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The strong cold pool is pivotal in the genesis of severe gales associated with squall lines, and its intensity simulation is closely related to parameter settings of cloud microphysical and boundary layer processes in the model. Despite parameter uncertainties, it remains challenging to apply reasonable parameter perturbations to squall line systems. To improve the performance of convective-scale numerical models in the forecast of squall line systems, based on the WRF (The Weather Research and Forecasting Model) model, five key parameters are selected from the cloud microphysical process and the boundary layer process to carry out sensitivity tests for the weak simulation of the cold pool associated with squall lines. Subsequently, the joint perturbation of the sensitive parameters is carried out, and the influence of this method on the simulation of a squall line process in Jiangsu is discussed. The results indicate that adjusting parameters that influence evaporation can significantly affect the estimation of the cold pool. Specifically, the parameter CONSTB, which reflects the impact of raindrop size on its terminal velocity, and the parameter VF1R, which accounts for the influence of surrounding airflow on raindrop behavior, exhibit the highest sensitivity to the cold pool dynamics. In the single-parameter and multi-parameter combined perturbation experiments, the simulated 2 m temperature in the cold zone of the squall line is 1—2℃ lower than that of the control experiment, which effectively overcomes the problem of weak simulation of the cold pool. In addition, the joint perturbation of CONSTB and VF1R parameters has a notable positive impact on forecast accuracy, with the simulated 10 m maximum wind speed being the most accurate in comparison to actual observations. Results show that the multi-parameter joint perturbation method for squall line cold pools effectively captures the uncertainty of parameters within physical parameterization schemes and improves cold pool simulation, thereby enhancing the accuracy of squall line gale predictions.

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地面强冷池在飑线灾害大风的生成过程中具有重要作用,其模拟强度与模式内云微物理过程及边界层过程的参数设置密切相关。然而,由于参数的不确定性,目前仍无法对飑线系统实施合理的参数扰动。为提升对流尺度数值模式在飑线系统预报中的表现,基于WRF(The Weather Research and Forecasting Model)模式,针对飑线冷池模拟偏弱的问题,从云微物理过程和边界层过程等方案中选取5个关键参数进行敏感性试验。并在此基础上,对其中的敏感参数实施联合扰动,探讨该方法对江苏地区一次飑线过程模拟的影响。结果表明,调整影响蒸发作用的参数,能够显著改变对地面冷池的估计,其中反映雨滴大小对其下落速度影响的参数CONSTB和考虑雨滴下落时周围空气的流动对雨滴影响的参数VF1R对地面冷池的敏感性最强;在单参数和多参数联合扰动试验中,飑线冷区模拟的2 m气温相比对照试验低1—2℃,有效改善了冷池模拟偏弱的问题。此外,CONSTB和VF1R的联合扰动对预报的影响更显著,且其模拟的10 m最大风速最接近实况。上述结果表明,针对飑线冷池的多参数联合扰动方法不仅能够有效表征物理参数化方案中参数的不确定性,还能改进对冷池的模拟,进而提高对飑线大风的预报准确度。

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闵锦忠,主要从事集合预报和资料同化研究。E-mail:
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蔡栋旭,主要从事对流尺度集合预报研究。E-mail:

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Mon Wea Rev, 149(6):1853-1871, articleTitle=Case dependence of multiscale interactions between multisource perturbations for convection-permitting ensemble forecasting during SCMREX, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1244213329560973514, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, awardId=42330611, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金重点项目(42330611), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1244213322434851726, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1244213322447434639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, companyId=1244213322434851726, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters/Key Laboratory of Meteorological Disaster of 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figureFileSmall=XwoX9Hy9M/ca/0RyRrN+Kg==, figureFileBig=7wx2XBgaX3i6g/H6o5tMTg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213325626716197, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=2 m temperature(a,b,shaded,unit:°C),composite reflectivity factor(c,d,shaded,unit:dBz)and 10 m maximum wind speed(c,d,black contour,unit:m/s)at 09:00 UTC 6 July 2019(a,c. real-time observations,b,d. results from control test;blue frame:strong echo center over(32.5°—33.5°N,117.8°—120.2°E)), figureFileSmall=g32fNHbfvj9GHx5oWnhwSA==, figureFileBig=wG1kHXS+R4MGyNcilyeiUQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213325706407977, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=CN, label=图2, caption=2019年7月6日09时近地面2 m气温(a、b,色阶,单位:℃)、组合反射率因子(c、d,色阶,单位:dBz)和10 m最大风速(c、d,黑色等值线,单位:m/s)(a、c. 实况,b、d. 对照试验;蓝框:强回波中心(32.5°—33.5°N,117.8°—120.2°E)), figureFileSmall=g32fNHbfvj9GHx5oWnhwSA==, figureFileBig=wG1kHXS+R4MGyNcilyeiUQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213325781905453, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Differences in near-surface upward water vapor flux between the sensitivity test and the control test at 09:00 UTC 6 July 2019(unit:10−5 kg/(m2·s)), figureFileSmall=ZS5Ki/E6BhNDAc1zww4WHg==, figureFileBig=Z+2dQtKKgtUNFyL5+PDeCg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213325869985842, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=CN, label=图3, caption=2019年7月6日09时近地表向上水汽通量各组敏感性试验与对照试验之差(单位:10−5 kg/(m2·s)), figureFileSmall=ZS5Ki/E6BhNDAc1zww4WHg==, figureFileBig=Z+2dQtKKgtUNFyL5+PDeCg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213325966454840, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Vertical distributions of average mixing ratio values of hydrometeors in the strong echo center in different tests at 09:00 UTC 6 July 2019(Figs. a—e show the LIN_CONSTB test,LIN_CDRAG test,LIN_VF1R test,LIN_NOR test,and YSU_PFAC test,respectively), figureFileSmall=x1XFGs1QdJrhEuVS0HWWzw==, figureFileBig=AEZZlouJS6EIXm3AWL8TOw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213326083895358, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=CN, label=图4, caption=2019年7月6日09时不同试验水凝物混合比在强回波中心的平均值的垂直分布(a—e分别是LIN_CONSTB试验、LIN_CDRAG试验、LIN_VF1R试验、LIN_NOR试验、YSU_PFAC试验), figureFileSmall=x1XFGs1QdJrhEuVS0HWWzw==, figureFileBig=AEZZlouJS6EIXm3AWL8TOw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213326201335878, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Differences in 2 m temperature between the sensitivity test and the control test at 09:00 UTC 6 July 2019(unit:℃;the number in the upper left corner of each panel is the correlation coefficient corresponding to 2 m temperature and surface upward water vapor flux in various tests), figureFileSmall=CXYbx54O4V3+ZZTP3yDvDA==, figureFileBig=X7NCDSptQvHaorP4/nOyNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213326306193489, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=CN, label=图5, caption=2019年7月6日09时近地面2 m气温各组敏感性试验与对照试验之差(单位:℃;左上角为不同试验2 m气温和地表向上水汽通量对应的相关系数), figureFileSmall=CXYbx54O4V3+ZZTP3yDvDA==, figureFileBig=X7NCDSptQvHaorP4/nOyNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213326427828317, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Composite reflectivity factor(shaded,unit:dBz)and 10 m maximum wind speed(black contour,unit:m/s)at 09:00 UTC 6 July 2019 from each group of sensitivity tests, figureFileSmall=UDr307cylqgPSRz6AVGZRg==, figureFileBig=mwfsjx8TvYNT1VA/+oVWzw==, tableContent=null), 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tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213326780149885, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=Horizontal distributions of the DTE of the 850 hPa error from parameter perturbation tests at 09:00 UTC 6 July 2019(a. MP_C01,b. MP_C02,c. MP_C03,d. the differences between MP_C03 and MP_C01,e. the differences between MP_C03 and MP_C02;shaded,unit:J/kg)and areas where hourly precipitation exceeds 10 mm(red line area), figureFileSmall=HEI8yZnsFyYkhanlBifclA==, figureFileBig=00D+KE13FXcMiPwFLTEFdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213326885007495, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=CN, label=图8, caption=2019年7月6日09时参数扰动试验的850 hPa偏差总能量的水平分布(a. MP_C01,b. MP_C02,c . MP_C03,d. MP_C03与MP_C01的差,e. 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Parameter selection and settings of the sensitivity test

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
试验名称关键参数默认值最大值最小值
LIN_CONSTBCONSTB0.81.20.4
LIN_CDRAGCDRAG0.60.90.3
LIN_VF1RVF1R0.781.170.39
LIN_NORNOR8×10612×1064×106
YSU_PFACPFAC231
), ArticleFig(id=1244213327811948732, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

参数选择以及敏感性试验的设置

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
试验名称关键参数默认值最大值最小值
LIN_CONSTBCONSTB0.81.20.4
LIN_CDRAGCDRAG0.60.90.3
LIN_VF1RVF1R0.781.170.39
LIN_NORNOR8×10612×1064×106
YSU_PFACPFAC231
), ArticleFig(id=1244213327904223425, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Parameter disturbance test settings

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集合试验关键参数默认值随机扰动范围
MP_C01CONSTB0.8[0.4,1.2]
MP_C02VF1R0.78[0.39,1.17]
MP_C03CONSTB+VF1R同上同上
), ArticleFig(id=1244213327962943685, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213317875643126, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

参数扰动试验设置

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
集合试验关键参数默认值随机扰动范围
MP_C01CONSTB0.8[0.4,1.2]
MP_C02VF1R0.78[0.39,1.17]
MP_C03CONSTB+VF1R同上同上
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多参数联合扰动方法在飑线系统集合预报中的应用研究
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蔡栋旭 , 闵锦忠 , 杜宇
气象学报 | 论文 2025,83(5): 1271-1285
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气象学报 | 论文 2025, 83(5): 1271-1285
多参数联合扰动方法在飑线系统集合预报中的应用研究
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蔡栋旭 , 闵锦忠 , 杜宇
作者信息
  • 南京信息工程大学气象灾害预报预警与评估协同创新中心/气象灾害教育部重点实验室,南京,210044
  • 蔡栋旭,主要从事对流尺度集合预报研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

闵锦忠,主要从事集合预报和资料同化研究。E-mail:
The multi-parameter combined perturbation applied to ensemble forecast of squall lines
Dongxu CAI , Jinzhong MIN , Yu Du
Affiliations
  • Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters/Key Laboratory of Meteorological Disaster of Ministry of Education,Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology,Nanjing 210044,China
出版时间: 2025-10-10 doi: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240166
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地面强冷池在飑线灾害大风的生成过程中具有重要作用,其模拟强度与模式内云微物理过程及边界层过程的参数设置密切相关。然而,由于参数的不确定性,目前仍无法对飑线系统实施合理的参数扰动。为提升对流尺度数值模式在飑线系统预报中的表现,基于WRF(The Weather Research and Forecasting Model)模式,针对飑线冷池模拟偏弱的问题,从云微物理过程和边界层过程等方案中选取5个关键参数进行敏感性试验。并在此基础上,对其中的敏感参数实施联合扰动,探讨该方法对江苏地区一次飑线过程模拟的影响。结果表明,调整影响蒸发作用的参数,能够显著改变对地面冷池的估计,其中反映雨滴大小对其下落速度影响的参数CONSTB和考虑雨滴下落时周围空气的流动对雨滴影响的参数VF1R对地面冷池的敏感性最强;在单参数和多参数联合扰动试验中,飑线冷区模拟的2 m气温相比对照试验低1—2℃,有效改善了冷池模拟偏弱的问题。此外,CONSTB和VF1R的联合扰动对预报的影响更显著,且其模拟的10 m最大风速最接近实况。上述结果表明,针对飑线冷池的多参数联合扰动方法不仅能够有效表征物理参数化方案中参数的不确定性,还能改进对冷池的模拟,进而提高对飑线大风的预报准确度。

飑线  /  冷池  /  对流尺度集合预报  /  多参数联合扰动

The strong cold pool is pivotal in the genesis of severe gales associated with squall lines, and its intensity simulation is closely related to parameter settings of cloud microphysical and boundary layer processes in the model. Despite parameter uncertainties, it remains challenging to apply reasonable parameter perturbations to squall line systems. To improve the performance of convective-scale numerical models in the forecast of squall line systems, based on the WRF (The Weather Research and Forecasting Model) model, five key parameters are selected from the cloud microphysical process and the boundary layer process to carry out sensitivity tests for the weak simulation of the cold pool associated with squall lines. Subsequently, the joint perturbation of the sensitive parameters is carried out, and the influence of this method on the simulation of a squall line process in Jiangsu is discussed. The results indicate that adjusting parameters that influence evaporation can significantly affect the estimation of the cold pool. Specifically, the parameter CONSTB, which reflects the impact of raindrop size on its terminal velocity, and the parameter VF1R, which accounts for the influence of surrounding airflow on raindrop behavior, exhibit the highest sensitivity to the cold pool dynamics. In the single-parameter and multi-parameter combined perturbation experiments, the simulated 2 m temperature in the cold zone of the squall line is 1—2℃ lower than that of the control experiment, which effectively overcomes the problem of weak simulation of the cold pool. In addition, the joint perturbation of CONSTB and VF1R parameters has a notable positive impact on forecast accuracy, with the simulated 10 m maximum wind speed being the most accurate in comparison to actual observations. Results show that the multi-parameter joint perturbation method for squall line cold pools effectively captures the uncertainty of parameters within physical parameterization schemes and improves cold pool simulation, thereby enhancing the accuracy of squall line gale predictions.

Squall line  /  Cold pool  /  Convection-permitting ensemble forecast  /  Joint multi-parameter perturbation
蔡栋旭, 闵锦忠, 杜宇. 多参数联合扰动方法在飑线系统集合预报中的应用研究. 气象学报, 2025 , 83 (5) : 1271 -1285 . DOI: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240166
Dongxu CAI, Jinzhong MIN, Yu Du. The multi-parameter combined perturbation applied to ensemble forecast of squall lines[J]. Acta Meteorologica Sinica, 2025 , 83 (5) : 1271 -1285 . DOI: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240166
随着计算资源的增长,对流尺度(水平分辨率1—4 km,不采用积云对流参数化方案;Kain,et al,2008Romine,et al,2014刘畅等,2018)集合预报开始用于解决对流尺度预报的不确定性,其特点是高度非线性和误差的快速增长(Hohenegger,et al,2007)。研究表明,与当前预报业务主要依赖的数值预报(Ma,et al,2019)相比,对流尺度集合预报可以更精确地描述强对流天气系统中复杂的动力、物理过程和强迫作用,并已被多项研究证明能够更好地刻画暴雨过程的量级和日变化特征(Duc,et al,2013Yussouf,et al,2013)。由于不准确的观测资料,不完善的资料同化方案会导致初始条件误差,而离散化和不完善的次网格尺度参数化方案也会导致模式物理过程的误差(谭燕等,2008),在集合预报中引入合适的初始扰动和模式扰动就显得尤为重要。目前对流尺度集合预报模式扰动方法可以粗略地分成3种。第一种是利用现有多种模式和物理过程参数化方案组成集合,以此代表模式动力方程与物理过程可能存在的不确定性(Hacker,et al,2011)。第二种方法是在每个网格点和时间步长随机扰动物理量,这些量可以是规定的参数(Kober,et al,2016),也可以是物理量的倾向(Jankov,et al,2017王璐璐等,2020)。前者称为随机扰动参数化方案(SPP),后者称为随机扰动参数化倾向方案(SPPT)。第三种方法是扰动模式或者物理过程参数化方案的预设参数(Bengtsson,et al,2013熊洁等,2021Thompson,et al,2021)。
到目前为止,这些扰动方法在对流尺度集合预报中都已经进行应用和检验,并且在性能方面的优势已经得到广泛认可。如唐圣钧等(2015)研究表明,多物理过程集合能够有效改进中小尺度集合预报的效果,提高预报技巧评分。但是多模式、多物理过程集合存在一个难以回避的缺点,即集合成员之间的吸引子不一致,导致解释集合预报的协方差比较困难(Jankov,et al,2017)。王明欢等(2021)的研究结果表明SPPT方法可以有效改善中国西部地区对流尺度集合预报的离散度。但是随机扰动方法为独立开发和调整的参数化方案添加了一个后验,因而受到了批评(Jankov,et al,2017)。由于参数化方案中的参数敏感性不一,因此需要先进行敏感性试验确定参数扰动的范围(徐致真等,2019Xu,et al,2020),将较敏感的参数遴选出来后进行下一步的参数扰动。且仅扰动一个参数带来的改善效果十分有限,魏莉青(2023)通过使用多参数集合选取较敏感参数并进行联合扰动,结果表明不同参数化方案的多参数联合扰动可以取得更优的预报技巧。该方法简单易行,但是多参数集合在预报时固定了预定的参数,因此不能代表这些参数随时空的变化(Wang,et al,2019Stratman,et al,2024)。
飑线是由多个对流单体排列成线状或带状、组织性强的中尺度对流系统,其伴生的极端性大风容易造成人员伤亡和财产损失。近地面冷池是飑线重要边界层特征之一,它是由于飑线后部降水粒子的蒸发冷却作用,导致冷空气在地面附近不断下沉,形成一个强冷空气堆(Weisman,et al,1988)。已有的研究表明,地面的强冷池与飑线前暖空气之间形成较强的水平温度梯度,不仅加强飑线强度,还为地面极端大风的出现提供有利条件(French,et al,2014沈杭锋等,2019袁招洪,2021),因此冷池与地面大风之间存在很强的联系。究其原因,是对流云内降水粒子的蒸发或者冰粒子的融化所产生的冷却效应以及负载拖曳作用,造成云内空气温度降低并加速下沉,强下沉气流至地面后形成冷池密度流并向外辐散,导致冷池前沿出现地面大风(吴海英等,2023)。对流云内冷池强弱又与云微物理过程及边界层过程中的参数关系十分密切,不同云微物理方案的使用可能对物理量的预报效果不尽相同,且具有很强的个例依赖性(Jiang,et al,2023)。在参数化方案中,调整与蒸发过程相关的参数可以显著影响冷池的强弱。如崔强等(2017)指出降水蒸发是影响飑线中地面冷池强度和分布的因素,降水蒸发率越大,地面冷池的强度越强、范围越广,增加降水蒸发率可以使得地表风速增大。张月(2023)发现关闭降水蒸发过程会导致冷池消失,飑线系统结构发生显著改变。目前的研究虽然对飑线个例进行集合预报试验,但不少试验使用的是初值扰动方法,模式扰动方法使用得相对较少(Feng,et al,2019Ma,et al,2019)。尽管Jankov等(2019)用多种随机扰动方法的组合对飑线进行集合预报试验,但只是简单评估随机扰动方法的预报效果,缺乏针对性,在扰动时没有考虑冷池强弱对飑线产生的近地面风速大小的影响。因此,本研究基于WRF模式,考虑物理过程参数化方案对飑线的显著影响,选用参数化方案中与冷池有关的参数进行敏感性试验,探究参数以及扰动区间的敏感性,以期提高对冷池的模拟效果。之后将筛选出的敏感性强的参数进行联合扰动,分析其对预报飑线雷暴大风的作用,探究该方法在对流尺度集合预报中对飑线过程的预报效果。
2019年7月6日06—12时(世界时,下同),江苏自北向南出现一次大范围强对流天气过程,6日06时强对流进入宿迁之后发展成为飑线,并伴随出现灾害大风、短时强降水和局地冰雹等强对流天气。高空(500 hPa)山东北部存在一个冷涡,分析冷涡的垂直结构发现,冷涡系统较深厚,在700、850 hPa上冷涡结构都较完整,江苏、安徽处于槽前。地面场上,在江苏、安徽北部存在一个较强的气旋,自山东到江苏存在较强的温度梯度,这些因素共同促进了飑线天气的产生和加强。
为分析物理过程参数化方案对飑线系统发生、发展的影响,文中采取中尺度非静力WRF V4.3模式,使用双层单向嵌套配置,分辨率分别是18和3 km,垂直方向34层,积分步长分别为30和10 s。模拟的区域如图1所示,其中D02区域为飑线发生区域。模式初始边界条件和侧边界条件均使用逐6 h NCEP/NCAR的FNL再分析资料(0.25°×0.25°)。由于FNL资料包含的中国气象站点资料较少,因此先进行资料同化,文中采用三维变分同化方法,将NCEP常规观测资料(PREBUFR格式),其中包含部分观测站、飞机报告、船舶以及卫星资料等,同化至WRF模式的初始场中,以改善对照试验的预报效果。同化时段为2019年7月5日12—18时,对照试验则从2019年7月5日18时开始,持续积分18 h。在对照试验中不对参数进行调整,每个敏感性试验的成员使用相同的物理参数化方案,包括Lin云微物理方案,YSU边界层参数化方案,RRTM长波辐射方案,Dudhia短波辐射方案以及5-layer thermal diffusion方案。在18 km分辨率区域使用Kain-Fritsch积云对流方案。
图2a、b是2019年7月6日09时实况与对照试验模拟的近地面2 m气温。由于强对流系统最初是在山东省境内触发的,因此即便强对流中心已经到了江苏境内,在山东仍然留下一个较强的冷区。相比实况,对照试验模拟的冷区偏弱,说明模式对冷池并不能很好地模拟,而冷池强度和下沉气流是影响雷暴大风发生、发展的重要因素,降水粒子的蒸发冷却对冷池强度的影响十分重要,且降水粒子相态变化导致的冷却会使得地面大幅度降温,有利于地面大风的形成(刘香娥等,2012)。图2c、d是该时刻的组合反射率因子和10 m最大风速的实况与对照试验模拟对比,相比实况,对照试验基本预报出了飑线的位置与强度,但是模拟的最大风速小于实况。这是由于对照试验对地面冷池的估计偏弱,进而没有很好预报出10 m大风。因此,接下来考虑选取参数进行不确定性扰动试验。
对变量的检验使用MICAPS地面站点资料作为近地面物理量(气温(T)、纬向风(u)、经向风(v))的参考真值。检验前使用线性插值将MICAPS资料插值到经纬度格点上,作为真值与模式的预报值进行对比。对组合反射率因子的检验使用全国雷达拼图资料,其分辨率为1 km×1 km。
集合预报检验方法采用区域平均的偏差总能量(Difference Total Energy,DTE)、离散度(Spread)、均方根误差(Root Mean Square Error,RMSE)和概率匹配平均法(Probability Matched Mean,PMM)来对组合反射率因子和要素场进行检验。DTE是用来定量衡量预报偏差(不同试验要素场的能量差值)的指标(Zhang,et al,2003),可以衡量扰动成员对预报场的敏感程度,进一步了解扰动成员对整个预报场的影响程度。一般DTE越大说明扰动对预报的影响越大,定义式如下
DTE=12(u2+v2+κT2)
式中,uvT分别是纬向风、经向风和温度相对参考预报的偏差。κ=cpTr1cp=1004.9 J/(kg·K),参考温度Tr取270 K。
离散度表示成员之间的发散程度,在一定程度上表征真实大气的可能性,这也意味着更大的离散度更有利于捕捉真值。集合离散度的定义式为
Spread=1m×ni=1mj=1n{1Nmem=1N[fmem(i,j)f(i,j)¯]2}
式中,N是集合成员数,fmem(i,j)代表不同成员的预报场,f(i,j)¯为集合平均,mn分别表示经向和纬向的格点数。
均方根误差用于度量预报场和分析场的差异,公式为
RMSE = 1m×ni=1mj=1n[F(i,j)O(i,j)]2
式中,Fij)为集合预报场,Oij)为对应的分析场,mn分别为经向和纬向格点数。
PMM是对集合成员预报结果进行综合处理的一种方法(Ebert,2001)。为计算PMM,将每个格点上所有成员的预报值从高到低排序,每隔N个(N为集合成员数)选取一个预报值得到新序列;再将集合平均从高到低排序,并确定集合平均对应的网格点;之后,从最高集合平均的格点开始分配最高预报值,依此类推。若集合平均在某个格点的值是0,则该点的PMM也是0,以此保证传统集合平均场的基本结构。相比传统的集合平均方法,PMM可以考虑对流尺度天气系统内部时空变化快的特点,综合所有集合成员的格点预报值,能够包含各量级的预报信息且重点关注大量级的预报信息,对各集合成员落区预报的位移误差起到平滑作用(Berenguer,et al,2012Schwarz,et al,2014)。
由前文分析可知,针对冷池强度的敏感性试验可以选取与蒸发过程相关的参数。本研究中微物理过程采用的是Lin方案,在该方案中Prevp与蒸发过程有关(Chen,et al,2002)。此外,从边界层参数化方案中的YSU方案里也选取与蒸发过程相关的参数。下面对这些参数做详细介绍。首先说明Lin方案中的参数,第一个是CONSTB,它反映雨滴大小对其下落速度的影响,而末速度影响雨滴与空气的接触程度,进而影响蒸发率。在实际情况中,由于空气具有一定粘性,较大的雨滴会因为较大的直径而下落得更快,但加速度并不是线性的,而是随着直径增大而减小,CONTSB就是用来描述这种非线性关系的。第二个参数是CDRAG,其为阻力系数,用于计算粒子(如雨滴、雪花、霰等)在空气中运动时受到的阻力大小,是与粒子形状、大小和空气特性有关的无量纲参数。阻力系数越大,表示空气对粒子的阻力越大,粒子下落速度越慢,进而对蒸发过程产生一定影响。第三个参数是VF1R,即雨滴的通风因子,用于计算雨滴在空气中的下落末速度,该参数考虑了雨滴下落时周围空气的流动对雨滴的影响。当雨滴下落速度增加时,周围空气的流动也会增强,继而对雨滴产生额外的阻力,通风系数就是用来量化这种效应的。第四个参数是NOR,它是雨滴谱截距参数,将直接影响指数雨滴粒径分布(Hacker,et al,2011)。YSU方案里的参数PFAC是表征动量扩散系数随高度变化的参数,用于计算边界层内的垂直扩散系数,其控制着大气边界层中湍流的混合强度,并且直接影响对流的发展(Di,et al,2015)。之后针对以上所选的参数进行敏感性试验,具体参数值的设置见表1
由于选择的关键参数是通过影响蒸发过程,进而影响地面冷池的强弱,因此首先分析不同参数对蒸发过程的敏感程度。图3是2019年7月6日09时地表向上水汽通量的各组敏感性试验与对照试验之差。与其他参数相比,将参数CONSTB和VF1R增大,飑线冷池区域的蒸发量增加是最明显的,而参数CONSTB和VF1R减小后,冷池区域的蒸发量也相应减小,说明这两个参数对冷池区域的蒸发作用最敏感,而CDRAG、NOR、PFAC对蒸发作用的敏感性较差。究其原因,在Lin方案中,参数Prevp与蒸发过程直接相关,CONSTB和VF1R是主要用于计算Prevp的参数,因此对蒸发过程的影响较大。而NOR虽然也是用于计算Prevp的参数之一,但除此以外还参与多个其他物理过程的计算,对蒸发过程的作用可能存在一定的拮抗作用。总之,CONSTB和VF1R参数对地表向上水汽通量比较敏感,通过改变蒸发量,进而改变飑线冷池强弱。微物理方案中与蒸发有关的参数包含大气中固、液态粒子的蒸发、升华,因此粒子量随参数值的改变而出现显著变化也从侧面说明参数变化能够影响蒸发量。图4是同时间各组试验不同水凝物含量在强回波中心的平均值随高度的变化。对于液态粒子而言,混合比大值区主要集中在低层大气,特别是700 hPa附近,这与Morrison等(2009)的结果是一致的。CONSTB对云水、雨水的混合比最敏感,且随着参数增大混合比逐渐减小,存在明显的负相关,表明蒸发作用存在显著的增强,而其他参数的取值与液态粒子的混合比含量相关较差。对于固态粒子而言,混合比大值区主要集中在中高层大气。VF1R对云冰、云雪,特别是霰的混合比最敏感,且存在明显的负相关。总体来说,修改CONSTB和VF1R的值对蒸发量的影响是较显著的,结果与图3一致。
图5是2019年7月6日09时近地面2 m气温的各组敏感性试验与对照试验之差的水平分布。从结果来看,扰动CONSTB对近地面2 m气温会产生显著影响,CONSTB较小时,其对冷池的模拟有一定的削弱作用,且山东省的冷区与实况相差较大,而CONSTB较大时,对飑线冷池的模拟更强,向南扩大了冷池的范围,而且山东省的冷区模拟也得到一定程度的改善。此外,VF1R分别取较小值和较大值时也有类似的显著效果。这与图34的结果是一致的,说明CONSTB和VF1R取大值时可以增强蒸发作用,进而降低近地面2 m气温,冷池变得更强,反之CONSTB和VF1R取小值时冷池会有所减弱,因此扰动这些参数可以对冷池的强弱和范围大小产生较为显著的变化。同时,不同试验的近地面2 m气温和地表向上水汽通量也存在较强的相关,LIN_CONSTB和LIN_VF1R两组试验中,相关系数均超过0.7。相比而言,其他参数的扰动与对照试验相比差别不大,效果也不如上述两个参数明显。
接下来的研究集中探讨CONSTB和VF1R对组合反射率因子及地面10 m最大风速的影响,进而评估这两个参数是否适合纳入后续的集合预报试验。图6是2019年7月6日09时组合反射率因子和10 m最大风速的各组敏感性试验的水平分布。当CONSTB、CDRAG取较小值,或者VF1R、PFAC取较大值时,组合反射率因子模拟的强度偏弱,大值中心有一定范围的减小,并且模拟的飑线前沿距离实况飑线前沿较远。而当CONSTB、CDRAG取较大值,或者VF1R、PFAC取较小值时,组合反射率因子的强度和范围都存在显著增大,与组合反射率因子实况更加接近,特别是CONSTB取大值后很好地模拟出了江苏北部与山东南部的组合反射率因子,这是其他参数模拟遗漏的部分。这表明冷池的增强在一定程度上提高了飑线的强度,同时飑线移动的速度在一定程度上加快,反之冷池强度减弱,飑线强度也相应减小。接下来看10 m最大风速,整体而言,敏感性试验对风速并没有显著的改进,模拟出的最大风速只有20 m/s,与对照试验相差不大。对组合反射率因子模拟偏强的参数,其模拟的最大风速在范围上有所增大,但是与实况仍有一定的差距。可能的原因是仅扰动一个参数效果有限,需要同时扰动不止一个参数才能对10 m最大风速有一定的改进。
综上所述,在原先5个参数的基础上选择CONSTB和VF1R进行接下来的集合预报试验。因为CONSTB和VF1R相比其他参数而言对地面冷池更加敏感,增大这两个参数值可以提高蒸发率,进而加强地面冷池的作用,增强飑线的强度,扩大飑线的范围,但是对地面大风的预报并没有很好的作用。反之,减小这两个参数值会降低蒸发作用,从而使得地面冷池减弱,削弱飑线的强度,减小飑线的范围,并使飑线的移动速度变慢。
单参数敏感性试验的结果证明固定参数值的变化对地面冷池的形成具有显著影响,进而影响飑线的雷暴大风。在所选的5个参数中,筛选出两个相对敏感的参数。然而,仅仅通过改变固定值并不足以确定最优参数设置。此外,单一参数对飑线地面最大风速的改善效果相对有限,预报结果仍存在一定的不足。因此,有必要开展多参数扰动集合预报试验,探讨参数的不确定性及参数间的相互作用,比较不同参数组合扰动对飑线系统预报效果的影响与差异,并基于物理规律,识别导致模式偏差增长最快的扰动参数。
由于统计经验范围之内的参数值大多在默认值的上下浮动,可扰动的范围相对宽泛,针对这次飑线个例,如果仅考虑针对参数进行正向扰动或负向扰动,容易忽视接近参数默认值的模拟结果,因此仍然是对参数同时进行正向和负向扰动。考虑到每个参数、每个成员的扰动试验均需重新编译WRF模式,为节约计算资源,仅对敏感性试验中具有强敏感性的两个参数(CONSTB和VF1R)进行全范围的扰动集合预报试验。同时,联合扰动这两个参数,以增强扰动幅度,并探讨其对飑线模拟效果的影响。参数扰动的试验设置具体见表2。值得注意的是,关键参数采用正态分布扰动,以参数的默认值为均值,根据其取值范围输出8个符合正态分布的参数值,并将扰动后的参数值从小到大排序,得到每组试验的8个集合成员,其中前4个成员为负向扰动,后4个成员为正向扰动。对于参数联合扰动试验,每个集合成员的扰动参数值分别对应单参数扰动时相同集合成员的参数值。
先分析参数变化对预报的影响,并探究扰动影响的时空演变特征。图7是集合扰动试验各成员的偏差总能量随预报时间的变化曲线,偏差总能量可以从动力学和热力学的角度反映扰动能量(Wang,et al,2023)。由图7可见参数扰动偏差总能量曲线的变化具有相似性,6—15 h扰动能量得到快速增长,在第15小时前后达到峰值,随后维持这个水平缓慢增长。MP_C01试验和MP_C02试验的偏差总能量峰值接近,说明扰动CONSTB和VF1R的影响是相近的,而MP_C03试验的偏差总能量峰值要明显高于另外两个试验,说明将两个参数联合扰动后能显著提高偏差能量,对预报产生更大的影响。3个试验的正、负扰动的偏差总能量接近,表明正、负扰动的影响是类似的,且体现出扰动幅度的影响。此外,还进一步分析了偏差总能量峰值时刻参数扰动试验扰动能量的水平分布。图8是预报第15小时不同扰动试验偏差总能量的水平分布,其中红色等值线是过去1 h降水超过10 mm的地区,即对流较强的区域。3个试验的偏差总能量大值中心与强对流区域基本上是吻合的,说明参数扰动试验都能很好地预报该时刻的强对流。将MP_C03试验的偏差总能量与MP_C01、MP_C02试验的结果做差后,发现强对流区域以正偏差为主,说明参数联合扰动对预报的影响更大。总体来说,其结果与时间演变的结论(图7)是一致的。
接下来从大气基本物理量场的角度定量评估3种参数扰动方案的集合预报效果。图9给出了2 m气温、10 m纬向风和经向风的离散度、均方根误差时间序列。由于模式扰动起作用需要时间,因此随着时间推移,离散度逐渐增大(Berner,et al,2015),MP_C03与其他试验的离散度差距逐渐增大,在积分9—18 h明显大于MP_C01和MP_C02,表明CONSTB和VF1R两个参数存在一定的协同作用,而将参数联合扰动更能表示近地面物理量的可能性,2 m气温、10 m风场对参数联合扰动的响应也更加明显。从均方根误差的结果来看,3组试验中2 m气温的均方根误差不存在明显的差别。对于风场,在积分9—15 h的时间内,MP_C03的均方根误差略小于其他两组试验,说明将CONSTB和VF1R两个参数联合扰动后的预报效果比较稳定。一个完美的集合预报,其离散度与均方根误差应有相同的幅度和变化率,但是仅仅使用多参数扰动方法会存在离散度不足的情况(Berner,et al,2011)。为进一步对比不同参数扰动试验对地面冷池的预报效果,图10给出了对应时刻的近地面2 m气温概率匹配平均的水平分布。相比于对照试验,单个参数扰动的结果对山东的冷区已经有一定的改善,对江苏的飑线冷池来说,明显增强了冷池的强度(仅比实况略高2—3℃),冷池的范围与实况对应也较好,已经具有不错的效果。而将两个参数进行联合效果则更进一步,MP_C03模拟的冷池综合了两个参数的强度以及范围,山东冷区的位置以及强度基本模拟出来了,而且对江苏的飑线冷池在3组试验中也是最接近实况的。这更加充分地说明了选用CONSTB和VF1R进行联合扰动能有效影响冷池的强弱。在地面冷池发生改变后,地面大风以及飑线结构的强弱也会发生相应变化。
图11还展示了组合反射率因子以及10 m最大风速的概率匹配平均结果。从组合反射率因子的分布范围可以看出,此次试验能很好预报出强回波带所在的位置,说明参数扰动方法能很好地代表预报不确定性。相较于对照试验,3组参数扰动试验对飑线后部的组合反射率因子估计有了明显改进,说明概率匹配平均可以在一定程度上弥补对极端强度预报能力较差的不足(李俊等,2015)。但是相较于实况,飑线后部的大范围中等强度的回波仍然没有预报出来。对于10 m最大风速而言,实况最大风速超过25 m/s,对照试验只能模拟出20 m/s的最大风速,MP_C01和MP_C02对风速的预报没有改进,但是MP_C03能模拟出25 m/s的最大风速,与实况已经比较接近,但是模拟的位置略微偏南。这说明同时扰动CONSTB和VF1R这两个参数能有效提高对地面大风的预报,在模拟出相应的冷池后,由于冷池是雷暴大风发生、发展的重要驱动因素,进而改善了地面大风的预报。
为更好地描述飑线雷暴大风模拟中关键参数的不确定性、改善冷池模拟偏弱及其导致的10 m最大风速模拟偏小问题,文中基于WRF模式,从云微物理方案和边界层方案中选取了与冷池强度密切相关的5个参数,对江苏地区一次典型的飑线过程进行了敏感性试验,并在此基础上对筛选出的强敏感参数实施单参数和多参数联合扰动试验。采用偏差总能量、离散度、均方根误差、概率匹配平均等方法评估不同参数扰动试验的集合预报效果,分析各试验对近地面气温、风速和组合反射率因子的模拟结果,得到如下结论:
(1)对照试验模拟的冷区与实况相比温度较高、冷池偏弱,进而导致模拟的组合反射率因子强度与地面大风弱于实况,但能很好地捕捉到观测中组合反射率因子的位置。参数敏感性试验的结果显示,通过调整影响蒸发作用的参数能显著改进对地面冷池的估计。此外,CONSTB和VF1R两个参数对地面冷池的敏感性最强,进而对组合反射率因子的强度模拟带来显著影响,但是对地面大风的预报没有明显的改进。
(2)在单参数和多参数的联合扰动试验中,CONSTB和VF1R两个参数联合扰动后偏差总能量影响的范围和强度更大,相较单参数扰动试验能对预报产生更大的影响,与强对流中心有较高的吻合。3组试验的正、负扰动的偏差总能量接近,表明正、负扰动的影响是类似的,且体现出扰动幅度的影响。此外,CONSTB和VF1R联合扰动可以有效提高2 m气温、10 m风场的离散度,表明两个参数存在一定的协同作用。
(3)3组参数扰动试验中,近地面2 m气温的概率匹配平均效果相较对照试验均有明显提升。3组试验不仅对江苏的飑线冷池模拟更符合实况,对山东的冷区模拟也有一定的改善。CONSTB和VF1R两个参数联合扰动组合反射率因子和10 m最大风速模拟效果最好,这是因为冷池模拟效果的提高使得下沉气流增强,低层辐散增强,从而使得地面风速增大。这说明多参数联合扰动不仅可以表征物理过程方案中参数的不确定性、优化冷池的模拟效果,还能进一步提高预报地面大风的准确度。
尽管本研究立足于冷池强度,在对流尺度集合预报中采用参数扰动方法预报飑线的雷暴大风,识别出云微物理方案和边界层方案中对冷池强弱具有强敏感性的参数,并构造单参数和多参数联合扰动试验,有效改善飑线模拟中冷池偏弱、地面最大风速偏小的问题,为飑线系统集合预报中多参数联合扰动方法的应用提供了一定的参考依据,但研究中仍存在一些问题与挑战。首先,选择的参数应该尽可能地包含预报的不确定性,本研究从蒸发过程入手,考虑作用于该过程的一些预设参数对冷池强度的影响,未探讨其他过程的参数不确定性,且参数扰动的范围是根据敏感性试验确定的,仍需进一步研究扰动的范围和大小。其次,仅仅采用多参数扰动方法对集合预报总体性能的改进较为有限,普遍存在集合成员发散度不高的问题,好的集合预报需要合理地考虑多种误差来源(Johnson,et al,2020Yang,et al,2023),因此除了模式扰动,如何合理地、有指向性地添加初值扰动也是值得思考的问题。再者,本研究仅基于飑线个例,对多参数联合扰动方法在飑线系统集合预报中的应用进行了初步探索,考虑到参数的不确定性可能在不同地区、不同季节和不同强度的飑线模拟中存在差异,在未来工作中还需利用大量飑线个例进一步检验结论的普适性。最后,尽管本研究展示了多参数联合扰动在改善飑线模拟方面的积极效果,但同时也可能会引入一些负面影响。例如,若参数间存在相互作用,同时扰动多个参数时,随机搭配的扰动组合可能会对预报效果产生负贡献(Zhang,2021)。因此,未来的研究还需要深入分析参数间的关系,优化多参数联合扰动方法,以确保该方法的有效性和可靠性。
  • 国家自然科学基金重点项目(42330611)
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2025年第83卷第5期
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240166
  • 接收时间:2024-09-23
  • 首发时间:2026-03-27
  • 出版时间:2025-10-10
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  • 收稿日期:2024-09-23
  • 修回日期:2025-01-17
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国家自然科学基金重点项目(42330611)
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    南京信息工程大学气象灾害预报预警与评估协同创新中心/气象灾害教育部重点实验室,南京,210044

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闵锦忠,主要从事集合预报和资料同化研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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