvis[49]发现OF估算值与O98实测值吻合度最优时的参数δξ值取决于聚合物类型和纤维约束。当土工织物较轻时(η(gt)<300 g/m2),聚丙烯纤维土工织物的最优参数组合为ξ= 1和ξ= 12.5,聚酯纤维土工织物的最优参数组合为δ= 1和ξ= 15;当土工织物较重时(η(gt)>300 g/m2),最优参数组合为δ= 1.34和ξ= 15。由此可见,O98可通过土工织物的物性参数(如t(gt)η(gt))以式(6)所示半经验公式估算得到。
由A. H. Aydilek等[7]可知,土工织物的孔径分布大多服从对数正态分布。因此,只要确定对数正态分布中的2个参数(μσ),则可算得土工织物的孔径分布曲线。对数正态分布的累积分布函数可表示为
FX(x)=Φ[(lnxμ)/σ]
μ=lnO98σΦ1(0.98)
σ=ln(1+COV2)
式中:Φ为标准正态分布的累积分布函数。由式(6)可知,当其中的参数δξ采用E. M. Palmeira和H. L. Trejos Galvis[49]所述建议值时,OFO98,进而可通过式(6)计算O98,再将O98值代入式(7b)即可确定参数μ。此外,由式(7c)可知,参数σ可由变异系数COV确定。
整理N. Fatema和S. K. Bhatia[50]所述针刺无纺土工织物的毛细流动试验数据与相应的孔径分布拟合曲线如图11所示,拟合曲线与试验数据吻合度良好。当COV = 35%时,对数正态分布拟合曲线的参数为μ=-2.24和σ= 0.33。为搜索COV的最优估算值,可从N. Fatema和S. K. Bhatia[50]中提取29种无纺土工织物的毛细流动试验数据,绘制了COV的箱型图,如图11所示,COV在26%~42%的范围变化,其平均值为35%。综上所述,当COV =35%且对O98估算后,即可估算得土工织物的孔径分布曲线。
土工织物除需满足滤土性能要求之外,还需满足透水性能与淤堵程度的要求。张 钊[31]基于水–土相互作用原理[27-28]和水动力学理论推导出了粗粒反滤料透水性能的判别公式k(f)/k(s)i(s),本文将其推广至淤堵不显著的内部稳定土–土工织物系统:
k(gt)/k(s)i(s)
式中:k(gt)为初始土工织物的渗透系数,k(s)为初始被保护土在重新分级前的渗透系数,i(s)为被保护土的水力坡降。
若在被保护土和土工织物分界面处形成桥接结构后,这两者的渗透系数可测得,则式(8)亦可推广至内部不稳定土。由T. Nishigata等[17]所述试验研究表明:对内部不稳定土而言,当其与土工织物的分界面处形成桥接结构或“滤饼”时,被保护土内土粒运动显著的区域较薄(<10 mm)。由于被保护土层的厚度(>100 mm)相对于土粒显著运动区域更大,故而在式(8)中考虑初始被保护土的渗透系数是合理的。然而,土工织物的淤堵程度与其滤土效能和渗透特性密切相关。可见,在判别内部不稳定土–土工织物系统的透水性能时,还需考虑土工织物内的局部淤堵,故这里将式(8)中的k(gt)更换为k(gc)得到:
k(gc)/k(s)i(s)
式中:k(gc)为局部淤堵的土工织物渗透系数。
关于初始的无纺土工织物的渗透系数k(gt),J. P. Giroud[14]通过Kozeny-Carman公式推得其计算公式可表示为
k(gt)=λρwgn(gt)3d(fb)2/[16ηw(1+n(gt))2]
式中:ρwηw分别为水的密度和黏度;g为重力加速度;λ为考虑孔隙连通和迂曲程度的量纲一参数,对无纺土工织物取0.1。由J. Giroud[51]可知,当无纺土工织物出现局部淤堵时,假定淤堵土粒松散地分布于土工织物内,则其渗透系数可表示为
k(gc)=λρwg(n(gt)+χn(s)1)3ηw[4(1n(gt))/d(fb)+6(1χn(s))/d(c)]
式中:d(c)为淤堵土粒直径;n(s)为被保护土的孔隙率,B. Åberg[52]基于通过颗粒介质的无限条平行直线相交的随机概念,推导出了土孔隙率的理论计算公式,综合考虑了土颗粒级配曲线、土粒形状和相对密实度Dr的影响,如下式所示:
n(s)=2cg(A0/B0)+2dg1+2cg(A0/B0)+2dg
A0=01{y/[x(y)]}dy
B0=01[x(y)]1dy
式中:xy分别为颗粒级配曲线中的粒径和相应的过筛率;dg为与相对密实度Dr有关的参数,当Dr = 0和1时,dg分别取0和0.18;cg为与土粒形状有关的参数,对球体颗粒cg≈0.6,对河砂cg≈0.75,对碎石cg≈1[52]χ为从被保护土的孔隙率n(s)到土工织物内的淤堵土粒孔隙率n(cs)的修正系数,该参数随土工织物的孔隙率n(gt)及其滤土失效概率p(ir)变化。为此,本文依据以下3个约束条件:(1) n(cs)应小于1;(2)当淤堵程度最小(即p(ir) = 0)时,n(cs)最大;(3)当n(gt)最大时,n(cs)最小,求得了参数χ的经验公式如下:
χ=1.350.35p(ir)n(gt)
至于被保护土的渗透系数k(s),本文采用祝良玉[53]所述基于水–土相互作用理论推导出的渗透系数理论公式进行计算:
k(s)=[Csnγwrminrmaxg(r)r4dr]/[8μwrminrmaxg(r)r2dr]
Cs=1.5/(Cc0.386Cu)
式中:g(r)为孔径分布密度函数,rmaxrmin分别为孔隙的最大、最小半径(μm);n为孔隙率;μw为水动力黏度(Pa·s);γw为水的容重(N/m3);Cs为描述土孔隙界面不规则形状和几何特征的参数。式(14a)所示计算渗透系数k的理论公式,取决于孔径分布和孔隙率。至于被保护土的孔径分布曲线,可采用张 钊[31]所述方法,通过易测的颗粒级配曲线和相对密实度估算得到。
p(ir)是被保护土–分界面处能否形成桥接结构的关键性能指标。通过计算已进行试验评估的含土工织物土柱的p(ir),可确定桥接结构形成过程中出现破坏的界限状态。计算p(ir)所需的数据包括被保护土的颗粒级配曲线和相对密实度Dr、土工织物的单位面积质量η(gt)、厚度t(gt)、纤维密度ρ(fb)、纤维直径d(fb)
通过对16组含土工织物的土柱在常水头条件下的水力坡降比试验结果,并结合J. Lafleur等[68172554-55]所述不同种含土工织物的土柱试验结果验证本文提出的滤土性能判别方法的有效性。随着试验时间的推移,若k持续减小或HGR逐渐增大超过3,则表明该织物内发生了堵塞或闭塞,即可判定其透水性能失效;若kHGR持续增大或减小,且集取的细粒冲刷流失量大于2 500 g/m2,则表明该土柱出现严重潜蚀,土工织物的滤土性能失效;若观测到土柱的HGR始终小于3并处于稳定状态,则表明其与土工织物的分界面处形成了有效的桥接结构且未发生淤堵,从而满足性能要求,属性能有效。
J. Lafleur等[68172554-55]提供了69组试验数据,包括48组性能有效、14组发生堵塞或闭塞、7组发生潜蚀的数据,用于划分土工织物滤土性能失效概率p(ir)的界限。对这69组与本文16组试验数据可算得不同O95/d85对应的滤土性能失效概率p(ir),如图12所示,每个数据点的颜色表示其试验评估的结果:蓝色为性能有效,棕色为堵塞或闭塞(失效),红色为潜蚀(失效);数据点形状代表了不同文献来源,其中空心和实心符号分别表示土柱内部不稳定与内部稳定。图12(a)中还列出了O95d85判别方法(如S. K. Bhatia和Q. Huang[10]所述)对这85组试验的判定结果,并与本文判别方法进行了对比。需注意的是,关于特征粒径d85的确定,依据J. P. Giroud[9]可知,当被保护土属于宽级配型或不连续级配型时,该粒径分别取自4.75 mm或最小间断粒径处重新分级的颗粒级配曲线。
对这85组数据进行判别的目的在于确定已形成桥接结构的有效土工织物的p(ir)界限,以便在设计土工织物时提供重要的参考建议。依据J. Lafleur[6]开展的土–反滤料试验结果所总结出的被保护土发生潜蚀破坏的判据(适用于土工织物和粗粒反滤料)——当细粒冲刷流失量大于2 500 g/m2时,可认为反滤料的滤土性能失效。基于此界限值,通过蒙特卡洛模拟方法求得相应的滤土失效概率约为0.75,故而将p(ir)>0.75划分为反滤料的滤土失效区;此外,依据K. K. Phoon[56]可知,岩土工程可靠度分析和设计方法一般将失效概率 = 0.5定义为工程安全界限,故而将p(ir)<0.5设置为有效区,基于该界限值通过蒙特卡洛模拟方法算得细粒冲刷流失量约为1 000 g/m2。如图12(a)所示,依据滤土失效概率可划分3个区域,即有效区(p(ir)<0.5)、过渡区(p(ir) = 0.5~0.75)和失效区(p(ir)>0.75),其中过渡区表示细粒冲刷流失量超过1 000 g/m2而又小于2 500 g/m2,此时对土工织物性能判别的有效性还受其他因素影响,需依据具体试验观察进行验证。
图12(a)所示,O95d85方法[10]采用O95/d85 = 1所示竖向分界线来判别滤土性能,分界线的左侧区域为有效区、其右侧区域为失效区。而本文方法所有潜蚀型失效的数据点均位于p(ir) = 0.75所示分界线以上,且性能有效的数据点大部分在p(ir) = 0.5以下,少部分位于0.5~0.75范围。对O95d85判别方法,虽然所有性能失效的数据点位于O95/d85 = 1所示竖向分界线的右侧,但同时有15个性能有效的数据点被该方法判定为滤土性能失效,这与O95d85判别方法是相悖的。可见,本文方法在划分性能有效和潜蚀型失效的准确程度优于O95d85方法。
此外,还可对比分析本文方法与Bhatia方法[10]、CFEM方法[11]和Giroud方法[9]在判别滤土性能时的有效性,如图12(b)~(d)所示,因这3种判别方法根据被保护土的颗粒级配曲线、相对密实度Dr和土工织物的物性参数有关,判别公式中的变量ϑdy取值方法见J. P. Giroud等[9-11],故图12(b)~(d)中的横坐标轴均为O95/(ϑdy),进而采用Bhatia方法[10]、CFEM方法[11]和Giroud方法[9]中的O95/ (ϑdy)= 1所示竖向分界线划分滤土性能的有效区和失效区,亦如图12(b)~(d)所示。Bhatia方法[10]仅将2个性能有效的数据点判定为失效;CFEM方法[11]将2个性能失效的数据点判定为性能有效,将13个性能有效的数据点判定为性能失效;Giroud方法[9]将20个性能有效的数据点判定为性能失效,均与这2种判别方法相悖。
不仅如此,还可对比本文方法与这4种现有方法的判别结果偏差率,如图13所示。本文方法在判别这85组含土工织物土柱滤土性能时未出现判别偏差;其他4种方法均存在2.4%~23.5%的总偏差率,甚至CFEM方法[11]还存在2.4%的性能失效判别偏差率,其主要原因在于:这4种现有方法均未考虑被保护土的颗粒级配曲线和土工织物的孔径分布曲线,仅以这两者的特征粒径和特征孔径的不同形式比值进行判别。相比之下,本文方法综合考虑了被保护土的颗粒级配曲线和土工织物的孔径分布曲线形状,并结合概率统计分析,有效提升了对滤土性能的判别准确度。
由式(9)可知,若含土工织物的土柱满足k(gc)/k(s)i(s)的条件,则可满足其透水性能和淤堵程度的要求。因此,对上述85组已进行试验评估的含土工织物土柱,通过估算其k(gc)/k(s)值来确定其透水性能的界限状态(即堵塞或闭塞的发生),进而分别采用式(11)和(14a)计算k(gc)k(s),再整理不同O95/d15对应的k(gc)/k(s)值,如图14所示。
图14(a)可以看出,当k(gc)/k(s)<1时,含土工织物的土柱会出现堵塞或闭塞。然而,这些含土工织物的土柱是水力坡降在2~8范围进行试验评估的。因此,当设定的水力坡降<8时,若k(gc)/k(s)>1,则可认为堵塞或闭塞是有限的。图14(a)O95/d15 = 3处的竖向分界线描述了Holtz淤堵判别方法[2],分界线的左侧区域为性能失效区、其右侧区域为性能有效区。不仅如此,除一组数据外,其余出现堵塞或闭塞的含土工织物土柱数据均低于k(gc)/k(s) = 1的界限。然而,Holtz淤堵判别方法将2组出现堵塞或闭塞的数据判定为性能有效,将36组性能有效的数据判定为失效。这与该判别方法是相悖的。相比之下,k(gc)/k(s)可更为准确地将区分性能有效和堵塞或闭塞型失效。此外,还可对比分析本文方法与Loudiere方法[13]、Christopher方法[12]在判别透水性能和淤堵程度时的有效性,如图14(b)所示,本文方法因考虑了出现局部淤堵的土工织物渗透系数k(gc),对性能有效和堵塞或闭塞型失效的划分准确度,优于仅考虑初始土工织物渗透系数的方法k(gt)/k(s)>γ
不仅如此,还可对比本文方法与这3种现有方法的判别结果偏差率,如图15所示,本文方法对这85组含土工织物土柱的透水性能进行判别时,以5.9%的总偏差率和1.2%的性能失效判别偏差率均低于其他3种方法;其他3种方法不仅总偏差率较高,而且存在2.4%~9.4%的性能失效判别偏差率,其主要原因在于:现有方法仅考虑被保护土特征粒径、土工织物特征孔径或土工织物的初始渗透系数。而本文方法进一步引入土工织物出现淤堵后渗透系数,显著提升了透水性能的判别准确度。
土工织物作为反滤料需要同时满足滤土、透水性能和淤堵程度的要求,其设计内容主要包括对土工织物的特征孔径O95、单位面积质量η(gt)、厚度t(gt)的选取,旨在满足本文判别方法所提出的渗透稳定性能要求——p(ir)<0.75和k(gc)/k(s)>1。基于本文判别方法对土工织物的设计流程如图16所示(dg为间断粒径),主要以被保护土的颗粒级配分布和土工织物的孔径分布为基础,具体从以下4个步骤实现:
(1)依据被保护土的颗粒级配曲线和相对密实度,先判断其内部稳定性:若其内部稳定,则分离粒径d*取最大粒径d100;若其内部不稳定,再判断颗粒级配是否连续,若连续,则d*取最大孔径dv(max);若不连续,则d*取间断粒径dg。进而在小于d*的范围内对颗粒级配曲线重新分级。
(2)土工织物的孔径分布曲线可通过毛细流动试验或统计方法求得,若采用概率统计方法,则可假定土工织物的孔径分布服从式(7a)所示对数正态分布,进而分别采用式(7b)和(7c)计算均值μ和方差σ
(3)从被保护土重新分级的颗粒级配曲线和土工织物的孔径分布曲线中提取样本(>105),采用蒙特卡洛模拟分别确定被保留的、淤堵在土工织物第m个收缩层之内的、冲刷流失的土粒样本,通过m个收缩层未能保留的土粒样本数与模拟样本总数之比算得滤土性能失效概率p(ir)
(4)通过求取土工织物内土粒样本的累积分布经验函数,即可确定淤堵土粒的级配曲线。假定土工织物内的土粒呈松散分布,进而采用式(11)求得出现淤堵的土工织物的渗透系数k(gc)。初始的土工织物和被保护土的渗透系数(k(gt)k(s))分别采用式(10)和(14a)算得。最后依据式(8)和(9)所示透水性能及淤堵程度的判别公式,结合滤土失效概率p(ir)的界限值,综合判别所选土工织物的渗透稳定性能是否满足要求。
依据节5所述85组已进行试验评估的含土工织物的土柱数据,验证本文判别方法的设计结果有效性,如图17所示,依据判别方法将k(gc)/k(s)-p(ir)坐标系划分为6个区域:性能有效区、过渡区、潜蚀区、潜蚀或淤堵区、堵塞区和闭塞区。性能有效区内的含土工织物土柱可同时满足滤土、透水性能和淤堵程度的要求;潜蚀区的含土工织物土柱不稳定,其细粒冲刷流失量将超过2 500 g/m2时,不满足滤土性能要求;过渡区的含土工织物土柱可能略微不稳定,其细粒冲刷流失量可能超过1 000 g/m2;堵塞区或闭塞区内的含土工织物土柱的水力坡降比HGR可能超过3,并因土工织物可能出现淤堵而使其流速显著减小;在潜蚀或淤堵区,含土工织物土柱的失效类型取决于试验观测结果;闭塞区采用p(ir)<0.05和k(gc)/k(s)<1确定,表明被保护土的粒径几乎大于土工织物的孔径,难以进入土工织物内部故积聚在其表面,而发生堵塞和潜蚀的可能性很小,该区域内的含土工织物土柱的透水性能受式(8)所示k(gt)/k(s)i(s)控制。
基于本文判别方法对土工织物的设计同时适用于内部稳定土和不稳定土。该方法是以被保护土的颗粒级配曲线和土工织物的孔径分布曲线为基础,对现有判别方法进行了改进。因此,该方法不仅受被保护土的颗粒级配曲线形状影响,而且也受土工织物的厚度、单位面积质量和纤维直径等物性参数影响。除此之外,本文假定土工织物每个收缩层的孔径分布是相同的,又因孔径是随机变量,故过滤路径由多个收缩孔径构成。该假定是通过对随机直径的土粒渗入随机直径的收缩孔隙过程类比得到的,而构成过滤路径的多个收缩孔径样本是由实测或统计估算的孔径分布曲线生成的。
基于本文判别方法的设计目的在于选取位于图17所示性能有效区内(p(ir)<0.5且k(gc)/k(s)>1)的土工织物。若土工织物满足k(gt)/k(s)i(s),则位于闭塞区的土工织物也是可以接受的。若被保护土–土工织物系统可能出现内部侵蚀,则建议选取同时满足透水性能要求和p(ir)<0.5条件的土工织物,方可使细粒冲刷流失量低于1 000 g/m2
采用式(10)和(11)对无纺土工织物渗透系数的计算时,假定土工织物的约束条件是相同的[15],因此在本文判别方法中未考虑土工织物约束条件的影响,有待进一步研究。
本文方法虽对土工织物的物理淤堵程度的判别准确度较现有方法做了改进,却未考虑土工织物的化学或生物淤堵。然而,在干旱地区的农田暗管排水[57]、垃圾填埋场的渗滤液收集系统[58]等工程措施中,土工织物作为反滤料常遇到盐分沉淀造成的化学淤堵或微生物的附着、生长和繁殖引起的生物淤堵。在暗管排水过程中,由于物理淤堵与化学淤堵之间存在相互促进作用[57],因此在淤堵程度的评判过程中,如何综合考虑这两者的相互影响,值得深入研究。不仅如此,在渗滤液的收集系统中,生物膜的形成对土工织物的渗透稳定性能影响显著,而且生物堵塞现象实质上是微生物活动的结果[58],因此,在本文的判别方法中,如何量化生物淤堵程度,同样值得深入研究。
此外,如张 昭等[45]所述,土工织物作为反滤料在实际工程中还可能承受循环往复水流这种动态水力荷载,多发生在护坡、护岸、码头等工程中,土工织物常处于诸如波浪荷载或水位频繁涨落的工况下,此时,在被保护土–土工织物分界面处不易形成桥接结构,土粒更易发生移动,从而削弱土工织物的渗透稳定性能,更易诱发被保护土的渗透侵蚀破坏。本文虽未考虑循环往复水流条件,但这种水力荷载下的含土工织物土柱水力坡降比试验是值得深入研究的。由于这种循环往复水流和单向水流差异显著,故应对本文的水力坡降比试验装置进行改进,旨在可施加循环往复水流条件,从而研究循环往复水流作用下,含土工织物土柱在不同周期和水力坡降下的渗透稳定性能判别方法。
节2试验所选取的4种土工织物的渗透稳定性能所存在的差异主要表现为以下3方面:
(1)关于原料:对比本文选取的PP-C–400和PET-C–400两种土工织物,当其加固与成网方法和单位面积质量相同时,PP-C–400织物具有更大的纤维密度、纤维直径、等效孔径,同时孔隙率也略大于PET-C–400织物,从而使前者的孔径分布曲线高于后者,可保留更多的土粒而不发生淤堵。如表4所示,虽然在4种土的试验评估结果中,PP- C–400织物的细粒冲刷流失量略大于PET-C–400织物,但都远小于发生潜蚀的流失量(2 500 g/m2)。不仅如此,聚丙烯纤维(PP)因其疏水性能优于聚酯纤维(PET)[59]而更易透水。此外,虽然PP-C–400织物在试验前的渗透系数低于PET-C–400织物,但由节2.2试验结果可知:当这2种织物发生淤堵时,前者的k(gc)明显高于后者,并且如图5(g)所示,而后者的水力坡降比(HGR)增幅大于前者。土工织物若以PP为原料,相较于PET为原料时的强度更高、耐酸腐蚀性、耐磨性和耐低温性更优、芯吸效应更显著、透水性更强、比重更轻、相同质量时的纤维更多[43]。因此,PP-C–400的综合性能优于PET-C–400。
(2)关于加固与成网方法:对比本文选取的PET-D–400和PET-C–400两种土工织物,这两者分别采用了短丝和长丝工艺,前者相较于后者的纤维密度更大、厚度更小、孔隙率更大。此外,前者因其纤维更短致使其孔径分布更不均匀,其纤维之间更易发生接触和摩擦而使其表面更为粗糙,故由表4可知,前者较后者更易于吸附细粒、形成“滤饼”、产生闭塞。当水力坡降较大且使用时间较长时,前者的渗透稳定性能会受到更为显著的不良影响,故而远不如后者[43]。相比之下,长丝土工织物使用寿命长,适用于对于土工织物性能要求严格且维护周期长的工程。
(3)关于单位面积质量,对比本文所选取的PP-C–400和PP-C–200两种土工织物,由表4可知,虽然2种土工织物与细–3号土、细–15号土和细–60号土的试验结果均为性能有效,但实际效果却差异显著。采用后者在与细粒含量较多的细–60号土和内部不稳定的粗–70号土开展试验后,其HGR稳定值和细粒冲刷流失量均明显高于前者,这与本文判别方法计算的p(ir)也相符合。可见,试验结果与本文判别方法均表明:土工织物的单位面积质量越大,则其滤土性能越强、淤堵程度越小。究其原因在于:土工织物的密度和厚度随其单位面积质量增大均呈递增趋势,从而使细粒穿过土工织物时被保留的概率显著增大,既减小冲刷流失量,也不积聚在其表面。此外,土工织物因其厚度增加而使其所能容纳的土粒含量显著增多,降低了对其透水性能的影响。
综合本文方法的判别与试验结果,PP-C–400号土工织物在所比选的10种织物中,渗透稳定性能最优、耐久性最强,不仅能协同发挥其滤土和透水效能,将其淤堵程度控制在工程实际可接受的范围内,而且增大其单位面积质量能够提升其性能。可见,聚丙烯纤维长丝土工织物在高水力坡降、长服役周期等复杂水环境中能够有效提升工程的整体性能、延长其使用寿命。因此,在对反滤料性能要求严格且服役周期长的复杂工程中,建议优先选取单位面积质量较大的这类土工织物。
土工织物已广泛应用于反滤料设计中,然而,在判别土工织物的渗透稳定性能时,如何同时满足其滤土和透水性能及其淤堵程度的要求,亟待深入研究。为此,本文以水–土相互作用理论为基础,采用土工织物的物性试验、土柱的渗透试验、概率统计分析等手段开展研究,主要得出以下结论:
(1)通过土工织物的物性试验选取了4种典型的无纺土工织物为研究对象,进而在常水头条件下开展了16组含土工织物土柱的水力坡降比试验,通过测算其渗透系数、平衡时的水力坡降比和细粒冲刷流失量,从试验角度判定其渗透稳定性能。
(2)以被保护土的粒径和土工织物的孔径为随机变量,提出了基于失效概率p(ir)的土工织物滤土性能判别方法,进而依据现有文献和本文试验评估的85组含土工织物土柱数据划分了滤土性能界限,结果表明:p(ir)应小于0.75,方可保证细粒冲刷流失量超过2 500 g/m2的潜蚀不会发生。
(3)当土工织物表面形成桥接结构时,采用其内部出现淤堵后的渗透系数比值k(gc)/k(s)判定其透水性能及其局部淤堵程度,结果发现:若被保护土–土工织物系统的k(gc)/k(s)>1,则可认为该系统很难出现堵塞和闭塞;当p(ir)<0.05时,该系统可能发生闭塞,此时的透水性能需满足k(gt)/k(s)i(s)的要求。
(4)将p(ir)k(gc)/k(s)相结合的土工织物性能判别方法应用于反滤料设计中,结果表明:本文方法对性能有效和堵塞或闭塞型失效的划分准确度优于现有方法,在设计时建议选取单位面积质量较大的聚丙烯纤维长丝土工织物作为反滤料。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(42372336; 41877278)
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2026年第45卷第2期
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doi: 10.3724/1000-6915.jrme.2025.0521
  • 接收时间:2025-07-21
  • 首发时间:2026-06-18
  • 出版时间:2026-02-01
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  • 收稿日期:2025-07-21
  • 修回日期:2025-09-22
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(42372336; 41877278)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(42372336; 41877278)
作者信息
    1.西安理工大学 土木建筑工程学院,陕西 西安 710048
    2.西安理工大学 旱区水工程生态环境全国重点实验室,陕西 西安 710048
    3.中建三局一公司马来西亚公司,马来西亚 吉隆坡 50000

通讯作者:

* 张昭(1983–),现任教授,主要从事非饱和土与特殊土的细–宏观水力与力学特性方面的教学与研究工作。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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