Article(id=1315718841515225203, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, issueId=1315718825799168011, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.20260022, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1783267200000, receivedDateStr=2026-07-06, revisedDate=1788451200000, revisedDateStr=2026-09-04, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1791621416690, onlineDateStr=2026-10-10, pubDate=1789833600000, pubDateStr=2026-09-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1791621416690, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-10, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1791621416690, creator=system, updateTime=1791621416690, updator=system, issue=Issue{id=1315718825799168011, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, year='2026', volume='5', issue='3', pageStart='4', pageEnd='140', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1789833600000', pubDateStr='2026-09-20', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1791621412943, creator='system', updateTime=1791623747519, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1315728617838068612, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, issueId=1315718825799168011, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1315728617838068613, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, issueId=1315718825799168011, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=56, endPage=69, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1315718841922072692, articleId=1315718841515225203, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, language=EN, title=Institutional Roots, Operating Mechanisms, and Evolutionary Trends of the American-style “Whole-of-Nation System”, columnId=1278659626640052268, journalTitle=Science and Technology Foresight, columnName=Special Topic, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The American-style “whole-of-nation system” as conceptualized in this article refers to the mission-oriented capacity for national mobilization through which the United States, centering on specific national strategic missions, leverages statutory authorization, budgetary allocation, procurement traction, R&D support, and industrial policy to coordinate diverse forces including the public sector, enterprises, universities, research institutions, capital markets, and allied networks. Its intellectual antecedents can be traced to Hamiltonian statecraft of the late eighteenth century, and its modern institutional form took shape with the Manhattan Project in the 1940s. Institutionally, it rests on the configuration of war powers, fiscal powers, the power to regulate commerce, and presidential executive authority established under the Constitution of the United States. Operationally, it functions through a chain of “objective legitimization−resource concentration−demand signaling−mission-oriented problem-solving organization−achievement socialization,” promoting the coordinated allocation of diverse actors and resources around national missions. From the Manhattan Project and the Apollo Program to the Artemis Program and the Genesis Mission, the United States has repeatedly adopted an organizational model that combines relatively centralized objectives and resources with decentralized competition among implementing actors and technological trajectories. An in-depth study of the institutional foundations, operating mechanisms, and evolutionary trends of the American-style “whole-of-nation system” can provide important references for China to improve its new system for mobilizing resources nationvoide and further harness the complementary strengths of the government, market, and society.

, authors=Guangrong YOU1, Ming CHEN2, *, Mengjiao HE2, Yahong WANG1, authorsList=Guangrong YOU, Ming CHEN, Mengjiao HE, Yahong WANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Ming CHEN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2026 Science and Technology Foresight. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1315718843880812667, articleId=1315718841515225203, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, language=CN, title=美式“举国体制”的制度根源、运行机制与演变趋势, columnId=1278659626858156078, journalTitle=前瞻科技, columnName=专题, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

文章所称美式“举国体制”,是指美国围绕特定国家战略任务,以法定授权、预算配置、采购牵引、研发支持和产业政策为杠杆,联动公共部门、企业、高校、科研机构、资本市场及盟友网络等多元力量所形成的任务型国家动员能力。美式“举国体制”从18世纪末的汉密尔顿主义开始萌芽,于20世纪40年代的“曼哈顿计划”成型。它的制度根源在于美国宪法所确立的战争权、财政权、商业规制权与总统行政权构成的权力组合,运行层面依托“目标合法化−资源集中化−需求信号化−攻关组织化−成果社会化”机制链条,推动多元主体和资源围绕国家任务协同配置。从“曼哈顿计划”、“阿波罗计划”到“阿尔忒弥斯计划”和“创世纪计划”,美国围绕重大国家任务形成了目标和资源相对集中、执行主体和技术路线分散竞争的组织方式。深入研究美式“举国体制”的制度根源、运行机制与演变趋势,可以为我国完善新型举国体制,进一步发挥政府、市场和社会的协同优势提供有益借鉴。

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游光荣,研究员。主要从事管理科学与工程、军事评估、体系工程等研究。电子信箱:

陈明,博士研究生。主要从事国防经济学、军费资源配置等研究。电子信箱:。

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(2018-08-13)[2026-09-01]. https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/international/the-committee-on-foreign-investment-in-the-united-states-cfius/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217179140178, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[32], rfOrder=45, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Bureau of Industry and Security. Addition of entities to the entity list: Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. and affiliates[EB/OL]. (2019-05-21)[2026-09-01]. https://www.bis.gov/84-fr-22961-addition-entities-entity-list., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217242054739, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[33], rfOrder=46, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Bureau of Industry and Security. Huawei entity list frequently asked questions (FAQs)[EB/OL]. (2020-12-03)[2026-09-01]. https://www.bis.gov/media/documents/dec-3-2020-update-huawei-entity-listing-faqs-posting.pdf., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217313357908, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[34], rfOrder=47, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=National Institute of Standards and Technology. Biden-Harris administration announces final national security guardrails for CHIPS for America incentives program[EB/OL]. (2023-09-22)[2026-09-01]. https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2023/09/biden-harris-administration-announces-final-national-security-guardrails., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217397243989, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[35], rfOrder=48, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Bureau of Industry and Security. Commerce implements new export controls on advanced computing and semiconductor manufacturing items to the People’s Republic of China (PRC)[EB/OL]. (2022-10-07)[2026-09-01]. https://www.bis.gov/press-release/commerce-implements-new-export-controls-advanced-computing-semiconductor-manufacturing-items-peoples., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217481130070, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[36], rfOrder=49, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=U. S. Department of the Treasury. Outbound investment security program[EB/OL]. (2024-10-28)[2026-09-01]. https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/international/outbound-investment-program., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217544044631, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[37], rfOrder=50, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Bureau of Industry and Security. Commerce strengthens export controls to restrict China’s capability to produce advanced semiconductors for military applications[EB/OL]. (2024-12-02)[2026-08-26]. https://www.bis.gov/press-release/commerce-strengthens-export-controls-restrict-chinas-capability-produce-advanced-semiconductors-military., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217632125016, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[38], rfOrder=51, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. America first investment policy[EB/OL]. (2025-02-21)[2026-09-01]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/02/america-first-investment-policy/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217711816793, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[39], rfOrder=52, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. Regulating imports with a reciprocal tariff to rectify trade practices that contribute to large and persistent annual United States goods trade deficits[EB/OL]. (2025-04-02)[2026-09-01]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/04/regulating-imports-with-a-reciprocal-tariff-to-rectify-trade-practices-that-contribute-to-large-and-persistent-annual-united-states-goods-trade-deficits/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217816674394, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[40], rfOrder=53, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Supreme Court of the United States. Learning Resources, Inc. v. Trump, Nos. 24-1287 and 25-250[EB/OL]. (2026-02-20)[2026-09-03]. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/25pdf/24-1287_4gcj.pdf., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217904754779, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[41], rfOrder=54, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. Ending certain tariff actions[EB/OL]. (2026-02-20)[2026-09-03]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2026/02/ending-certain-tariff-actions/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449217980252252, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[42], rfOrder=55, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co., Ltd. TSMC intends to expand its investment in the United States to US$165 billion to power the future of AI[EB/OL]. (2025-03-04)[2026-09-12]. https://pr.tsmc.com/english/news/3210., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218064138333, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[43], rfOrder=56, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. Immediate measures to increase American mineral production[EB/OL]. (2025-03-20)[2026-04-26]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/immediate-measures-to-increase-american-mineral-production/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218131247198, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[44], rfOrder=57, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. White House unveils America’s AI action plan[EB/OL]. (2025-07-23)[2026-09-02]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/releases/2025/07/white-house-unveils-americas-ai-action-plan/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218215133279, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[45], rfOrder=58, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. Launching the Genesis Mission[EB/OL]. (2025-11-24)[2026-09-02]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/11/launching-the-genesis-mission/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218278047840, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[46], rfOrder=59, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=U. S. Department of Energy. The Genesis Mission[EB/OL]. [2026-09-03]. https://www.energy.gov/undersecretaryforscience/genesis-mission/genesis-mission., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218429042785, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[47], rfOrder=60, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. National security science and technology strategy[EB/OL]. (2026-08)[2026-09-12]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/NSSTS-082026.pdf., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218512928866, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[48], rfOrder=61, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Chief Digital and Artificial Intelligence Office. CDAO announces partnerships with frontier AI companies to address national security mission areas[EB/OL]. (2025-07-14)[2026-09-02]. https://www.ai.mil/News/PR-View/Article/4242822/cdao-announces-partnerships-with-frontier-ai-companies-to-address-national-secu/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218580037731, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[49], rfOrder=62, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=National Science Foundation. Fiscal year 2026 budget request to Congress[EB/OL]. (2025-05-02)[2026-09-03]. https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2026., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218768781412, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[50], rfOrder=63, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=National Science Foundation. Fiscal year 2027 budget request to Congress[EB/OL]. (2026-04-03)[2026-09-12]. https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2027., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449218907193445, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[51], rfOrder=64, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=The White House. Ushering in the next frontier of quantum innovation[EB/OL]. (2026-06-22)[2026-09-12]. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2026/06/ushering-in-the-next-frontier-of-quantum-innovation/., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449220110958694, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[52], rfOrder=65, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=杜辉, 杨文奕, 郭筱曦. “阿尔忒弥斯”计划国际合作模式与协议体系分析[J]. 中国航天, 2025(9): 27-34., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1316449220190650471, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[52], rfOrder=66, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Du H, Yang W Y, Guo X X. Analysis of the international cooperation model and agreement framework of the Artemis Program[J]. Aerospace China, 2025(9): 27-34. 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阶段划分触发情境政策工具组织形态标志性案例
18世纪末至二战前国家建设与外部依赖关税、信用、基础设施与教育政策联邦发展主义《制造业报告》
二战时期总体战战争生产、科研组织、工业转产应急总体战动员“曼哈顿计划”
冷战前中期科技与航天竞争国防预算、科研合同、教育投入“科技−工业”动员DARPA, NASA
“阿波罗计划”
冷战中后期至全球化长期国家安全竞争国防采购、科研资助、国家实验室隐性产业政策军事−工业网络
金融危机后至特朗普政府第一任期前制造业衰退与产业竞争先进制造、清洁能源、制造创新网络显性产业政策(开始回归)Manufacturing USA
特朗普政府第一任期大国战略竞争301关税、投资审查、实体清单、FDPR“内促外限”初步成型FIRRMA, 华为实体清单与FDPR管制
拜登政府时期供应链与科技竞争产业激励、出口管制、对外投资审查、联盟协同制度化
联盟化
CHIPS法案、先进计算管制
), ArticleFig(id=1316449211898511393, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1315718841515225203, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

美式“举国体制”的主要演变阶段

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
阶段划分触发情境政策工具组织形态标志性案例
18世纪末至二战前国家建设与外部依赖关税、信用、基础设施与教育政策联邦发展主义《制造业报告》
二战时期总体战战争生产、科研组织、工业转产应急总体战动员“曼哈顿计划”
冷战前中期科技与航天竞争国防预算、科研合同、教育投入“科技−工业”动员DARPA, NASA
“阿波罗计划”
冷战中后期至全球化长期国家安全竞争国防采购、科研资助、国家实验室隐性产业政策军事−工业网络
金融危机后至特朗普政府第一任期前制造业衰退与产业竞争先进制造、清洁能源、制造创新网络显性产业政策(开始回归)Manufacturing USA
特朗普政府第一任期大国战略竞争301关税、投资审查、实体清单、FDPR“内促外限”初步成型FIRRMA, 华为实体清单与FDPR管制
拜登政府时期供应链与科技竞争产业激励、出口管制、对外投资审查、联盟协同制度化
联盟化
CHIPS法案、先进计算管制
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美式“举国体制”的制度根源、运行机制与演变趋势
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游光荣 1 , 陈明 2, * , 何梦娇 2 , 王亚红 1
前瞻科技 | 专题 2026,5(3): 56-69
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前瞻科技 | 专题 2026, 5(3): 56-69
美式“举国体制”的制度根源、运行机制与演变趋势
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游光荣1 , 陈明2, * , 何梦娇2, 王亚红1
作者信息
  • 1军事科学院战略评估咨询中心, 北京 100091
  • 2军事科学院研究生院, 北京 100091
  • 游光荣,研究员。主要从事管理科学与工程、军事评估、体系工程等研究。电子信箱:

    陈明,博士研究生。主要从事国防经济学、军费资源配置等研究。电子信箱:。

通信作者:

Institutional Roots, Operating Mechanisms, and Evolutionary Trends of the American-style “Whole-of-Nation System”
Guangrong YOU1 , Ming CHEN2, * , Mengjiao HE2, Yahong WANG1
Affiliations
  • 1Strategic Assessment and Consulting Center, Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing 100091, China
  • 2Graduate School, Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing 100091, China
出版时间: 2026-09-20 doi: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.20260022
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文章所称美式“举国体制”,是指美国围绕特定国家战略任务,以法定授权、预算配置、采购牵引、研发支持和产业政策为杠杆,联动公共部门、企业、高校、科研机构、资本市场及盟友网络等多元力量所形成的任务型国家动员能力。美式“举国体制”从18世纪末的汉密尔顿主义开始萌芽,于20世纪40年代的“曼哈顿计划”成型。它的制度根源在于美国宪法所确立的战争权、财政权、商业规制权与总统行政权构成的权力组合,运行层面依托“目标合法化−资源集中化−需求信号化−攻关组织化−成果社会化”机制链条,推动多元主体和资源围绕国家任务协同配置。从“曼哈顿计划”、“阿波罗计划”到“阿尔忒弥斯计划”和“创世纪计划”,美国围绕重大国家任务形成了目标和资源相对集中、执行主体和技术路线分散竞争的组织方式。深入研究美式“举国体制”的制度根源、运行机制与演变趋势,可以为我国完善新型举国体制,进一步发挥政府、市场和社会的协同优势提供有益借鉴。

举国体制  /  国家安全  /  国家动员  /  科技创新  /  产业政策

The American-style “whole-of-nation system” as conceptualized in this article refers to the mission-oriented capacity for national mobilization through which the United States, centering on specific national strategic missions, leverages statutory authorization, budgetary allocation, procurement traction, R&D support, and industrial policy to coordinate diverse forces including the public sector, enterprises, universities, research institutions, capital markets, and allied networks. Its intellectual antecedents can be traced to Hamiltonian statecraft of the late eighteenth century, and its modern institutional form took shape with the Manhattan Project in the 1940s. Institutionally, it rests on the configuration of war powers, fiscal powers, the power to regulate commerce, and presidential executive authority established under the Constitution of the United States. Operationally, it functions through a chain of “objective legitimization−resource concentration−demand signaling−mission-oriented problem-solving organization−achievement socialization,” promoting the coordinated allocation of diverse actors and resources around national missions. From the Manhattan Project and the Apollo Program to the Artemis Program and the Genesis Mission, the United States has repeatedly adopted an organizational model that combines relatively centralized objectives and resources with decentralized competition among implementing actors and technological trajectories. An in-depth study of the institutional foundations, operating mechanisms, and evolutionary trends of the American-style “whole-of-nation system” can provide important references for China to improve its new system for mobilizing resources nationvoide and further harness the complementary strengths of the government, market, and society.

“whole-of-nation system”  /  national security  /  national mobilization  /  scientific and technological innovation  /  industrial policy
游光荣, 陈明, 何梦娇, 王亚红. 美式“举国体制”的制度根源、运行机制与演变趋势. 前瞻科技, 2026 , 5 (3) : 56 -69 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.20260022
Guangrong YOU, Ming CHEN, Mengjiao HE, Yahong WANG. Institutional Roots, Operating Mechanisms, and Evolutionary Trends of the American-style “Whole-of-Nation System”[J]. Science and Technology Foresight, 2026 , 5 (3) : 56 -69 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.20260022
举国体制是一种特殊的资源配置与组织方式,通俗来讲,可以理解为“集中力量办大事”[1-2]。这种国家任务组织功能并非某一国家所独有,不同制度条件下的实现机制存在显著差异。在新一轮科技革命加速演进、大国竞争日趋激烈的背景下,美国正通过具有自身制度特征的“举国体制”,不断强化对科技、产业、资本和联盟等战略资源的统筹运用。深入研究美式“举国体制”组织国家任务动员的实现方式,有助于把握其制度逻辑、运行机制与能力边界,为我国进一步健全新型举国体制、提升国家战略科技力量和重大任务组织能力提供参照[3-4]。
“举国体制”一般指国家为实现某一特定战略目标,组织动员并调配全国各方面力量,实施某项重大任务的一种工作体系和运行机制[5]。这一概念表述本身具有鲜明的中国学术与政策语境,美国政策文本中并不存在完全对应的正式制度概念,较为常见的相关表述有“whole-of-government approach”(全政府方法)、“whole-of-nation approach”(全国家协同方法)、“national mobilization”(国家动员)、“mission-oriented innovation”(任务导向型创新)、“industrial policy”(产业政策)、“national security innovation base”(国家安全创新基础)和“national innovation ecosystem”(国家创新生态系统)等。这些概念分别侧重政府协同、跨社会主体动员、任务导向型创新和产业能力建设,均不可与我国语境下的“举国体制”简单等同。
文章所指美式“举国体制”,是美国以国家安全、经济发展、科技实力和全球竞争力为目标,通过法律授权、财政预算、政府采购、研发资助和产业政策工具,并借助国际联盟体系,统筹协调公共部门、私营企业、高等院校、科研机构、资本市场和社会资源所形成的一种任务型国家动员能力。这是一个功能性分析概念,并不意味着美式“举国体制”与我国举国体制的制度架构相同。就功能而言,中美两国在各自“举国体制”的实践上具有一定相似性,都是“集中力量办大事”。但在制度基础、组织结构和运行方式上却存在显著差异,呈现出“功能同构、制度异构”的特征。只有当某项行动同时具备国家重大战略任务牵引、政府实质性组织介入、跨部门跨主体资源动员及多种政策工具协同等基本特征时,才纳入文章分析范围。也正因此,研究美式“举国体制”的核心问题,是探究美国如何在市场经济、联邦制、三权分立和社会多元的资本主义制度环境,形成围绕国家战略任务的动员能力。
与常态化、全面性的资源集中配置不同,美国的国家动员更多表现为针对特定战略任务,对既有资源和能力进行有选择的组织与协调,其具体形态会随着任务性质和外部环境的变化而调整。可以从动员方式、组织结构和共识形成3个维度,对美式“举国体制”的内涵特征作进一步分析。
美国政府通常在特定国家目标被安全化、危机化或战略化之后,对相关任务实施选择性、阶段性干预。一般先由政府界定重大任务、承担部分早期风险并形成稳定预期,再由企业、大学等创新主体通过竞争参与技术和工程开发,并由企业等市场主体推进成果转化和规模化应用。《国防生产法》构成了这种任务型动员的重要法律基础,当法定防务需求触发时,可授权政府优先安排合同,并扩大关键供给能力[6]。可以看出,美式“举国体制”的“集中”,主要是围绕特定任务对目标和行动方向的集中,而不是传统意义上对全部力量实行集中配置。
美式“举国体制”是依托联邦政府、州和地方政府、大学、国家实验室、军方与资本市场等主体搭建的多中心网络,各主体保持相对独立的组织边界和专业分工。联邦政府主要通过设定国家任务,并综合运用预算拨款、政府采购等政策工具和跨部门协调机制,将这些分散能力连接起来,白宫科技政策办公室等机构则发挥重要的政策协调功能[7]。
美式“举国体制”通常在战争、冷战竞争、公共危机、供应链冲击或大国科技竞争等情境下得到显著强化。第二次世界大战(简称二战)时期的“曼哈顿计划”、冷战时期的航天与国防科研体系、新型冠状病毒感染疫情期间的“曲速行动”及供应链与科技竞争背景下的《芯片与科学法案》(CHIPS法案)[8-9],分别代表了4类不同的任务触发情境。这种触发式动员并不要求全社会形成完全一致的思想共识,而是需要国会、行政部门、军方、企业及公众之间形成足以支撑授权、拨款和政策执行的政治共识,从而使联邦政府能够在特定时期突破常规政策惯性,集中资源推进重大国家任务。
美式“举国体制”的制度根源在于美国宪法确立的联邦权力结构。宪法所赋予的战争权、财政权、商业规制权和总统行政权,为联邦政府围绕全国性重大任务组织和资源动员提供了基本权力依据。
美国宪法构成美式“举国体制”得以实施的根本制度基础。一是联邦制在联邦层面建立具有特定全国性权限的联邦政府,使跨州、对外和共同防务事务能够在国家层面统筹处理。二是三权分立在国家权力运行层面形成国会、以总统为首的行政部门和联邦法院相互分工制衡的制度结构,使授权、执行和审查职能分别由不同机构承担。三是宪法列举权力条款赋予国会征税与支出、借款、规制州际与对外商业、知识产权立法,以及宣战、建立和维持军队等权力,为联邦政府处理相关全国性事务提供宪法依据[10]。据此,美国平时实行分权治理,保留市场竞争和地方自治;在遇到重大国家任务时,联邦政府也能够将分散在各地、各部门和不同主体的资源、能力组织起来。
宪法赋予国会宣战、建立和支持军队、维持海军、制定军队规则和组织民兵等权力,通过“共同防务”目标确认联邦政府在国家安全事务中的核心地位。当某项科技、产业或基础设施问题被界定为直接关系共同防务和国家安全时,联邦层面的介入更容易被纳入宪法授权框架。战争权也因此成为美国能够将部分非军事能力纳入国家安全任务体系的重要权力来源。
宪法赋予国会征税、借款和安排支出的权力,使联邦政府可以通过财政投入和资金分配影响企业、大学和地方政府的行为,并将分散在不同地区和部门的资源集中起来,用于国家层面的重大任务[10]。对于周期长、风险高或社会收益大于直接经济回报的国家任务,联邦政府可以通过长期、稳定的财政投入,向企业、高校和科研机构释放持续支持的信号,从而增强其参与国家任务的意愿。由此,财政权成为联邦政府塑造市场、组织创新和引导产业发展的重要制度工具。
美国宪法授权国会规制对外商业、州际商业及印第安部落商业[10]。现代产业链、金融市场、交通运输、通信网络和技术贸易普遍具有跨州甚至跨国属性,商业规制权使联邦政府能够将原本分散于各州和私营部门的经济活动,纳入全国性规则框架,为国家处理跨区域、跨境的产业与技术安全问题提供制度基础,也使分散的产业能力能够在特定战略任务下被整合为全国性战略能力。
美国宪法规定,总统负责领导联邦政府、统率军队,并确保国会通过的法律得到执行[11]。这一制度安排使总统能够组织和协调各行政部门,共同推进宪法和国会确定的国家任务,减少部门之间各自为政的情况。总统行政权与国会的战争权、财政权、商业规制权及法院的司法审查,共同构成“授权−执行−监督”相互制衡的国家动员权力结构。正是这种权力组合,为美式“举国体制”的形成和运行提供了根本制度条件。
美式“举国体制”的“集中力量”,主要体现在围绕国家战略任务,对目标、授权、资源和行动实施功能性集中。各环节在国家战略目标牵引下相互衔接(图1),通过制度安排把不同主体和资源整合到同一任务体系中,从而把分散的力量转化为推进国家任务的整体合力。该框架用于识别任务型动员中反复出现的关键环节,并非要求每个案例都完整走完整条链路。
战略任务设定回答的是“何种问题需要进入超常规国家动员”的问题,是将制度权力转化为具体行动能力的第一步。美国通常先通过国家安全、经济安全、公共卫生或重大科技竞争等政策叙事,将某一公共问题上升为国家战略任务,再通过国会授权法、拨款法或总统依法采取的行政行动,明确任务目标、政策边界和执行责任。《国防生产法》就是典型的任务激活工具。
预算配置回答的是战略资源“如何集中”的问题,也是美式“举国体制”将政治优先事项转化为持续性资源投入的核心机制。美国联邦政府通过国会授权、年度预算和专项拨款,将分散于不同部门和项目的公共财政资源,向国防、健康、能源、航天和基础科学等国家战略任务定向配置。国防领域研发经费主要支持国防科技和军民两用技术研发,美国国立卫生研究院(NIH)经费支持生命科学和生物医药研发,美国能源部(DOE)经费支持能源和大科学设施建设,美国国家航空航天局(NASA)经费支持航天系统工程开展,美国国家科学基金会(NSF)经费支撑基础研究和人才培养。2024财年,美国联邦研发(R&D)及相关设施的预算权限总额约为1 993亿美元,其中归入“国防”预算的权限约为1 057亿美元,约占总额的53.0%[12],反映出美国能够通过预算授权和定向拨款,将大规模研发资源持续集中于国家安全任务。通过这一机制,美式“举国体制”能够实现长期资金投入、重点项目倾斜和早期风险承担,使国家战略目标可以进一步转化为对资金、设施、人才和科研能力的定向配置。
政府采购回答的是分散市场力量“如何围绕国家任务行动”的问题,是美式“举国体制”将国家需求转化为企业投资、研发和扩产行为的重要机制。尤其在高风险、长周期技术领域,企业往往需要较稳定的需求预期来支持长期投资。美国国防部在发布《国家国防工业战略》时明确表示,可通过多年采购、预先采购、采购承诺等灵活采购策略向产业界提供持续、稳定的需求信号,进而带动相关投资[13]。由此,政府可以通过“集中需求”把分散的企业资本、研发和生产能力引向特定国家任务。
项目经理负责制解决的是“如何有效组织集中起来的资源开展攻关”的问题。国防高级研究计划局(DARPA)模式是美国组织高风险技术攻关的代表,高自主权、强责任制的组织方式是该模式的重要特征[14]。这种安排由国家确定重大问题、阶段目标和公共资源,再由具有较大自主权的项目经理协调大学、企业和实验室等主体,组织多个团队和多条技术路线并行竞争,根据阶段性结果动态调整、淘汰或追加投入。DARPA能够以“小机构撬动大系统”,体现出美式“举国体制”目标、资源相对集中,执行主体、技术路线分散竞争的组织特色。此后,美国又在能源、卫生等领域发展出能源高级研究计划署(ARPA-E)、健康高级研究计划署(ARPA-H)等类似机制[15-16],进一步说明,项目经理负责制已成为美国将分散创新力量动员为国家任务合力的重要运行机制。
成果转化与商业化机制回答的是美国公共投入形成技术成果后“如何进一步放大效应”的问题。美式“举国体制”通过知识产权、技术许可、创业和资本市场机制,将公共资助形成的知识和技术导入企业与市场,而不是由国家包办整个创新链条。《贝赫−多尔法案》允许符合条件的联邦资助承包方在履行披露、权利选择等法定义务的前提下保留相关发明权利,同时联邦政府保留一定权利[17-18],由此形成“公共风险承担−私人转化扩散−社会资本接续”的制度结构。就“集中力量办大事”而言,这一机制为大学、企业和资本市场参与国家任务提供收益预期,使政府早期投入能够进一步撬动私人研发、风险投资和规模化生产,将有限的公共资源放大为更广泛的社会创新能力。
从协同关系看,5种机制依次完成“目标合法化−资源集中化−需求信号化−攻关组织化−成果社会化”的转化。通过国家目标、法定授权和关键资源的相对集中,对分散执行主体形成方向性的激励和约束,在“集中目标与资源”同“分散执行与竞争”之间实现功能耦合。任何一环出现授权不足、预算不稳、需求失真、项目组织失效或成果转化受阻,都可能使“集中力量”停留在资源投入层面,难以转化为国家能力。
美式“举国体制”是在不同历史压力和战略任务推动下逐步演化形成的。从18世纪末的发展主义传统到二战时期的总体战动员,从冷战时期的科技竞争到21世纪的经济安全政策,美式“举国体制”组织市场与科技力量的能力不断走向制度化。尤其是大国战略竞争加剧,推动美国国家动员由“集中资源完成重大工程”向“国内能力建设与外部竞争限制并举”的综合性经济安全动员转变。
首任财政部长亚历山大·汉密尔顿对如何借助国家权力培育制造能力、改善国家信用并降低外部供给依赖进行了深入思考。他在《制造业报告》中尤其强调制造业对于国家独立和安全的意义,主张通过关税和政策激励改善美国制造业发展环境[19]。进入19世纪后,美国的政策介入进一步扩展到基础设施、土地开发和教育科研领域,持续发挥着塑造市场环境和推动公共建设的作用。虽然这些做法与现代意义上的“举国体制”有很大距离,但它们至少表明,当国家发展和安全面临重大挑战时,联邦政府可以通过政策干预影响市场运行,并提供市场自身难以提供的公共资源和能力。这种联邦发展主义传统后来以不同形式延续,并在当代产业政策转向中再次显现[20]。
二战迫使美国国家动员能力发生质的变化。战争生产不仅要求工厂转产、原材料再分配和劳动力再组织,还要求科学家、工程师、大学和企业进入军事研发体系。“曼哈顿计划”正是这种总体战动员的典型代表,它将科学研究、工程建设、工业生产和军事管理纳入同一项目体系,由此形成了超出常规行政和市场机制的资源组织能力[21]。
二战后,范内瓦·布什提出将战争时期形成的科学组织经验转入和平时期,由联邦政府继续承担基础研究的长期投入,同时把大量研究活动交由大学和科研机构实施,而非像二战时将科学研究完全军事化或行政化[22]。此后,美国国家科技动员开始由战争条件下的应急集中,逐步转化为和平时期可以持续运行的科研资助和创新组织体系。
随着冷战展开,二战时期形成的临时性安排进一步制度化。《国家安全法》重组了战后的国家安全体制,设立国家安全委员会和中央情报局,加强了军事部门间的协调[23]。在这一组织框架下,军事战略、情报评估、研究发展和工业生产被更加紧密地纳入国家安全决策体系。与此同时,美国通过国防预算、军事采购、科研合同和项目管理等机制,将大学、企业、军方实验室和政府部门连接起来,构建了强化国家安全的长期性战略网络。
1957年苏联发射“斯普特尼克1号”后,美国随即建立DARPA和NASA,迅速制定并通过《国防教育法》,以应对苏联在科技与航天竞争方面施加的压力,从机构和人才两端强化科技与航天动员[24]。正是这一时期,科研机构、教育体系和工业部门开始被美国联邦政府视为长期战略竞争力量,通过一系列制度安排,被塑造为以国家安全竞争为动力、以科研教育为基础、以工业制造为支撑的“科技−工业”动员体系。
在这一制度框架下,肯尼迪政府把载人登月确立为明确的国家目标,“阿波罗计划”由此成为冷战科技竞争中最具代表性的任务型工程之一。NASA在此后11年持续围绕这一目标组织科研、工程和工业承包体系,项目全周期投入约254亿美元[25]。与二战时期的应急动员相比,“阿波罗计划”在和平竞争条件下长期对政府、企业和科研力量实施集中组织,体现了“科技−工业”动员体系走向成熟后的任务执行能力。
冷战中后期,这套以国防为牵引的“科技−工业”动员体系并没有弱化,反而在长期竞争中形成了更加稳定的制度基础。美国以国防工业基础为承载,依托军事采购、联邦科研资助和国家实验室等机制与组织,构成了一套持续运转的资源配置网络,使联邦政府能够持续向大学、企业和研究机构投入公共资源,并围绕国家安全需求推动技术研发、工程开发和产业能力建设。Dwight[26]在1961年离任演说中对“军事−工业复合体”可能产生的不当影响提出警示,从侧面反映出国防、科研及工业之间已经形成规模庞大、联系紧密且具有长期性的制度网络。此后,这一体系逐渐成为美国持续维持关键技术和产业能力的重要基础。
进入全球化时期,受自由市场理念和国内政治环境的制约,美国政府较少以产业政策的名义直接干预经济,而是更多将对产业和技术发展的支持嵌入国防、科研、政府采购等政策体系中。不同联邦机构依据各自任务分散配置公共资源,企业、大学和科研机构则通过市场竞争参与其中。有学者将美国这种做法概括为“隐性发展型国家”[27]。这一“隐性化”运行方式,既保证了美国政府能够持续塑造关键技术和产业能力,也为此后美国显性产业政策重新回归提供了制度和组织基础。
2008年的金融危机,进一步暴露出美国制造业空心化、产业链脆弱和就业流失等结构性问题。在危机救助之外,奥巴马政府逐步将先进制造、清洁能源和制造创新网络建设纳入联邦政策体系。政府对产业发展的介入目标,由短期经济稳定逐步延伸至长期竞争力塑造。2014年,美国正式建立“国家制造业创新网络”(National Network for Manufacturing Innovation,NNMI,2016年更名为Manufacturing USA)。该体系通过由企业、高校和政府部门共同参与的制造业创新研究所,推动先进制造研发和产业化[28]。它标志着显性产业政策开始重新进入美国政策议程,并为此后实施更加系统化的产业政策奠定基础。
奥巴马政府时期的“举国体制”仍以研发资助、产业激励、基础设施建设和市场塑造为主要手段,针对特定战略竞争对象实施的贸易、资本和技术限制尚未形成完整政策闭环。但在经济安全和产业竞争等议题中,“提升自身”与“限制对手”并举的政策取向开始显现,为特朗普政府第一任期进一步形成“内促外限”的政策组合奠定基础。
特朗普政府第一任期内,美式“举国体制”的目标结构发生了重要转变。《国家安全战略》明确提出,美国进入新的战略竞争时代,将我国和俄罗斯视为挑战其地位的主要竞争力量,强调将综合运用外交、信息、军事和经济等国家工具维护竞争优势[29]。自此,美国对我国战略竞争逐渐与国家安全、经济安全、产业政策相结合,这为联邦政府协调不同部门、综合运用经济和科技政策工具提供了更强的政治支持。
在经贸和资本领域,美国开始采用更多的贸易限制和投资审查手段,服务于对我国科技和产业竞争。特朗普政府运用“301调查”和加征关税等手段,围绕我国技术转让、知识产权和创新政策实施贸易施压,试图通过抬高我国相关产业进入美国市场的成本影响我国政策制定与企业行为[30]。与此同时,《外国投资风险审查现代化法案》(FIRRMA)扩大了美国外国投资委员会(CFIUS)对非控股投资、敏感房地产等交易的审查权限[31]。自此,美式“举国体制”的政策工具,由面向国内的财政激励、研发支持等手段,扩展为面向竞争对手的跨境经济规制工具。
在技术领域,美国的政策限制也从进出口环节进一步延伸到全球技术合作和供应链体系。2019年,美国将华为技术有限公司及相关实体列入“实体清单”,对受《出口管理条例》约束的物项实施许可要求[32];2020年,通过针对华为技术有限公司的外国直接产品规则(FDPR),将部分使用美国软件、技术或相关设备生产的境外产品纳入管辖[33]。至此,美式“举国体制”进一步将限制竞争对手能力纳入国家能力建设,形成了攻防一体、“内促外限”的“举国体制”模式,带有鲜明的大国竞争指向。
拜登政府并未改变特朗普政府第一任期形成的“内促外限”型动员方向,而是将其进一步制度化和联盟化。CHIPS法案通过产业补贴和“国家安全护栏”加强国内半导体能力建设,同时配合先进计算和半导体出口管制、对外投资审查等措施,限制关键技术和资本向外部竞争对手流动[34-36],并进一步强化与盟友伙伴的政策协调[37]。这一阶段,拜登政府把特朗普政府第一任期较为分散、偏单边的做法固定为更具连续性的政策组合,国家动员范围也由国内进一步延伸至联盟体系。
总体而言,截至拜登政府结束,美式“举国体制”经历了从联邦发展主义传统、二战总体战动员、冷战“科技−工业”动员体系,到全球化时期“隐性产业政策”,再到大国战略竞争背景下“内促外限”型经济安全动员的连续演变(表1)。其运行重点也由围绕单项重大工程集中资源,逐步转向国内能力建设、外部竞争限制与联盟协同并行。
特朗普政府第二任期以来,美式“举国体制”在延续前两届政府竞争型动员的基础上进一步强化。一方面,贸易、投资、产业、科技与国家安全更加紧密地结合,对少数关键领域的干预更加直接;另一方面,随着动员范围扩大,政府与市场之间的联系逐渐加深,其运行中的协调成本、利益分配、资源配置和公共治理等问题也更加突出。
(1)竞争型动员进一步强化,经济安全与国家安全加速交织。特朗普政府第二任期持续以国家安全和产业安全为名拓展经济政策工具,强化此前形成的“内促外限”型动员框架。“美国优先投资政策”在强调便利盟友伙伴投资的同时,限制所谓“外国对手”进入关键技术和关键基础设施等敏感领域[38];“对等关税”进一步将长期商品贸易逆差与制造业基础、供应链韧性、国防工业基础和国家安全联系起来[39]。但这并不意味着美国可以摆脱制度约束。2026年2月,美国最高法院认定《国际紧急经济权力法》(IEEPA)并未授权总统据此征收关税。白宫随即终止了相关行动[40-41]。这表明,即使经济问题越来越被纳入国家安全框架,美国政府采取相关动员措施仍需受到国会授权和司法审查的限制,并不能无限扩张。
(2)重点动员领域进一步集中,半导体、人工智能(AI)、关键矿产和能源成为核心抓手。当前,美式“举国体制”的资源集中呈现出明显的选择性,重点指向具有基础性、瓶颈性和军民两用属性的领域。美国政府正在以供应链韧性、国家安全和经济安全为名义,综合运用财政激励、研发资助等多项政策工具,增强本土供给能力,降低外部依赖。以台湾积体电路制造股份有限公司(TSMC)为例,2025年该公司宣布在原定650亿美元在美投资计划基础上追加1000亿美元,使计划总额增至1650亿美元[42];《立即采取措施增加美国矿产生产》行政令将关键矿产供应直接界定为国家安全和经济安全问题,授权国防部运用《国防生产法》支持国内矿产生产[43];《美国人工智能行动计划》围绕“加速人工智能创新、建设美国人工智能基础设施、强化国际人工智能外交与安全”三大支柱部署政策,并提出向盟友输出美国AI“全技术栈”[44];“创世纪计划”则以能源部国家实验室体系为枢纽,将科研数据、算力、产业界和高校纳入AI驱动的科学发现与国家安全任务网络[45-46];2026年8月发布的《国家安全科学技术战略》,进一步把先进制造和材料、AI与自主系统、核能、半导体等列为国家安全重点技术,并要求联邦部门定向配置研发资金、强化研发基础设施和与非联邦伙伴合作[47]。由此看,美式“举国体制”在部分战略领域呈现出更明显的综合化、常态化动员特征。
(3)“内促外限”政策运用更加成熟。美式“举国体制”当前已形成较为稳定的“内促外限”政策组合。对内,通过财政激励、研发支持、政府采购和基础设施建设等方式,提升本土技术与产业能力;对外,通过出口管制、投资审查、补贴附带的国家安全限制条款和关税调整等手段限制战略竞争对手获得关键技术、资本与市场机会。与特朗普政府第一任期相比,贸易、投资、产业、科技和国家安全工具之间的联动程度明显提高。这种“内促”与“外限”的组合,使美国能够在强化国内重点领域能力建设的同时,重塑外部竞争环境,从而放大政策工具的协同效应。
(4)“全政府协调与科技企业参与”相结合的组织形态更加突出。随着大国竞争日益激烈,部分关键领域技术突破难度上升,重大科技和产业任务越来越需要跨部门协调。与此同时,掌握算力、模型等关键商业技术能力的科技企业,正在成为国家任务的重要参与力量。2025年,美国国防部首席数字与人工智能办公室向Anthropic PBC、Google Public Sector LLC、OpenAI Public Sector LLC和AIQ Phase LLC(xAI)分别授予上限2亿美元的合同,以持续推动前沿AI能力的开发,并支撑国防任务[48]。这种政府与科技资本在国家目标牵引下的政产学研协同强化,使国家战略与科技企业之间的耦合持续加深。
(1)战略目标集中与执行体系分散之间存在矛盾。美国在国家层面虽然能够设定统一的战略目标并集中部分公共资源,但具体执行仍分散在国会、行政部门、州和地方政府、企业及科研机构等不同主体。特朗普政府第二任期关税政策的实施,受到国会授权和司法审查的直接约束,关键矿产、人工智能等政策的推进,也需要在多个部门和市场主体之间持续协调,政策推进速度和连续性很容易受到多主体关系的影响。
(2)公共部门承担前期风险与私人主体获取后期收益之间存在矛盾。美式“举国体制”通常由联邦政府承担技术研发的早期风险,再由企业完成成果转化和规模化应用。虽然有效调动了大学和企业开展成果转化的积极性,但也意味着由公共资金形成的知识和技术在商业化后,可能更多地进入私人的口袋[17-18]。如何在激发企业参与动力的同时,使公共投入形成的成果更充分地回馈公共利益,是这一体制长期需要处理的问题。
(3)任务型投入与基础研究之间存在资源配置矛盾。大国竞争加剧后,美国越来越重视能够直接服务国家战略的任务型项目,研发资源也更加围绕国家优先事项调整。但事实上,基础研究才是美国取得科技优势的根基。美国基础研究长期依赖大学、研究机构和国家实验室支撑,但近年来,以NSF为例,其预算安排明显受到财政环境和国家任务调整的影响[49-50]。虽然加强任务型投入并不必然会削弱基础研究,但若长期失衡,势必会影响美国基础研究的长远发展。
(4)借助企业提升动员效率与保持公共治理能力之间难以平衡。人工智能等前沿领域发展高度依赖商业部门掌握的算力、模型、云服务和工程能力。美国政府为推进国家任务,越来越多地借助少数前沿AI企业的商业技术能力[48]。这种合作虽然能够加快吸收前沿创新,但也使得政府对少数企业和资本的依赖越来越深,可能引发市场竞争、数据安全和政府监管等方面的新问题。
总之,美式“举国体制”的优势和矛盾,实际上来自同一套制度安排,具有“同源性”。深入理解美式“举国体制”,既要看到其在特定任务下集中资源、组织攻关和推动成果转化的不俗能力,也要看到这种能力始终受到既有制度结构和市场机制的约束。这些优势与矛盾并非相互独立,而是同一套制度安排在不同环节产生的伴生结果。
基于上述历史演变、现实特征和内在矛盾,可以进一步判断,未来美式“举国体制”将沿着“选择性集中、任务型组织、联盟网络化、企业深度嵌入、资源动态平衡”5个方向持续深化,在动员边界、组织机制、空间范围、主体关系和资源分配方面作出进一步调整。
除半导体、AI、关键矿产和能源等当前重点领域外,未来美式“举国体制”的动员边界,还可能继续向更广义的经济安全、资源安全和基础设施安全延伸。扩展对象将主要集中在能够形成战略瓶颈、具有军民两用或平台属性、关系关键基础设施韧性的技术和资源,但不会平均覆盖所有产业领域。
特朗普政府第二任期以来,任务型、跨部门组织方式正在向更多前沿领域扩散,并与新型科研基础设施和商业技术平台进一步结合。“创世纪计划”将国家实验室、超算基础设施、联邦科研数据与商业AI能力纳入同一任务网络;量子创新行政令要求以“全政府”方式加快量子计算、传感和网络的研发、部署与商业化[51]。未来,这类机制可能更多应用于需要明确任务目标、快速试错和跨学科整合的国家战略领域,并形成开放基础研究与定向任务攻关并行的组织结构,用以缓解“目标集中−执行分散”的协调矛盾。
未来,美式“举国体制”的组织边界可能进一步超出美国本土范围。“阿尔忒弥斯计划”清晰展示了“国家设定长期目标−企业承担工程任务−盟友参与能力分工”的协同方式[52]。随着关键技术、供应链和标准体系日益全球化,美国很可能继续通过共同研发、技术标准、产业链分工、市场准入和安全规则,将盟友的企业、科研机构和基础设施能力纳入其自身的国家战略网络,进而形成以美国国家目标为牵引、商业网络和联盟体系共同放大资源的“网络化联盟动员”。
美国政府与前沿科技企业的深化合作表明,未来大型科技企业可能进一步由技术供应者转变为共同实施者,深度参与美国国家任务的执行。随着算力、模型、云服务和数据接口更深入地嵌入国家任务网络,企业将更早进入任务实施、基础设施供给和技术路径选择等环节,大型科技企业在国家任务网络中的位置将进一步前移。
随着人工智能、量子、半导体、能源等领域日益成为美国国家战略重点,研发资源将进一步向任务型和目标导向型项目集中。这种资源配置方式有助于在重点领域集中力量实现突破,但也不可避免地挤压开放基础研究的投入空间。未来,美式“举国体制”能否持续发挥作用,一个重要问题在于:能否在强化任务型投入的同时,保持对基础研究长期、稳定和开放的支持,在短期战略任务与长期创新能力之间形成合理平衡。这一平衡状况可通过NSF等基础研究资助机构的预算规模、基础研究投入占比和资助连续性等指标持续观察。
回溯历史长河,从“曼哈顿计划”、“阿波罗计划”,到“阿尔忒弥斯计划”和“创世纪计划”,美式“举国体制”的战略触角,已由核威慑与太空竞赛延伸至商业航天与人工智能深水区。这一演进历程,折射出美国整合国家意志、撬动市场资本、孵化前沿生态和催化技术落地的深层逻辑。
对我国而言,借鉴美式“举国体制”应坚持“功能借鉴、制度适配”的原则。既要吸收其在任务组织、市场动员和成果转化方面的有效做法,也要充分认识其内在约束:一是要完善国家战略任务的识别、准入与退出机制,对进入举国攻关的任务,要设置明确的标准、阶段目标和动态评估,防止任务边界泛化,避免资源随短期热点变化而频繁调整。二是要强化跨部门任务组织和项目治理,在重大任务中明确牵头主体、责任边界与考核机制,在统一目标下保留多路线竞争,给予任务承担主体必要的自主权,减少条块分割对创新效率带来的负面影响。三是要强化政府采购、首用场景、成果转化与社会资本接续的联动,使公共投入更多转化为稳定需求和规模化应用条件,以调动社会参与的积极性;完善公共投入收益回馈机制、竞争秩序和数据治理相关规则,降低政府对少数平台的过度依赖。四是要建立基础研究与任务攻关分类投入、分类评价的长期机制,对自由探索保持稳定支持,对任务型项目强化目标管理和动态淘汰,在开放创新、安全治理和长期能力建设之间形成可持续平衡。由此,推动有为政府、有效市场与有组织创新形成密切协同,统筹发展与安全,提升重大科技任务的资源配置效率与组织实施效能,推动新型举国体制发挥更加可持续的制度优势。
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doi: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.20260022
  • 接收时间:2026-07-06
  • 出版时间:2026-09-20
  • 发布时间:2026-10-10
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  • 收稿日期:2026-07-06
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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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