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Quantum computing is a profound revolution in the fields of information and computing poised to reshape the future paradigm of computation. This paper first traced the four developmental stages of quantum computing, from its theoretical origins and algorithmic breakthroughs to the current noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era. It also systematically elaborated on the core physical principles such as qubits, superposition, and entanglement. Subsequently, the paper detailed and compared the major hardware technology routes, including superconducting systems, ion traps, photonics, and neutral atoms, analyzing their respective trade-offs in terms of scale, quality, and connectivity. Building on this, the paper delved into the three core challenges facing quantum computing: combating environmental noise and decoherence, implementing high-overhead quantum error correction, and overcoming the engineering bottlenecks of system scalability. The paper further focused on the industrialization process and analyzed the development models of quantum computing cloud platforms, emphasizing the quantum and classical hybrid computing architecture, which is evolving from loosely-coupled models towards quantum-high performance computing (HPC) hybrid. This is identified as a critical path toward achieving practical quantum advantage. Finally, based on global trends and China’s national context, the paper put forward several development recommendations. These include establishing fault tolerance as a long-term goal, promoting the synergistic development of the hardware and software ecosystem, and accelerating the implementation of a quantum-HPC hybrid, aiming to provide a reference for the nation’s strategic planning in this field.

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量子计算是一场信息和计算领域的深刻变革,有望重塑未来的计算范式。文章追溯了量子计算从理论奠基与思想萌芽、算法突破、实验探索与硬件起步到当前“含噪声的中等规模量子”时代的4个发展阶段,系统阐述了量子比特、量子叠加和量子纠缠等核心物理原理。详细梳理并比较了超导、离子阱、光量子及中性原子的主要硬件研发技术路线,分析了其在规模、质量和连接性上的不同权衡。在此基础上,深入探讨了量子计算面临的三大核心挑战:对抗环境噪声与退相干、实现高开销的量子纠错及解决系统扩展的工程瓶颈。进一步聚焦产业化进程,剖析了量子计算云平台的发展模式,并重点论述了从松耦合到“量超融合”的量子-经典混合计算架构,认为这是通往实用性量子优势的关键路径。立足全球趋势与我国国情,提出了以容错为长远目标、软硬件生态协同发展、加速量超融合落地等发展建议,以期为我国在该领域的战略规划提供参考。

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王正安,助理研究员。主要从事量子算法、量子人工智能、量子多体等研究。先后获得中国博士后基金特别资助(站前)与国家自然科学基金理论物理专项(博士后)资助,国家自然科学基金集成项目课题负责人。主要参与研发的“量子金融云平台”获得中国人民银行设立的金融科技发展二等奖。在Nature Communications、npj Quantum Information等期刊发表学术论文10余篇。电子信箱:

范桁,研究员。固态量子信息与计算实验室主任,北京量子信息科学研究院智能量子计算与模拟团队负责人。国家“万人计划”科技创新领军人才;科技部重点领域创新团队负责人;国家自然科学基金委员会创新研究群体负责人;周培源物理奖获得者;享受国务院政府特殊津贴专家。主要研究方向为量子计算和量子信息处理(聚焦超导量子计算与量子模拟理论与实验研究、量子计算云平台及量超智融合)。电子信箱:

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王正安,助理研究员。主要从事量子算法、量子人工智能、量子多体等研究。先后获得中国博士后基金特别资助(站前)与国家自然科学基金理论物理专项(博士后)资助,国家自然科学基金集成项目课题负责人。主要参与研发的“量子金融云平台”获得中国人民银行设立的金融科技发展二等奖。在Nature Communications、npj Quantum Information等期刊发表学术论文10余篇。电子信箱:

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王正安,助理研究员。主要从事量子算法、量子人工智能、量子多体等研究。先后获得中国博士后基金特别资助(站前)与国家自然科学基金理论物理专项(博士后)资助,国家自然科学基金集成项目课题负责人。主要参与研发的“量子金融云平台”获得中国人民银行设立的金融科技发展二等奖。在Nature Communications、npj Quantum Information等期刊发表学术论文10余篇。电子信箱:

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范桁,研究员。固态量子信息与计算实验室主任,北京量子信息科学研究院智能量子计算与模拟团队负责人。国家“万人计划”科技创新领军人才;科技部重点领域创新团队负责人;国家自然科学基金委员会创新研究群体负责人;周培源物理奖获得者;享受国务院政府特殊津贴专家。主要研究方向为量子计算和量子信息处理(聚焦超导量子计算与量子模拟理论与实验研究、量子计算云平台及量超智融合)。电子信箱:

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范桁,研究员。固态量子信息与计算实验室主任,北京量子信息科学研究院智能量子计算与模拟团队负责人。国家“万人计划”科技创新领军人才;科技部重点领域创新团队负责人;国家自然科学基金委员会创新研究群体负责人;周培源物理奖获得者;享受国务院政府特殊津贴专家。主要研究方向为量子计算和量子信息处理(聚焦超导量子计算与量子模拟理论与实验研究、量子计算云平台及量超智融合)。电子信箱:

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journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=EN, orderNo=2, keyword=quantum control), Keyword(id=1242115152384950349, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=EN, orderNo=3, keyword=quantum cloud computing), Keyword(id=1242115152456253518, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=EN, orderNo=4, keyword=quantum and classical hybrid), Keyword(id=1242115152527556687, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=EN, orderNo=5, keyword=quantum-HPC hybrid), Keyword(id=1242115152582082640, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=CN, orderNo=1, keyword=量子计算), Keyword(id=1242115152640802897, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=CN, orderNo=2, keyword=量子调控), Keyword(id=1242115152699523154, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=CN, orderNo=3, keyword=量子云计算), Keyword(id=1242115152758243411, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=CN, orderNo=4, keyword=量子-经典混合), Keyword(id=1242115152812769364, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, language=CN, orderNo=5, keyword=量超融合)], refs=[Reference(id=1242115155169968223, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2018, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=133, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[1], rfOrder=0, authorNames=Feynman R P, journalName=Simulating physics with computers, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Feynman R P. 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A manufacturable platform for photonic quantum computing[J]. Nature, 2025, 641(8064): 876-883., articleTitle=A manufacturable platform for photonic quantum computing, refAbstract=Although holding great promise for low noise, ease of operation and networking1, useful photonic quantum computing has been precluded by the need for beyond-state-of-the-art components, manufactured by the millions2–6. Here we introduce a manufacturable platform7 for quantum computing with photons. We benchmark a set of monolithically integrated silicon-photonics-based modules to generate, manipulate, network and detect heralded photonic qubits, demonstrating dual-rail photonic qubits with 99.98% ± 0.01% state preparation and measurement fidelity, Hong–Ou–Mandel (HOM) quantum interference between independent photon sources with 99.50% ± 0.25% visibility, two-qubit fusion with 99.22% ± 0.12% fidelity and a chip-to-chip qubit interconnect with 99.72% ± 0.04% fidelity, conditional on photon detection and not accounting for loss. We preview a selection of next-generation technologies: low-loss silicon nitride (SiN) waveguides and components to address loss, as well as fabrication-tolerant photon sources, high-efficiency photon-number-resolving detectors (PNRDs), low-loss chip-to-fibre coupling and barium titanate (BTO) electro-optic phase shifters for high-performance fast switching.), Reference(id=1242115156612808822, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04725-x, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2022, volume=606, issue=7912, pageStart=75, pageEnd=81, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[22], rfOrder=23, authorNames=Madsen L S, Laudenbach F, Askarani M F, journalName=Nature, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Madsen L S, Laudenbach F, Askarani M F, et al. Quantum computational advantage with a programmable photonic processor[J]. Nature, 2022, 606(7912): 75-81., articleTitle=Quantum computational advantage with a programmable photonic processor, refAbstract=A quantum computer attains computational advantage when outperforming the best classical computers running the best-known algorithms on well-defined tasks. No photonic machine offering programmability over all its quantum gates has demonstrated quantum computational advantage: previous machines1,2 were largely restricted to static gate sequences. Earlier photonic demonstrations were also vulnerable to spoofing3, in which classical heuristics produce samples, without direct simulation, lying closer to the ideal distribution than do samples from the quantum hardware. Here we report quantum computational advantage using Borealis, a photonic processor offering dynamic programmability on all gates implemented. We carry out Gaussian boson sampling4 (GBS) on 216 squeezed modes entangled with three-dimensional connectivity5, using a time-multiplexed and photon-number-resolving architecture. On average, it would take more than 9,000 years for the best available algorithms and supercomputers to produce, using exact methods, a single sample from the programmed distribution, whereas Borealis requires only 36 μs. This runtime advantage is over 50 million times as extreme as that reported from earlier photonic machines. Ours constitutes a very large GBS experiment, registering events with up to 219 photons and a mean photon number of 125. This work is a critical milestone on the path to a practical quantum computer, validating key technological features of photonics as a platform for this goal.), Reference(id=1242115156684111991, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=10.1126/science.abe8770, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2020, volume=370, issue=6523, pageStart=1460, pageEnd=1463, url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe8770, language=null, rfNumber=[23], rfOrder=24, authorNames=Zhong H S, Wang H, Deng Y H, journalName=Science, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Zhong H S, Wang H, Deng Y H, et al. Quantum computational advantage using photons[J]. Science, 2020, 370(6523): 1460-1463., articleTitle=Quantum computational advantage using photons, refAbstract=\n Quantum computational advantage or supremacy is a long-anticipated milestone toward practical quantum computers. Recent work claimed to have reached this point, but subsequent work managed to speed up the classical simulation and pointed toward a sample size–dependent loophole. Quantum computational advantage, rather than being a one-shot experimental proof, will be the result of a long-term competition between quantum devices and classical simulation. Zhong\n et al.\n sent 50 indistinguishable single-mode squeezed states into a 100-mode ultralow-loss interferometer and sampled the output using 100 high-efficiency single-photon detectors. By obtaining up to 76-photon coincidence, yielding a state space dimension of about 10\n 30\n, they measured a sampling rate that is about 10\n 14\n -fold faster than using state-of-the-art classical simulation strategies and supercomputers.\n), Reference(id=1242115156742832248, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=127, issue=18, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[24], rfOrder=25, authorNames=Zhong H S, Deng Y H, Qin J, journalName=Physical Review Letters, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Zhong H S, Deng Y H, Qin J, et al. Phase-programmable gaussian boson sampling using stimulated squeezed light[J]. Physical Review Letters, 2021, 127(18): 180502, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.180502., articleTitle=Phase-programmable gaussian boson sampling using stimulated squeezed light, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115156814135417, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=http://www.bj.xinhuanet.com/20240419/f76bb4b164174adbb7ec19f322b3c8e2/c.html, language=null, rfNumber=[25], rfOrder=26, authorNames=新华网, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=新华网. 550计算量子比特相干光量子计算机在京发布[EB/OL]. (2024-04-19)[2025-06-22]. http://www.bj.xinhuanet.com/20240419/f76bb4b164174adbb7ec19f322b3c8e2/c.html., articleTitle=550计算量子比特相干光量子计算机在京发布, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115156877049978, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=http://www.bj.xinhuanet.com/20240419/f76bb4b164174adbb7ec19f322b3c8e2/c.html, language=null, rfNumber=[25], rfOrder=27, authorNames=Xinhuanet, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Xinhuanet. 550 computational qubit coherent optical quantum computer released in Beijing[EB/OL]. (2024-04-19)[2025-06-22]. http://www.bj.xinhuanet.com/20240419/f76bb4b164174adbb7ec19f322b3c8e2/c.html. (in Chinese), articleTitle=550 computational qubit coherent optical quantum computer released in Beijing, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115156939964539, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://atom-computing.com/quantum-startup-atom-computing-first-to-exceed-1000-qubits/, language=null, rfNumber=[26], rfOrder=28, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Quantum startup Atom Computing first to exceed 1,000 qubits[EB/OL]. (2023-10-24)[2025-06-18]. https://atom-computing.com/quantum-startup-atom-computing-first-to-exceed-1000-qubits/., articleTitle=Quantum startup Atom Computing first to exceed 1,000 qubits, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157007073404, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05859-2, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=616, issue=7958, pageStart=691, pageEnd=695, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[27], rfOrder=29, authorNames=Chen C, Bornet G, Bintz M, journalName=Nature, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Chen C, Bornet G, Bintz M, et al. Continuous symmetry breaking in a two-dimensional Rydberg array[J]. Nature, 2023, 616(7958): 691-695., articleTitle=Continuous symmetry breaking in a two-dimensional Rydberg array, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157082570877, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=132, issue=26, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[28], rfOrder=30, authorNames=Bornet G, Emperauger G, Chen C, journalName=Physical Review Letters, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Bornet G, Emperauger G, Chen C, et al. Enhancing a many-body dipolar Rydberg tweezer array with arbitrary local controls[J]. Physical Review Letters, 2024, 132(26): 263601, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.263601., articleTitle=Enhancing a many-body dipolar Rydberg tweezer array with arbitrary local controls, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157158068350, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06927-3, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=626, issue=7997, pageStart=58, pageEnd=65, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[29], rfOrder=31, authorNames=Bluvstein D, Evered S J, Geim A A, journalName=Nature, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Bluvstein D, Evered S J, Geim A A, et al. Logical quantum processor based on reconfigurable atom arrays[J]. Nature, 2024, 626(7997): 58-65., articleTitle=Logical quantum processor based on reconfigurable atom arrays, refAbstract=Suppressing errors is the central challenge for useful quantum computing1, requiring quantum error correction (QEC)2–6for large-scale processing. However, the overhead in the realization of error-corrected ‘logical’ qubits, in which information is encoded across many physical qubits for redundancy2–4, poses substantial challenges to large-scale logical quantum computing. Here we report the realization of a programmable quantum processor based on encoded logical qubits operating with up to 280 physical qubits. Using logical-level control and a zoned architecture in reconfigurable neutral-atom arrays7, our system combines high two-qubit gate fidelities8, arbitrary connectivity7,9, as well as fully programmable single-qubit rotations and mid-circuit readout10–15. Operating this logical processor with various types of encoding, we demonstrate improvement of a two-qubit logic gate by scaling surface-code6distance fromd = 3 tod = 7, preparation of colour-code qubits with break-even fidelities5, fault-tolerant creation of logical Greenberger–Horne–Zeilinger (GHZ) states and feedforward entanglement teleportation, as well as operation of 40 colour-code qubits. Finally, using 3D [[8,3,2]] code blocks16,17, we realize computationally complex sampling circuits18with up to 48 logical qubits entangled with hypercube connectivity19with 228 logical two-qubit gates and 48 logical CCZ gates20. We find that this logical encoding substantially improves algorithmic performance with error detection, outperforming physical-qubit fidelities at both cross-entropy benchmarking and quantum simulations of fast scrambling21,22. These results herald the advent of early error-corrected quantum computation and chart a path towards large-scale logical processors.), Reference(id=1242115157225177215, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.85.961, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2013, volume=85, issue=3, pageStart=961, pageEnd=1019, url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.85.961, language=null, rfNumber=[30], rfOrder=32, authorNames=Zwanenburg F A, Dzurak A S, Morello A, journalName=Reviews of Modern Physics, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Zwanenburg F A, Dzurak A S, Morello A, et al. Silicon quantum electronics[J]. Reviews of Modern Physics, 2013, 85(3): 961-1019., articleTitle=Silicon quantum electronics, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157288091776, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/blog/quantum/2025/02/19/microsoft-unveils-majorana-1-the-worlds-first-quantum-processor-powered-by-topological-qubits/, language=null, rfNumber=[31], rfOrder=33, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Microsoft unveils Majorana 1, the world’s first quantum processor powered by topological qubits[EB/OL]. (2025-02-19)[2025-06-19]. https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/blog/quantum/2025/02/19/microsoft-unveils-majorana-1-the-worlds-first-quantum-processor-powered-by-topological-qubits/., articleTitle=Microsoft unveils Majorana 1, the world’s first quantum processor powered by topological qubits, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157351006337, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2012, volume=86, issue=6, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[32], rfOrder=34, authorNames=Ghosh J, Fowler A G, Geller M R, journalName=Physical Review A, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Ghosh J, Fowler A G, Geller M R. Surface code with decoherence: An analysis of three superconducting architectures[J]. Physical Review A, 2012, 86(6): 062318, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevA.86.062318., articleTitle=Surface code with decoherence: An analysis of three superconducting architectures, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157413920898, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[33], rfOrder=35, authorNames=Brun T A, journalName=arXiv preprint:1910.03672, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Brun T A. Quantum error correction[DB/OL]. arXiv preprint:1910.03672, 2019., articleTitle=Quantum error correction, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157476835459, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=70, pageEnd=81, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[34], rfOrder=36, authorNames=Chatterjee A, Phalak K, Ghosh S, journalName=2023 IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE), refType=null, unstructuredReference=Chatterjee A, Phalak K, Ghosh S. Quantum error correction for dummies[C]// 2023 IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE). Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2023, 1: 70-81., articleTitle=Quantum error correction for dummies, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157543944324, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2012, volume=86, issue=3, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[35], rfOrder=37, authorNames=Fowler A G, Mariantoni M, Martinis J M, journalName=Physical Review A, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Fowler A G, Mariantoni M, Martinis J M, et al. Surface codes: Towards practical large-scale quantum computation[J]. Physical Review A, 2012, 86(3): 032324, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324., articleTitle=Surface codes: Towards practical large-scale quantum computation, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157602664581, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2006, volume=97, issue=18, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[36], rfOrder=38, authorNames=Bombin H, Martin-Delgado M A, journalName=Physical Review Letters, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Bombin H, Martin-Delgado M A. Topological quantum distillation[J]. Physical Review Letters, 2006, 97(18): 180501, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.180501., articleTitle=Topological quantum distillation, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157665579142, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=2, issue=4, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[37], rfOrder=39, authorNames=Breuckmann N P, Eberhardt J N, journalName=PRX Quantum, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Breuckmann N P, Eberhardt J N. Quantum low-density parity-check codes[J]. PRX Quantum, 2021, 2(4): 040101, doi: 10.1103/PRXQuantum.2.040101., articleTitle=Quantum low-density parity-check codes, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157732688007, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://www.riverlane.com/quantum-error-correction-report-2024, language=null, rfNumber=[38], rfOrder=40, authorNames=Riverlane, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Riverlane. The quantum error correction report 2024[R/OL]. (2024-11-19)[2025-06-21]. https://www.riverlane.com/quantum-error-correction-report-2024., articleTitle=The quantum error correction report 2024, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157791408264, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://www.caict.ac.cn/kxyj/qwfb/ztbg/202409/P020240925556609114480.pdf, language=null, rfNumber=[39], rfOrder=41, authorNames=中国信通院, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=中国信通院. 量子计算发展态势研究报告(2024年)[R/OL]. (2024-09-25)[2025-06-18]. https://www.caict.ac.cn/kxyj/qwfb/ztbg/202409/P020240925556609114480.pdf., articleTitle=量子计算发展态势研究报告(2024年), refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115157854322825, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://www.caict.ac.cn/kxyj/qwfb/ztbg/202409/P020240925556609114480.pdf, language=null, rfNumber=[39], rfOrder=42, authorNames=China Academy of Information and Communications Technology, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=China Academy of Information and Communications Technology. Research report on the development trend of quantum computing (2024)[R/OL]. (2024-09-25)[2025-06-18]. https://www.caict.ac.cn/kxyj/qwfb/ztbg/202409/P020240925556609114480.pdf. (in Chinese), articleTitle=Research report on the development trend of quantum computing (2024), refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115158890315914, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[40], rfOrder=43, authorNames=Nguyen H T, Krishnan P, Krishnaswamy D, journalName=arXiv preprint:2404.11420, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Nguyen H T, Krishnan P, Krishnaswamy D, et al. Quantum cloud computing:A review, open problems, and future directions[DB/OL]. arXiv preprint:2404.11420, 2024., articleTitle=Quantum cloud computing:A review, open problems, and future directions, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115158965813387, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[41], rfOrder=44, authorNames=Javadi-Abhari A, Treinish M, Krsulich K, journalName=arXiv preprint:2405.08810, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Javadi-Abhari A, Treinish M, Krsulich K, et al. Quantum computing with Qiskit[DB/OL]. arXiv preprint:2405.08810, 2024., articleTitle=Quantum computing with Qiskit, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159028727948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2020, volume=5, issue=4, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[42], rfOrder=45, authorNames=Alexander T, Kanazawa N, Egger D J, journalName=Quantum Science and Technology, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Alexander T, Kanazawa N, Egger D J, et al. Qiskit pulse: Programming quantum computers through the cloud with pulses[J]. Quantum Science and Technology, 2020, 5(4): 044006, doi: 10.1088/2058-9565/aba404., articleTitle=Qiskit pulse: Programming quantum computers through the cloud with pulses, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159095836813, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://quantumai.google/cirq, language=null, rfNumber=[43], rfOrder=46, authorNames=Google Quantum AI, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Google Quantum AI. Cirq—An open source framework for programming quantum computers[EB/OL]. [2025-06-22]. https://quantumai.google/cirq., articleTitle=Cirq—An open source framework for programming quantum computers, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159158751374, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://aws.amazon.com/braket/getting-started/, language=null, rfNumber=[44], rfOrder=47, authorNames=Amazon AWS, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Amazon AWS. Amazon braket getting started[EB/OL]. [2025-06-22]. https://aws.amazon.com/braket/getting-started/., articleTitle=Amazon braket getting started, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159217471631, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://qc.zdxlz.com/home?lang=zh, language=null, rfNumber=[45], rfOrder=48, authorNames=中国电信, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=中国电信. 天衍量子计算云平台[EB/OL]. [2025-06-21]. https://qc.zdxlz.com/home?lang=zh., articleTitle=天衍量子计算云平台, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159288774800, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://qc.zdxlz.com/home?lang=zh, language=null, rfNumber=[45], rfOrder=49, authorNames=China Telecom, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=China Telecom. Tianyan quantum computing cloud platform[EB/OL]. [2025-06-21]. https://qc.zdxlz.com/home?lang=zh. (in Chinese), articleTitle=Tianyan quantum computing cloud platform, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159355883665, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://github.com/ScQ-Cloud/pyquafu, language=null, rfNumber=[46], rfOrder=50, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Pyquafu量子计算软件开发工具[EB/OL]. [2025-06-21]. https://github.com/ScQ-Cloud/pyquafu., articleTitle=Pyquafu量子计算软件开发工具, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159418798226, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://github.com/ScQ-Cloud/pyquafu, language=null, rfNumber=[46], rfOrder=51, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Pyquafu quantum computing software development tools[EB/OL]. [2025-06-21]. https://github.com/ScQ-Cloud/pyquafu. (in Chinese), articleTitle=Pyquafu quantum computing software development tools, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115159477518483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://qcloud.originqc.com.cn/zh/home, language=null, rfNumber=[47], rfOrder=52, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=本源量子计算云平台[EB/OL]. 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It enables a new type of quantum algorithm that requires fewer round-trips between an external classical driver program and the execution of the quantum program, significantly reducing computational latency, as much of the classical computation can be performed during the coherence time of quantum program execution. We review practical challenges to implementing this approach along with developments underway to address these challenges. 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(in Chinese), articleTitle=Quafu quantum computing cloud platform joins the national supercomputing internet, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1242115160635146406, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://www.quantum-info.com/News/qy/2024/2024/0724/803.html, language=null, rfNumber=[61], rfOrder=71, authorNames=国盾量子, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=国盾量子. 合肥超量融合计算中心巢湖明月将建量子计算机[EB/OL]. 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(in Chinese), articleTitle=Hefei quantum-supercomputing converged computing center Chaohu Mingyue to build quantum computer!, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1242115151202156582, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, xref=1, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1242115151210545191, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146032081894723586, articleId=1218251593900806359, companyId=1242115151202156582, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1 1. 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量子计算机的现状与发展
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王正安 1 , 时运豪 2, 3, 4, 5 , 范桁 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
前瞻科技 | 综述与述评 2025,4(4): 64-82
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前瞻科技 | 综述与述评 2025, 4(4): 64-82
量子计算机的现状与发展
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王正安1 , 时运豪2, 3, 4, 5, 范桁1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
作者信息
  • 1 北京量子信息科学研究院, 北京容错量子计算重点实验室, 北京 100193
  • 2 中国科学院物理研究所, 北京凝聚态物理国家研究中心, 北京 100190
  • 3 中国科学院大学物理科学学院, 北京 100049
  • 4 合肥国家实验室, 合肥 230088
  • 5 松山湖材料实验室, 东莞 523803
  • 王正安,助理研究员。主要从事量子算法、量子人工智能、量子多体等研究。先后获得中国博士后基金特别资助(站前)与国家自然科学基金理论物理专项(博士后)资助,国家自然科学基金集成项目课题负责人。主要参与研发的“量子金融云平台”获得中国人民银行设立的金融科技发展二等奖。在Nature Communications、npj Quantum Information等期刊发表学术论文10余篇。电子信箱:

    范桁,研究员。固态量子信息与计算实验室主任,北京量子信息科学研究院智能量子计算与模拟团队负责人。国家“万人计划”科技创新领军人才;科技部重点领域创新团队负责人;国家自然科学基金委员会创新研究群体负责人;周培源物理奖获得者;享受国务院政府特殊津贴专家。主要研究方向为量子计算和量子信息处理(聚焦超导量子计算与量子模拟理论与实验研究、量子计算云平台及量超智融合)。电子信箱:

通信作者:

Current State and Prospects of Quantum Computers
Zheng'an WANG1 , Yunhao SHI2, 3, 4, 5, Heng FAN1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
Affiliations
  • 1 1. Beijing Key Laboratory of Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing, Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
  • 2 Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • 3 School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
  • 4 Hefei National Laboratory, Hefei 230088, China
  • 5 Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan 523803, China
出版时间: 2025-12-20 doi: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.2025.04.005
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量子计算是一场信息和计算领域的深刻变革,有望重塑未来的计算范式。文章追溯了量子计算从理论奠基与思想萌芽、算法突破、实验探索与硬件起步到当前“含噪声的中等规模量子”时代的4个发展阶段,系统阐述了量子比特、量子叠加和量子纠缠等核心物理原理。详细梳理并比较了超导、离子阱、光量子及中性原子的主要硬件研发技术路线,分析了其在规模、质量和连接性上的不同权衡。在此基础上,深入探讨了量子计算面临的三大核心挑战:对抗环境噪声与退相干、实现高开销的量子纠错及解决系统扩展的工程瓶颈。进一步聚焦产业化进程,剖析了量子计算云平台的发展模式,并重点论述了从松耦合到“量超融合”的量子-经典混合计算架构,认为这是通往实用性量子优势的关键路径。立足全球趋势与我国国情,提出了以容错为长远目标、软硬件生态协同发展、加速量超融合落地等发展建议,以期为我国在该领域的战略规划提供参考。

量子计算  /  量子调控  /  量子云计算  /  量子-经典混合  /  量超融合

Quantum computing is a profound revolution in the fields of information and computing poised to reshape the future paradigm of computation. This paper first traced the four developmental stages of quantum computing, from its theoretical origins and algorithmic breakthroughs to the current noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era. It also systematically elaborated on the core physical principles such as qubits, superposition, and entanglement. Subsequently, the paper detailed and compared the major hardware technology routes, including superconducting systems, ion traps, photonics, and neutral atoms, analyzing their respective trade-offs in terms of scale, quality, and connectivity. Building on this, the paper delved into the three core challenges facing quantum computing: combating environmental noise and decoherence, implementing high-overhead quantum error correction, and overcoming the engineering bottlenecks of system scalability. The paper further focused on the industrialization process and analyzed the development models of quantum computing cloud platforms, emphasizing the quantum and classical hybrid computing architecture, which is evolving from loosely-coupled models towards quantum-high performance computing (HPC) hybrid. This is identified as a critical path toward achieving practical quantum advantage. Finally, based on global trends and China’s national context, the paper put forward several development recommendations. These include establishing fault tolerance as a long-term goal, promoting the synergistic development of the hardware and software ecosystem, and accelerating the implementation of a quantum-HPC hybrid, aiming to provide a reference for the nation’s strategic planning in this field.

quantum computing  /  quantum control  /  quantum cloud computing  /  quantum and classical hybrid  /  quantum-HPC hybrid
王正安, 时运豪, 范桁. 量子计算机的现状与发展. 前瞻科技, 2025 , 4 (4) : 64 -82 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.2025.04.005
Zheng'an WANG, Yunhao SHI, Heng FAN. Current State and Prospects of Quantum Computers[J]. Science and Technology Foresight, 2025 , 4 (4) : 64 -82 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.2025.04.005
“三千万士兵组成队列,通过举黑白旗或灯,用宏观的人力和规则演绎二进制运算”——这是科幻小说《三体》中描绘的“人列计算机”。这个看似荒诞的设定,恰恰揭示了经典计算的底层逻辑:无论载体是算盘、电子管还是硅芯片,其本质都是用确定态的“比特”完成串行或并行的确定性操作。
而今天,量子计算正以量子力学的叠加与纠缠为核心,开启一场超越经典计算底层逻辑的颠覆性革命。它不再依赖“确定态比特”的人力或物理模拟,而是让微观粒子(或类似二能级量子系统)本身成为“同时处于0和1的叠加态”的信息单元,从而成为一个个所谓的“量子比特”。因此,量子计算不再局限于串行指令的执行,而是利用纠缠构建量子比特之间“幽灵般的关联”,实现指数级并行计算。这种颠覆,不是“算盘到电脑”的量级提升,而是“用人力排队做加法”与“量子比特同时算尽所有可能”的质变——正如《三体》中“智子”锁死地球科技时人类对更高维度的渴望,量子计算正是人类突破经典计算边界的“升维工具”。从量子计算的算法理论上说,Shor算法可在多项式时间内分解大整数,Grover算法将无结构搜索复杂度从O(N)降至$O\left(\sqrt[]{N}\right)$N为数据规模),量子模拟能精准计算分子电子结构,这为药物研发、高温超导材料设计提供预测。这些优势,让量子计算成为解决“经典计算边界问题”的唯一可行路径。
在这场变革中,量子计算的战略性已上升为全球科技竞争的核心议题。从美国的《国家量子倡议法案》(一期2018年、二期2024年)到欧盟的“量子科技旗舰计划”(2018年),从中国的“十四五”规划将量子科技列为“未来产业重点”到谷歌公司(Google)“悬铃木”(Sycamore)实现量子优越性(2019年)、IBM公司推出1 121量子比特处理器(2023年),各国对量子计算的布局早已超越“技术探索”层面,而是将其视为抢占未来科技制高点、保障国家安全的战略必争之地。量子计算对经典密码的“降维打击”、对复杂系统模拟的“指数级赋能”,直接关系到数字经济的安全与产业升级的核心竞争力。
面对量子计算从“实验室演示”到“实用化落地”的关键转折,文章将明确量子计算的“颠覆性优势”与“当前局限”,避免“过度炒作”或“消极观望”,并试图回答3个核心问题:量子计算的技术边界在哪里?当前挑战如何突破?我国又该如何战略布局?基于此,沿以下逻辑展开:首先,回溯量子计算从“理论萌芽”到“含噪声的中等规模量子(Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum, NISQ)时代”的40多年历程,阐明其核心物理原理——叠加、纠缠与测量的量子特性,为理解技术优势与局限奠定基础。其次,系统梳理超导、离子阱、光量子、中性原子四大主流硬件研发技术路线,在“规模-质量-连接性”的权衡中揭示技术多样性;同时聚焦量子纠错、可扩展性、噪声控制三大核心挑战,剖析其科学本质与工程难点。然后,转向产业化实践,分析量子计算云平台与“量超融合”(量子-经典混合计算)的演进路径——这是当前化解NISQ时代算力瓶颈、通往实用量子优势的现实选择。最后,立足全球竞争态势与我国国情,提出“以容错为目标、软硬件协同、加速量超融合”的发展建议,旨在为我国量子计算的战略规划提供参考。
量子计算并非对现有技术的简单改良,而是一场从根本上重塑计算概念的深刻变革。它的崛起并非朝夕之功,其思想的“种子”早在100多年前便已播下,历经理论的奠基与算法的突破,最终汇聚成今日席卷全球的产业化浪潮。
量子计算的发展大致可以划分为4个重要阶段(图1)。
第1阶段,理论奠基与思想萌芽(20世纪初—80年代)。量子计算的根基深植于20世纪初诞生的量子力学。普朗克、爱因斯坦、玻尔和海森堡等物理学家的革命性发现,揭示了微观世界遵循着与经典物理截然不同的奇特规律,为一种全新的计算范式埋下了伏笔。然而,将量子力学与计算真正联系起来的思想火花出现在20世纪80年代,物理学家Benioff在1980年首次描述了计算机的量子力学模型,提出了“量子图灵机”的概念,从理论上证明了计算机可以在量子力学定律下运行。1年后,物理学家Feynman在一场著名演讲中指出,由于世界本质上是量子的,要精确模拟物理世界,就需要一台遵循量子规则的计算机。他提出了“量子模拟器”的构想,这极大激发了学界对量子计算的兴趣[1]。1985年,牛津大学的物理学家Deutsch发表了一篇里程碑式的论文,定义了一种能够模拟任何物理过程的“通用量子计算机”。这不仅为量子计算提供了坚实的理论框架,也开启了量子算法的研究。
第2阶段,算法突破时代(20世纪90年代)。这是量子算法的黄金时代,一系列“杀手级应用”的出现,向世界展示了量子计算的惊人潜力。1994年,数学家Shor提出了Shor算法。该算法能够以指数级速度分解大整数,对现代基于大数分解难题的公钥密码体系(如RSA算法)构成了根本性威胁[2]。1996年,贝尔实验室的计算机科学家Grover提出了Grover算法,该算法能够以二次方加速在无结构数据库中进行搜索[3],此后龙桂鲁[4]进一步将其搜索准确率提升到了100%,该算法可以应用的范围极为广泛。1995年,为了应对量子比特固有的脆弱性,Shor、Steane等开创了量子纠错理论,证明了从原理上可以保护量子信息免受噪声干扰,这让人们相信可扩展的量子计算是可能实现的[5-6]
第3阶段,实验探索与硬件起步(20世纪90年代末—21世纪10年代)。理论的突破推动了实验的进展,科学家们开始尝试将抽象的量子比特和量子门在物理世界中实现。1998年,首个量子算法(Deutsch问题)被成功实验演示。当时的研究人员利用一个2量子比特的核磁共振(Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, NMR)量子计算机完成了这一壮举,标志着量子计算从 “纸上谈兵” 走向了 “物理实现”[7]。1999年,第一个超导量子比特被成功制造出来,为后来成为主流技术路线之一的超导量子计算奠定了基础[8]。在这一时期,D-Wave公司等开始探索商业化的量子退火机,而IBM公司、Google公司等科技巨头也开始投入研发,逐步构建出可供外界访问的早期量子原型机。
第4阶段,NISQ时代与产业化浪潮(2018年至今)。近年来,量子计算的发展进入快车道,当前正处于一个被物理学家Preskill在2018年定义的 “含噪声的中等规模量子”(NISQ)时代[9]。2019年,Google公司宣布其53量子比特的“悬铃木”处理器在特定计算任务上超越了当时最强的超级计算机,首次实现了“量子优越性”,这是一个重要的科学里程碑[10]。各大技术路线的量子比特数量和质量都在快速提升。IBM公司、Google公司、IonQ公司、Quantinuum公司等,以及中国的研究机构不断刷新量子处理器的规模和性能纪录[11-13]。如今,量子计算不再是少数顶尖实验室的专属。通过IBM Quantum、Microsoft Azure Quantum、Amazon Braket等云平台,全球的研究人员、开发者和企业都可以远程访问真实的量子计算机,极大地推动了应用探索和生态系统的繁荣。总体而言,量子计算的发展过程中理论与实验相互驱动、科学与工程协同并进。从一个思想实验,到如今成为全球科技竞争的战略制高点,量子计算正处在从实现科学演示到创造实用价值的关键转折点。
要理解量子计算机为何拥有颠覆性潜力,首先必须掌握其构建信息与执行运算的核心物理原理[14]。这些原理不仅定义了量子计算的能力,也决定了其面临的独特挑战。
经典计算的基石是“比特”,一个只能处于0或1这两种确定状态之一的物理系统。无论是计算机内存中的晶体管,还是硬盘上的磁畴,其信息表示都是二进制、离散且明确的。而量子计算的基本信息单元“量子比特”完全突破了这一限制,图2展示了一个量子比特的Bloch球面,除了南北极代表的0和1外,其还可以表示该球面上的任意一点。一个量子比特并非抽象概念,而是任何一个可以被精确控制的、具有两个可区分量子态的物理系统。常见的物理实现载体包括电子的自旋、光子的偏振,或是原子、超导电路中离散的两个能级。这些物理系统的状态,根据量子力学原理,可以用一个二维复数向量空间(即希尔伯特空间)中的向量来描述。一个量子比特的通用状态 |ψ〉可以表示为两个基本状态 |0〉和 |1〉的线性组合,即“叠加态”
|ψ〉=α|0〉+β|1〉
式中,$\alpha $$\beta $为概率振幅,其为复数,并非任意取值,而是必须满足归一化条件$|\alpha {|}^{2}+|\beta {|}^{2}=1$。这个公式的物理意义在于,当对这个量子比特进行测量时,得到结果为0的概率为$|\alpha {|}^{2}$,得到结果为1的概率为$|\beta {|}^{2}$。正是这种概率性和状态的连续性,赋予了量子比特远超经典比特的信息承载能力。
量子叠加是量子力学的核心特征之一,它允许一个量子系统同时处于多个可能的状态。著名的“薛定谔的猫”思想实验生动地阐释了这一概念:在被观测之前,箱中的猫处于一种“既死又活”的叠加状态。对于量子比特而言,这意味着它在被测量之前,并非确定处于0或1的某一个状态,而是处于一种由0态和1态按特定概率叠加而成的量子状态,只有测量后才会塌缩为确定的0或1。单个量子比特的叠加能力虽然强大,但量子计算真正的威力体现在多量子比特系统中。当N个经典比特组合时,它们在任何时刻只能表示2N个可能状态中的1个。例如,一个8比特的经典寄存器可以存储0~255之间的一个整数。相比之下,一个由N个量子比特组成的系统,由于每个量子比特都处于叠加态,整个系统可以同时处于2N个经典状态的叠加中。一个8量子比特的系统,理论上可以同时表示从0~255的所有整数。
这种状态空间的指数级增长是量子计算巨大潜力的根源。它为一种被称为“量子并行计算”的现象奠定了物理基础:对一个N量子比特的寄存器施加一次量子门操作,相当于同时对2N个经典数值进行了变换。这使得量子计算机在处理某些特定问题时,能够探索一个巨大的可能性空间,其效率是经典计算机无法比拟的。
如果说叠加赋予了量子计算机广阔的计算空间,那么量子纠缠则是在这个空间中进行高效协同运算的关键。纠缠是多个量子比特之间存在的一种深刻的、非经典的关联。当两个或多个量子比特发生纠缠时,它们就形成了一个不可分割的整体,任何一个量子比特的状态都无法独立于其他纠缠的量子比特来描述。这种关联的奇特性在于,它与距离无关。对其中一个纠缠粒子进行测量,其结果会瞬间影响到另一个粒子的状态,哪怕它们相隔遥远。爱因斯坦将此现象称为“幽灵般的超距作用”(Spooky Action at a Distance)[15]
在量子计算中,纠缠并非仅仅是物理学上的现象,而是一种至关重要的计算资源。它能够创建出高度复杂的、全局性的量子态,这些量子态所包含的信息远超其组成部分(单个量子比特)信息量的总和。通过巧妙地利用纠缠,量子算法能够执行经典算法无法模拟的复杂操作,从而显著提升量子电路的计算能力,实现超越经典并行计算的指数级加速。
量子计算的过程充满了量子力学的特性,但其最终结果必须以经典信息的形式被读取。这一从量子到经典世界的转换通过“测量”实现。然而,测量在量子力学中是一个具有根本性影响的行为。当一个处于叠加态的量子比特被测量时,它的波函数会发生“坍缩”,从多种可能性的叠加态中随机地选择一个确定的状态。坍缩到具体哪个状态的概率由测量前该状态对应的概率振幅的模平方决定。一旦测量完成,原始的叠加态便不复存在,量子信息在某种意义上被破坏了。
这种测量导致的坍缩和结果的概率性是量子计算与经典计算的一个核心区别。经典计算是确定的,对于给定的输入和程序,其输出是唯一且可重复的。而量子计算本质上是概率性的,运行一次量子计算,只会得到一个可能的答案,并且每次运行得到的结果可能都不同。
结合1.2节介绍的基础原理,可以清晰地勾勒出量子计算相对于经典计算的根本区别及其潜在优势,具体表现在4方面:① 信息单元不同,经典计算机使用比特,其状态是确定的0或1;量子计算机使用量子比特,其状态是0和1的概率性叠加。② 状态空间不同,N个经典比特只能表示N位信息;N个量子比特可以同时表示一个包含2N个状态的向量,其信息容量随比特数指数增长。③ 处理模式不同,经典计算机的中央处理器(Central Processing Unit, CPU)进行串行计算,图像处理器(Graphics Processing Unit, GPU)进行并行计算,但都是对不同的数据块进行独立或并行的确定性操作;量子计算机利用量子叠加实现量子并行,一次操作可作用于2N个数据的叠加态上。④ 输出结果不同,经典计算的结果是确定性的,而量子计算的结果是概率性的,需要通过多次测量和统计分析来获得。
正是这些根本性的差异,造就了所谓的“量子优势”或“量子优越性”,即在处理某些特定类型的计算难题时,量子计算机能够实现超越任何现有及未来经典超级计算机的指数级性能提升。这些难题通常具有巨大的计算复杂性,例如大数质因数分解或复杂分子体系的精确模拟,其计算量随问题规模的增长而指数级增长,令经典计算机束手无策。量子计算机通过其独特的计算范式,有望将这些“不可解”的问题变为“可解”。
超导量子计算是目前投入最大、发展最快的技术路线之一,被IBM公司、Google公司等科技巨头和众多初创公司视为实现近期量子优势的主要方向。该技术利用与现代半导体工业兼容的微纳加工工艺,在硅芯片上制造由超导材料(如铝、钽)组成的微型电路。其核心部件是约瑟夫森结,它是一种非线性电感,与电容组合可以构成一个非谐振荡器,从而形成离散的能级。通过精确设计,可以选择其中两个能级作为量子比特的 |0〉态和 |1〉态。其中,Transmon是目前最主流的超导量子比特设计,它通过增大并联电容,显著降低了对环境中电荷噪声的敏感度,从而延长了相干时间。为了维持电路的超导特性并抑制热噪声,整个芯片必须被置于接近绝对零度(10~20 mK)的极低温稀释制冷机中运行。图3展示了一套完整的超导量子计算装置,包括了内含超导量子芯片的稀释制冷单元(最内侧)、测控电子学设备(中间)及测控软件系统(最外侧)等。
超导量子计算机核心优势在于极快的门操作速度(ns量级)和良好的可扩展性。由于借鉴了成熟的半导体制造技术,可以相对容易地在单个芯片上集成数百甚至上千量子比特。超导量子计算机主要瓶颈在于量子比特的“质量”问题。超导量子比特的相干时间相对较短(通常在几十到几百μs),对环境噪声(如电磁场波动、材料缺陷)极其敏感,导致较高的错误率。此外,在二维平面芯片上,量子比特的连接性通常受限为近邻耦合,即每个比特只能与其物理上相邻的几个比特直接作用,这给编译复杂的量子算法带来了巨大的额外开销。扩展到更大规模时,控制线路的布线和信号串扰也成为严峻的工程难题[16]
目前该路线的主要参与者包括:IBM公司,持续推出更大规模的量子处理器,其路线图清晰,从127量子比特的“Eagle”到433量子比特的“Osprey”,再到突破千比特的1 121量子比特“Condor”和156量子比特的高性能“Heron R2”[17]。Google公司,以其53量子比特的“Sycamore”处理器在2019年声称首次实现“量子优越性”而闻名[10],正致力于通过表面码实现容错量子计算[13]。Rigetti公司,垂直整合的初创公司,研发并销售其超导量子处理器,如84量子比特的“Ankaa-2”系统[18]。我国目前以高校和科研院所为主,中国科学技术大学研发了“祖冲之”系列量子芯片,是国内首次利用超导体系在量子随机线路采样任务上达到了“量子优越性”;中国科学院物理研究所研发了“庄子”系列量子芯片,首次观测了侯世达蝴蝶能谱分形结构和拓扑零模式;其他,例如清华大学、浙江大学、北京量子信息科学研究院、南方科技大学、粤港澳大湾区量子科学中心、深圳国际量子研究院等均在学术上取得了瞩目的成果。中电信量子信息科技集团有限公司(简称中电信量子集团)、科大国盾量子技术股份有限公司(简称国盾量子)、本源量子计算科技(合肥)股份有限公司(简称本源量子)等企业在超导路线的商业化方面也取得了成功。
离子阱技术是另一条极具竞争力的路线,它利用自然界的原子作为近乎完美的量子比特,在保真度和相干时间等“质量”指标上长期保持领先。该技术使用电磁场将单个带电原子(离子)悬浮并囚禁在超高真空环境中。离子的内部稳定电子能级被用作量子比特的 |0〉态和 |1〉态。通过精确调谐的激光束,可以对离子进行冷却、初始化、执行高精度的单比特和双比特门操作,并最终读取其状态。囚禁在同一个势阱中的离子通过它们共享的集体振动模式(声子)相互作用,从而实现纠缠。
离子阱技术最突出的优点是极长的相干时间(可达数秒甚至数分钟)和极高的量子门保真度(单比特和双比特门保真度分别达到99.997 9%和99.914 0%)[19]。此外,离子阱系统有很好的连通性,通常能实现全连通,任意2量子比特之间都可以直接进行纠缠操作,这对于算法实现极为有利。但是门操作速度相对较慢(μs量级),比超导系统慢几个数量级。此外,随着离子规模增大,维持系统的稳定性和精确操控的难度随之增加,扩展到大规模量子比特阵列面临着巨大的工程挑战[16]
目前该路线的主要参与者包括:Quantinuum公司,由霍尼韦尔和剑桥量子公司合并而成,是该领域的领军企业,其H系列量子计算机以创世纪纪录的“量子体积”而著称,例如其H2系统拥有56个全连接量子比特,量子体积高达8 388 608(即223[20]。IonQ公司,是一家初创公司,其计算系统“Forte”和“Aria”可通过各大云平台访问。我国清华大学团队首次利用二维离子阵列实现了目前已知国际最大规模、具有“单比特分辨率”的多离子量子模拟计算,其他主要研究单位还有北京量子信息科学研究院、中国科学院精密测量科学与技术创新研究院、中国人民大学等,华翊博奥(北京)量子科技有限公司、国开启科量子技术(北京)有限公司(简称启科量子)等企业也正在进行商业化尝试。
光量子计算采用光子作为信息载体,通过操控光子的量子态(如偏振、路径等)来编码量子比特。其工作过程主要依赖非线性光学效应产生纠缠光子对,再利用线性光学器件对光子进行操控,以实现量子逻辑运算。光子作为量子比特,与环境的相互作用非常弱,因此具有较强的相干性。光量子计算面临的主要挑战是实现高效的双比特纠缠门。由于光子之间几乎不直接相互作用,实现它们之间的逻辑门操作通常需要借助介质或者通过后选择的方法,这大大降低了计算效率。此外,高质量的单光子源和高效率的单光子探测器也是关键的技术挑战[16]
目前该路线的主要参与者包括:PsiQuantum公司,直接目标是利用标准半导体代工厂制造包含百万级量子比特的容错光量子计算机[21]。Xanadu公司是光量子计算领域的知名公司,其“Borealis”处理器通过解决玻色采样问题展示了量子优越性[22]。我国的中国科学技术大学通过其“九章”系列光量子计算原型机,在解决高斯玻色采样问题上多次刷新世界纪录[23-24]。北京玻色量子科技有限公司(简称玻色量子)主攻相干伊辛机,据报道其最新发布的550W型号可以解决最高超过550个变量的特定数学问题[25]
中性原子作为一种新兴的技术路线,近年来发展迅猛,尤其在实现大规模量子比特阵列方面展现出惊人的潜力。该技术使用被称为“光镊”的高度聚焦的激光束,在真空中捕获和排列单个中性原子(如铷或锶原子)。通过激光激发,可以精确地控制每个原子的内部能级状态。当需要执行双比特门时,可以将相邻的原子激发到高能的“里德堡态”,此时原子的体积急剧膨胀,从而能够产生强烈的相互作用实现纠缠。
光量子计算最显著的优势是卓越的可扩展性。研究人员已经能够在二维和三维空间中轻松创建和控制包含数千个原子的阵列[19]。同时,中性原子作为量子比特,具有天然的全同性和较好的相干性。然而作为一种较新的技术路线,其双比特门的保真度和速度仍在追赶超导和离子阱系统。维持大规模原子阵列的稳定性和对里德堡态的精确控制是当前的主要技术挑战。
目前该路线的主要参与者包括:Atom Computing公司在2023年宣布研制出包含1 225个原子的量子计算原型机,是首个突破千比特量级的系统[26]。欧洲PASQAL公司专注于利用中性原子阵列进行量子模拟和优化[27-28]。QuEra Computing源于哈佛大学和麻省理工学院的研究,其设备在实现可编程量子模拟方面取得了重要进展,并发布了包含48个逻辑比特的中性原子计算机[29]。我国清华大学、北京量子信息科学研究院等高校和科研院所在中性原子方向发展迅速,近期首次在室温里德堡气体中观测到时间晶体。
除了上述主流路线,研究人员还在探索一些更具前瞻性或针对特定优势的技术。
NV色心是金刚石晶格中一种由氮原子取代碳原子并与其邻近的一个空位结合形成的点缺陷,可以通过电子自旋的能级来编码1量子比特的信息。该技术的特点是仅通过激光照射就可以对量子态进行初始化和读出,并通过施加特定频率的微波脉冲进行精确操控。这使其成为一种备受关注的物理体系,不过目前受到扩展性的限制,比特数较少,在精密测量领域反而实现了更广泛的应用。
硅基自旋量子比特可利用全球最成熟的硅半导体产业来制造量子计算机。量子比特由囚禁在硅量子点中的单个电子的自旋来承载[30]。其巨大潜力在于可以借鉴数十年来互补金属氧化物半导体(Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor, CMOS)工艺积累的经验,实现极高密度的量子比特集成。然而,由于材料和制造中的微小缺陷,实现高质量、高均匀性的量子比特仍然非常困难,其发展速度相对缓慢。
拓扑量子计算是一条最具革命性但也是最具挑战性的道路。其核心思想是将量子信息编码在物质的拓扑性质中,而非单个粒子的局部状态。例如可使用被称为“马约拉纳零模”的准粒子,其信息在空间上是分布式的,因此天然地对局域噪声和扰动免疫。理论上,拓扑量子比特的错误率极低,可以大幅降低量子纠错的开销。微软是这条路线最坚定的支持者,进行了数十年的研究,并于2025年初宣布在创造和控制马约拉纳准粒子方面取得了进展[31]。然而,实验上是否明确无误地证实马约拉纳零模的存在,并实现对其进行相当于量子门的编织操作,学术界对此仍存在巨大争议。
对不同硬件技术路线进行公平比较是极其困难的,因为它们各自的优势和劣势分布在不同的维度上。这揭示了当前量子硬件发展中的一个核心困境:似乎存在一种“不可能三角”,难以同时实现大规模、高质量和高连通性。
超导系统在规模上领先,IBM公司的处理器已超过1 000个物理量子比特[17],但其相干时间和保真度相对较低,且连接性受限于二维平面布局。离子阱系统则在质量(保真度>99.9%)和连接性(全连接)上占绝对优势,这使其在“量子体积”这一综合性基准上屡创纪录[20],但其物理比特的规模扩展和门操作速度面临挑战。光量子路线为大规模连接(网络化)提供了独特的解决方案,但其核心计算单元(双比特门)的质量和效率是主要障碍。中性原子则在规模上迅速崛起,正努力提升其质量。
这种权衡意味着,最佳的硬件平台可能是依赖于具体算法与应用的。一个需要高度连接性的优化算法可能在离子阱计算机上表现最好,而一个模拟简单晶格模型的物理问题可能更适合大规模的超导芯片。这种技术路线的多样性,正是该领域虽百花齐放但尚不成熟的标志。
此外,硬件发展的另一个关键因素在于实现“逻辑量子比特”的策略。逻辑量子比特是通过量子纠错技术,利用多个不完美的物理量子比特来构建的一个高度稳定、错误率极低的虚拟量子比特。例如,目前Google公司选用了表面码方案[32],因此大力发展正方晶格结构的超导量子芯片由IBM公司等超导路线的领导者主导。接受现有物理量子比特噪声较大的现实,转而投入巨大的精力开发和实施复杂的纠错码。这种方法的挑战在于构建一个逻辑量子比特可能需要成百上千个物理量子比特,以及一套庞大而高速的经典控制系统来实时解码和纠错。
尽管量子计算的前景令人振奋,但要从今天的几十、几百个噪声量子比特发展到未来拥有数百万个容错逻辑量子比特的通用量子计算机,仍需跨越一系列巨大的科学和工程障碍。这些挑战相互关联,构成了整个领域向前推进的核心瓶颈。
量子计算最根本的挑战源于量子比特的脆弱性。量子态(叠加和纠缠)对外部环境的任何微小扰动都极其敏感,这种敏感性导致了“量子退相干”现象,即量子比特会自发地、不可逆地丢失其宝贵的量子特性,退化为经典状态[14]。问题的根源在于噪声无处不在。它可以是来自外部环境的热涨落、杂散的电磁场、宇宙射线,也可以是来自控制设备本身的信号抖动,甚至是构成量子比特的材料内部的微观缺陷。这些噪声会随机地改变量子比特的状态,导致计算过程中引入错误[33-34]
为了尽可能延长量子比特的“相干时间”(即它们能够保持量子态的时间),研究人员必须将量子处理器置于一个极端隔离的环境中。对于超导和部分自旋量子比特,这意味着需要使用大型稀释制冷机将其冷却到比外太空还要寒冷的、接近绝对零度(-273.15 ℃)的温度。对于离子阱,则需要超高真空环境来隔绝与空气分子的碰撞。这些极端的工程条件本身就带来了巨大的成本和技术挑战。
即使有最完美的保护,错误也很难避免。对于需要执行数十亿次甚至更多门操作的复杂算法(如Shor算法),单个门操作即使有99.99%的保真度,累积的错误也足以让最终结果变得毫无意义。因此,要实现真正有用的、大规模的量子计算,就必须拥有主动纠正错误的能力,这就是量子纠错的意义[14]
量子纠错的理念与经典纠错码类似,都是通过设计冗余来保护信息。它将一个理想的、无错误的“逻辑量子比特”信息,编码到多个(有时是成百上千个)不完美的物理量子比特的集体状态中。通过对这些物理量子比特进行特殊的、非破坏性的测量,可以探测到发生了何种错误以及错误发生在哪一个物理量子比特上,而不会破坏编码在逻辑比特中的信息。一旦探测到错误,系统就可以施加一个相应的修正操作,将其恢复[33]。目前,表面码是研究最广泛的量子纠错方案之一,因为它只需要近邻比特间的相互作用,与超导等二维芯片架构天然兼容[35]。色码在实现某些非Clifford门时的效率更高,但其稳定子结构和解码算法比表面码更复杂,是表面码的有力竞争者和补充[36]。量子低密度奇偶校验码则在理论上具有非常低的量子比特开销,其编码效率虽然高但通常需要长程相互作用,对硬件有比较高的要求,因此被认为是未来实现低开销容错量子计算的关键[37]
量子纠错目前被普遍认为是通往容错计算的必由之路,但其成本也极其高昂。构建一个高质量的逻辑量子比特,可能需要数百甚至数千个物理量子比特。这意味着一台拥有106个逻辑比特的容错量子计算机,可能需要109个物理量子比特。量子纠错不仅仅是一个编码方案,而是一个动态的过程。系统需要一个高性能的经典协处理器,在每个时钟周期内(通常是μs甚至ns量级),快速读取大量的测量数据,运行复杂的解码算法来推断最可能发生的错误,并立即向量子处理器发出纠正指令。这个过程对经典控制系统的算力、带宽和延迟提出了极高的要求,其数据处理量可达100 TB/s,堪比一台小型超级计算机[38]
因此,量子纠错的实现并非单一的物理学或算法问题,而是一个极其复杂的,跨越量子硬件、量子编码理论、经典算法和高速电子学的多层次系统工程挑战。其进展依赖于整个计算堆栈的协同进化:首先,物理比特的错误率必须降低到相应的纠错阈值以下,量子纠错才能起作用;其次,需要更高效的纠错码和解码算法来降低开销;最后,必须开发出能够满足实时纠错需求的强大经典控制硬件。Google团队在2024年首次实验性地证明,通过增加物理比特数量可以降低逻辑比特的错误率,这被视为跨越量子纠错“盈亏平衡点”的一个重要里程碑[13]
将量子计算机从几十个比特扩展到数百万个比特,其难度并非线性增加,这是一个涉及物理、数学、工程和计算机科学等多方面的综合性挑战。随着量子比特数量增加,如何将精确的控制信号(如微波或激光脉冲)传递到芯片中心的每一个比特,同时避免信号之间的串扰,成为一个巨大的难题。在超导芯片中,控制线的数量与比特数成正比,很快就会遇到“布线瓶颈”。对于超导、硅基等依赖微纳加工的路线,要在大规模芯片上保证数百万个量子比特的频率、相干时间等关键参数高度一致,是一项艰巨的制造挑战。离子阱则受到光谱拥挤与加热、激光寻址等问题困扰。
量子计算机是一个庞大而复杂的系统,包含了量子处理器、极低温系统、真空系统、复杂的控制电子学和软件。要将所有这些子系统无缝集成,并保证长期稳定运行,本身就是一项浩大的工程。当单芯片集成度达到极限时,唯一的出路是构建模块化的系统,即通过高保真度的量子通道将多个量子处理器(Quantum Processing Unit, QPU)芯片连接起来,形成一个更大的分布式量子计算机[39]。然而,实现芯片间的低损耗、高保真度量子互联,是当前面临的又一个前沿技术挑战。
量子计算正在从纯粹的学术探索,演变为一个充满活力的全球性产业生态。科技巨头、专业化初创公司、国家级研究机构和政府共同构成了一个复杂而又快速演进的竞争与合作格局。这个生态系统的发展模式,正深刻地影响着技术路线的选择、商业模式的形成以及未来产业的结构。
量子计算云平台是量子计算机与云计算结合的技术,由于量子计算机在中短期内不能小型化,并时刻需要专业的维护,因此将量子计算机通过互联网云计算模式上线,为用户提供研究、测试和教育等服务,大大降低了实验的障碍,在加速算法研究、早期应用开发及量子教育等方面发挥了关键作用[40]
从全球来看,量子计算云平台及其相关技术已经发展出相当规模的产业。目前主要呈现出两种不同的模式。
一种是全栈模式,典型代表是IBM和Google。它们采取垂直整合策略,自主设计和制造从量子处理器、控制硬件到上层软件开发套件(Software Development Kit, SDK)的完整技术堆栈[41-43]。其优势在于硬件和软件的紧密集成与协同设计,能够针对其特定的硬件架构进行深度优化,从而可能实现更高的系统性能。以IBM公司为例,一方面,长期专注于超导量子技术,其处理器家族不断迭代,从较早期的127比特“Eagle”处理器,发展到最新一代模块化的156比特“Heron”系列处理器,总的在线比特数在最高时超过1 000比特,搭配自研的“System Two”测控系统,双比特门保真度超过99.9%,综合硬件性能指标居世界领先水平;另一方面,非常注重软件生态的培养,围绕其核心开源软件开发套件Qiskit发展出了较完整的生态系统,已成为量子计算领域事实上的标准之一,拥有庞大的用户社区。依靠自研硬件加软件生态,IBM公司目前牢牢占据量子计算云平台领先位置。Google公司则通过开源量子编程框架Cirq构建其软件生态。Cirq是Google公司推出的首个完整版的量子编程框架,提供了稳定的应用程序编程接口,专为近期的量子计算机(拥有数百量子比特和几千个量子门)而设计,它也是一款用Python编写的用于编写、运行和分析量子计算机程序结果的框架。Cirq已在Google公司的量子计算硬件上运行,并在Cirq基础上,Google公司构建了TensorFlow Quantum、OpenFermion、Qsim等软件,形成了完整的量子计算软件生态系统。这一开源策略与IBM公司的Qiskit形成互补,共同推动量子计算软件生态的繁荣发展,使Google公司在量子计算云平台领域也占据重要位置。
另一种是聚合模式,代表是亚马逊公司和微软公司。它们扮演着“量子算力市场”的角色,通过与多家硬件供应商建立合作伙伴关系,它们在一个统一的云平台上,为用户提供对多种不同类型量子比特技术的访问。其最大优势是为用户提供了极大的灵活性和选择权,允许他们根据特定问题的需求,选择最合适的硬件后端;同时也有效对冲了单一硬件技术路线失败的风险。以亚马逊公司为例,Amazon Braket提供了一种多样化的量子计算机组合,用户可以在同一平台上访问来自Rigetti和IQM的超导量子计算机、来自IonQ的离子阱量子计算机,以及来自QuEra的中性原子量子计算机。这使得用户可以针对不同问题,灵活地选择和比较各种硬件的性能。软件方面,Braket的生态系统高度关注开发者体验。它不仅提供了自家的Braket Python SDK,还通过插件的形式,强调与Qiskit和PennyLane等主流开源库的互操作性,极大降低了开发者的学习成本[44]。此外,该平台的主要特色功能之一是Braket Hybrid Jobs,简化了复杂的混合量子-经典工作流的部署和管理,使用户可以轻松地同时调用亚马逊网络服务(Amazon Web Services, AWS)的服务器与硬件供应商量子计算机来完成量子-经典混合程序。
近年来,我国也在大力发展量子计算云平台,特别是央企加入后发展迅速,目前属于全栈构建模式的主要有:中电信量子集团“天衍”量子计算云平台,以两枚“祖冲之2号”超导量子芯片(66数据比特)为主力,自研了Cqlib量子软件开发工具[45];北京量子信息科学研究院与中国科学院物理研究所共建的Quafu量子计算云平台(图4),上线了“Baihua”“Yunmeng”“Haituo”等多枚百比特超导量子芯片,总比特数国内领先,研发了开源软件开发工具PyQuafu,支持量子算法与应用开发[46];本源量子计算云平台,上线了“悟空”超导量子芯片(72数据比特),并自研QPanda与VQNet软件开发工具[47];采用聚合模式的代表是中国移动的“五岳”量子计算云平台,用户可以自由选择来自北京量子信息科学研究院、中国科学院物理研究所、本源量子的超导量子计算机,玻色量子的相干伊辛机,以及启科量子的离子阱量子计算机,中国移动也自研了WuYue Quantum开源软件开发工具[48]
量子计算正从理论探索走向解决实际问题的应用阶段,而量子-经典混合计算是这一转变的核心驱动力。在NISQ时代,量子处理器虽然在比特数上不断增长,但其固有的噪声、退相干和有限的连通性等物理限制,使得执行复杂、长深度的纯量子算法尚不可行。因此,量子-经典混合计算作为一种务实的解决方案应运而生,它通过将计算任务在量子处理器(QPU)与经典处理器(CPU/GPU)之间进行合理分配,以最大化发挥当前硬件的潜力。图5展示了IBM建造的以量子为中心的超级计算机示意图,包含了量子计算机、运行时系统、经典超算集群等。目前最重要且应用最广泛的一类混合算法是变分量子算法(Variational Quantum Algorithm, VQA),这类算法将一个复杂的量子问题转化为一个经典优化问题,典型工作流是一个在量子与经典处理器之间不断迭代的反馈循环,从而完美契合了量子-经典混合的计算架构,多家量子计算云平台正在向量子-经典混合转变。此外,量子计算技术本身也依赖于经典计算,例如,通过人工智能实现量子比特校准与测控的自动化,量子纠错中可借助人工智能算法进行快速解码,量子线路编译也需要大量经典计算资源等,这些需求也进一步推动了量子与经典计算的融合。
量子-经典混合系统的架构根据集成深度和通信效率的不同,可大致分成4种类型。混合的核心驱动力是降低量子与经典处理器之间的通信延迟,因为在VQA等迭代算法中,二者之间的往返通信时间是主要的性能瓶颈[49]
(1)松耦合型,这是最基础也是目前最普遍的集成模型。用户在本地的经典计算机上编写量子电路,然后通过云平台将其作为一个独立的“作业”提交给远程的QPU。QPU执行该作业后,将测量结果返回给用户。这种模式的特点是通信延迟极高(可能达到s级甚至min级),且无法实现实时交互。在每次作业执行之间,QPU的量子态都会被重置,无法在不同计算步骤间保持相干性。尽管效率不高,但它为广大用户提供了接触和实验真实量子硬件的入口。
(2)会话型,这是对批处理模型的改进。以微软的Microsoft Azure Quantum平台为例,其引入了“会话”(Sessions)的概念[50]。一个会话可以将多个相关的量子作业逻辑上组合在一起(例如同一个VQA算法中的多个量子线路),并在执行队列中获得更高的优先级。更重要的是,在这种模型中,用户的经典计算资源也被转移到云端,物理上更靠近QPU。这显著降低了VQA等迭代算法中经典优化器与QPU之间的通信延迟。然而,在会话内的不同作业之间,量子比特的状态仍通常不被保留。
(3)紧耦合型,这是一个架构上的重大飞跃。经典和量子处理器被紧密地集成在一起,使得经典计算可以在量子比特保持相干性的时间窗口内完成。这使得程序可以在量子电路执行的中途测量一部分量子比特,然后经典处理器根据测量结果进行实时判断,并动态地决定后续要执行的量子门操作,所有这一切都在一次电路运行中完成。这项功能极大地丰富了算法的设计空间,使得动态电路、条件逻辑和量子比特重用成为可能,即被测量后的量子比特可以被重置并用于后续的计算,从而有效利用有限的量子资源。
(4)量超融合,是当前混合计算发展的最终愿景。它设想将一个或多个QPU作为专用加速器,无缝集成到经典的高性能计算(High Performance Computing, HPC)环境中,与CPU和GPU等传统计算单元并存[51]。整个异构系统由一个统一的作业调度器(如SLURM)和编程模型进行管理,允许单个应用程序在不同类型的处理器之间协同调度任务,旨在将量子算力赋能给最大规模的科学与工程计算。同时,其具有分布式的特征,通过量子(如光子)或经典网络将多个较小的、独立的量子计算模块连接起来,形成一个大规模的分布式量子集群[52-53]。这种模块化的路径为应对单芯片扩展的物理瓶颈提供了另一种思路。它允许每个模块被独立优化、制造和测试,然后通过网络互联,从而在理论上实现近乎无限的扩展。然而,这也引入了接口保真度、模块间的同步和通信延迟等新的挑战。
将量子计算机作为加速器集成到国家级超级计算中心,已成为全球主要科技大国在下一代计算领域竞争的焦点。这一全球性的共识不仅验证了量超融合架构的战略重要性,也为该领域的发展注入了强大的动力。
美国能源部下属的橡树岭国家实验室通过其“量子计算用户计划”(Quantum Computing User Program,QCUP),率先探索了将量子资源整合到世界顶级HPC生态系统中的路径[54]。依托其运营“前沿”(Frontier)等顶级超算方面积累的丰富经验,致力于为科学应用开发完整的混合计算软件栈和工作流管理方案[55]
日本理化学研究所计算科学研究中心已成功地将一台IBM Quantum System Two(搭载156比特的Heron处理器)与世界最强大的超级计算机之一“富岳”(Fugaku)进行了物理连接[56],旨在通过高速网络在底层指令级别连接QPU和HPC,以开发并行化工作负载和低延迟通信协议。
欧洲高性能计算联合体通过HPCQS项目[57],正在多个成员国中推动量超融合。其中,德国的于利希超级计算中心正在将其JURECA DC超级计算机与一台来自Pasqal公司的100比特中性原子量子计算机进行耦合[58]
这些全球性的努力,尽管在具体技术路线和集成模式上有所不同,但都指向了同一个架构终点。这种趋同性表明,量超融合不仅是一个可行的技术方向,更已被全球顶尖的计算科学家和战略规划者们确立为下一代高性能计算的标准范式。我国近两年也在发展量子-经典融合技术,例如本源量子先后将“悟空”超导量子计算机接入了上海超级计算中心与国家超级计算郑州中心,组建了松耦合型的“量超融合先进计算平台”[59]。北京量子信息科学研究院和中国科学院物理研究所的Quafu量子计算云平台入驻国家超算互联网平台,融入国家级的算力大动脉[60]。国盾量子与启科量子参与了合肥超量融合计算中心项目,在依托合肥先进计算中心现有的“巢湖明月”超级计算机的基础上,部署3台量子计算机[61]
在硬件集成技术之外,另一个关键的竞争焦点是能够让这些复杂异构系统变得高效、易用的软件。开发统一的编程模型、跨平台的编译器、智能的资源管理器和高效的作业调度器,将成为决定谁能率先从这些强大系统中获得真正“量子优势”的关键,这也与前文提到的软件生态相呼应。
在全面回顾量子计算的发展历程、核心挑战与产业现状之后,为确保我国在这一未来关键技术领域的领先地位,必须基于全球趋势与自身国情,制定一套既具前瞻性又切实可行的发展战略。
1)以容错量子计算为目标,多种技术路线并进
尽管NISQ时代的量子算法已经能够在特定领域带来一定应用价值,但量子计算的终极目标在于实现可扩展的、通用的容错量子计算。只有构建出高质量且大量的“逻辑比特”,才能运行诸如Shor算法等真正改变游戏规则的量子算法。因此,应以实现容错量子计算为长远目标,推动更高效的纠错码和解码算法研究,以及解码芯片等技术的升级。同时也要对不同的技术路线进行系统性布局,目前各主流路线各有优劣,技术还远未收敛,此举可以分散技术路线误判所产生的系统性风险。此外,也应鼓励和支持面向特定应用领域的专用量子计算机的研发,为一类特定问题(如组合优化或分子模拟)协同设计硬件芯片、控制系统和算法库,可能是在中短期内实现量子优势的一条捷径。
2)软硬件协同发展,打造开放包容生态
我国在量子计算硬件领域已经取得了举世瞩目的成就,部分指标达到世界先进水平。然而,硬件的领先并不能自动转化为产业的领先。国际经验清晰地表明,一个开放、活跃、繁荣的软件生态系统,才是将硬件算力转化为实际应用价值,吸引全球智力资源,并最终形成产业领导力的核心催化剂。软件和算法的创新相比硬件技术的升级更具偶然性,往往来源于广阔的开发者社区。一个开放的生态系统能够有效降低全球研究者和初创企业参与的门槛。 因此,建议将构建开放软件生态提升到与硬件攻关同等重要的战略高度。并鼓励其走向开放、拥抱兼容,积极参与乃至引领国际标准制定,吸引全球开发者共同参与贡献,建立我国的生态优势和产业优势。
3)以实际应用为牵引,推进量算与超算融合
在容错量子计算机诞生之前,任何单一的量子处理器都难以独立解决大规模的实际问题。因此,将QPU作为一种协处理器,深度集成到经典高性能计算环境中,形成“量子-经典混合计算”架构,已成为全球公认的较为务实和高效的技术路径。目前融合模式多处于“松耦合”阶段,通信延迟较高,难以充分发挥混合计算的威力,因此需要推进“紧耦合”乃至更深层次的融合。该技术具备双重战略价值。一方面,可以更高效地处理主流NISQ量子算法,解决实际应用需求,是通往近期量子实用性的桥梁;另一方面,借助超算级别的经典算力,以及低延迟、高带宽的经典控制系统进行实时解码,也是实现远期容错量子计算的可能路径之一。
4)前瞻布局量子人工智能,开辟应用新赛道
量子人工智能(Quantum Artificial Intelligence,Quantum AI)作为量子计算最具前景的应用方向之一,有望在特定机器学习任务上实现量子加速,为药物研发、金融优化、材料设计等领域带来突破性进展。建议将Quantum AI纳入国家量子科技战略重点,支持开发量子机器学习算法库,构建量子-经典混合AI框架,推动量子计算与人工智能的深度融合。通过开展Quantum AI在实际场景的试点应用(如分子模拟中的量子化学计算、金融组合优化等),加速量子技术向产业价值转化,打造我国在量子应用领域的创新优势。这一方向不仅与现有“量算融合”战略形成协同效应,更将为量子计算提供明确的应用牵引,加速量子技术从实验室走向实际产业。
1)攻克核心硬件与纠错技术瓶颈
持续提升物理量子比特的质量,为一切上层应用和纠错提供坚实基础,系统性地投入量子计算相关的材料科学与器件工艺研究。例如:探索新型超导材料、研究低损耗基板和界面生长工艺、提升离子阱和中性原子系统中激光控制的精度和稳定性、真空与低温系统的集成度和可靠性等。提高物理比特的保真度与相干时间,为量子纠错创造硬件条件。同时,加速突破容错计算的关键技术,降低纠错开销、提高纠错码解码速度、实现高效的非Clifford门纠错等。设计和流片能够处理大规模、高码率纠错码的专用解码芯片,为构建动态、实时的容错系统提供硬件支撑。
2)构建开放兼容的量子软件生态
重点扶持基础好、潜力大的国内开源量子软件项目,围绕易用性、稳定性和功能完备性进行持续迭代,提供媲美国际一流框架(如Qiskit、PennyLane等)的高质量文档、教程和开发工具,以弥合我国在量子软件生态方面的差距,吸引全球开发者和用户。同时也要注重培育开发者与用户社群,通过建立活跃的线上社区、组织线下工作坊等方式,系统性地培养一支规模庞大、技能娴熟的量子软件开发者和用户队伍,为生态的繁荣提供源源不断的人才储备。
3)加速量超融合架构的落地与示范应用
推动量子-经典混合计算向国际前沿的“紧耦合”模式演进,并以此为平台开展标杆应用示范,展示量子计算的实际应用价值。建设国家级量超融合试验平台,不仅将量子计算机与超算进行物理上的并置,更要实现两者之间的高速、低延迟网络连接,并探索在底层指令集层面的深度互联,为开发需要紧密协同的混合算法和实时纠错提供必要的硬件基础。支持研发面向量子-经典混合系统的核心软件,包括:统一的编程模型、噪声感知的量子线路编译器、跨QPU/CPU/GPU的智能任务调度器和资源管理器等。
4)推动“杀手级”量子算法与应用的研究
“杀手级”算法的发现与应用是释放量子计算革命性算力的关键。目前,除了Shor等少数算法外,能提供指数级加速且适用于广泛实际问题的算法仍然稀缺。NISQ时代的变分量子本征求解器(Variational Quantum Eigensolver, VQE)和量子近似优化算法(Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm, QAOA)等启发式算法虽有潜力,但其优势尚不明确。因此,应该将算法创新也置于战略核心位置,支持理论物理与计算机科学的交叉前沿研究,鼓励探索超越现有框架的新型量子算法和计算模型。此外,现有的量子模拟也具有很高的科研价值,在发现新物态、新材料等基础研究方面有巨大的应用潜力。同时,量子人工智能作为量子计算最具前景的应用方向之一,有望在特定机器学习任务上实现量子加速,建议将量子人工智能纳入战略重点,支持开发量子机器学习算法库,构建量子-经典混合AI框架,推动量子计算与人工智能的深度融合。
量子计算,这场源于20世纪初量子力学思想萌芽的深刻变革,正从理论的殿堂走向产业的前沿。从Feynman关于用量子系统模拟量子世界的远见卓识,到全球科技巨头与新兴力量竞相投入的NISQ时代,当前正处在一个见证计算范式根本性转变的关键历史节点。量子比特所独有的叠加与纠缠特性,赋予了量子计算机在原理上超越经典计算机的强大并行计算能力,为解决人类在基础科学、新药研发、材料设计等领域面临的若干“不可解”难题带来了希望的曙光。
然而,将这一理论上的巨大潜力转化为现实中的实用算力,其道路依然漫长且充满挑战。当前的量子处理器仍受困于环境噪声导致的退相干问题,物理比特的脆弱性和高错误率是通往大规模应用的主要障碍。实现真正通用的、可扩展的量子计算,必须攻克量子纠错这一极其复杂的系统工程,其高昂的资源开销是整个领域面临的核心瓶颈。
迈向容错量子计算的征程,要求在材料、器件、测控、软件与理论等多个维度实现系统性协同创新:在材料层面,亟需开发具有更低缺陷密度的超导材料,以及适用于离子阱和光量子系统的新型光学与原子材料,从根本上提升量子比特的相干性与稳定性;在器件层面,需优化约瑟夫森结结构和大规模集成设计,开发高精度离子阱或原子阵列,提升光量子芯片的集成度,实现更高质量的量子比特;在测控层面,要构建低噪声、高带宽的量子测控系统,实现对量子态的精确操控与实时反馈,为纠错提供可靠支撑;在软件层面,发展高效量子编译器、噪声感知算法和混合计算框架,将硬件性能最大化转化为应用价值;在理论层面,探索新型纠错码、优化解码算法、开发面向特定应用的量子算法,为系统设计提供理论指导。唯有通过这种全方位的协同进步,才能突破当前量子计算面临的瓶颈。
未来的发展是战略性的、系统性的。既要以实现容错量子计算为长远目标,在超导、离子阱、光量子及中性原子等多种技术路线上并行探索,持续推动核心硬件的质量提升与纠错技术的突破;也要认识到,一个开放、繁荣、协同发展的软件生态才是将硬件算力转化为实际应用价值的核心催化剂。在此进程中,将量子处理器作为加速器深度融入经典高性能计算中心的“量超融合”架构,不仅是解决近期实际应用需求的最务实路径,更是未来实现大规模容错计算的必由之路 。唯有通过软硬件协同创新,并加速量子与经典计算的深度融合,才能在这场全球性的科技竞赛中占据先机,最终释放量子计算的全部潜能。
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doi: 10.3981/j.issn.2097-0781.2025.04.005
  • 接收时间:2025-09-01
  • 出版时间:2025-12-20
  • 发布时间:2025-12-30
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  • 收稿日期:2025-09-01
  • 修回日期:2025-10-31
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    1 北京量子信息科学研究院, 北京容错量子计算重点实验室, 北京 100193
    2 中国科学院物理研究所, 北京凝聚态物理国家研究中心, 北京 100190
    3 中国科学院大学物理科学学院, 北京 100049
    4 合肥国家实验室, 合肥 230088
    5 松山湖材料实验室, 东莞 523803

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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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