Article(id=1244213316751573910, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, issueId=1244213313182221193, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11676/qxxb2025.20240145, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1725552000000, receivedDateStr=2024-09-06, revisedDate=1757606400000, revisedDateStr=2025-09-12, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1774573171078, onlineDateStr=2026-03-27, pubDate=1760025600000, pubDateStr=2025-10-10, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774573171078, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-27, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774573171078, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774573171078, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1244213313182221193, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, year='2025', volume='83', issue='5', pageStart='1139', pageEnd='1384', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774573170228, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774573255889, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1244213672566960779, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, issueId=1244213313182221193, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1244213672566960780, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, issueId=1244213313182221193, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1339, endPage=1362, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1244213317032592285, articleId=1244213316751573910, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, language=EN, title=Satellite-based emission inversion for air pollutants and greenhouse gases:A review, columnId=1244213316957094809, journalTitle=Acta Meteorologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Retrievals of satellite-observed emissions of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gases provide essential information and data for understanding the sources of these key atmospheric compositions and for implementing precise emission control measures. Over the past two decades, significant progress has been made in the field of emission inversion, with Chinese researchers playing a substantial role. In celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Chinese Meteorological Society and Acta Meteorologica Sinica, this paper systematically reviews the advances in satellite-based emission inversion research by Chinese scientists during this period. (1) Several widely used inversion methodologies, including data assimilation, local mass balance, Gaussian models, two-dimensional (2D) models, and machine learning, are briefly summarized. (2) Emission inversion studies focusing on major atmospheric pollutants— such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCHO), glyoxal (CHOCHO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO)—as well as greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), are systematically elaborated. (3) Finally, the historical evolution of inversion methods and target species, challenges in current satellite-based emission inversion, and future research directions are discussed to promote more accurate quantification of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions. It is worth noting that contributions from Chinese researchers have provided critical scientific support to environmental protection and carbon neutrality efforts in China.

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基于卫星遥感的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演研究,为全面认识这些关键大气成分来源、精准实施减排措施提供了不可或缺的信息和数据基础。中外相关研究在过去20年中有了长足的发展,中国学者做出了重要贡献,同时也对中国环境保护和碳中和事业提供了重要的科学支撑。在中国气象学会成立100周年及《气象学报》创刊100周年之际,系统梳理了中国学者近20年来在星基排放反演方面的研究进展。首先,对常用排放反演方法进行简要总结,包括资料同化、局地质量平衡、高斯模型、二维模型、机器学习等。在此基础上,展示中国学者在氮氧化物(NOx)、氨气(NH3)、甲醛(HCHO)、乙二醛(CHOCHO)、二氧化硫(SO2)和一氧化碳(CO)等大气污染物,以及二氧化碳(CO2)和甲烷(CH4)等温室气体排放(和碳汇)反演的研究成果。最后,探讨反演方法和反演物种的历史演化进程、当前所面临的主要挑战和未来可能的发展方向,以期进一步推动大气污染物和温室气体排放的准确定量。

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林金泰,主要从事大气化学、卫星遥感、环境大数据及气候变化研究。E-mail:
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姜哲,主要从事大气环境数值模拟、资料同化及人工智能研究。E-mail:

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姜哲,主要从事大气环境数值模拟、资料同化及人工智能研究。E-mail:

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tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=Atmospheric NOx emission(kg/(km2·h)inversion based on the two-dimensional(2D)atmospheric chemical transport model(PHLET)and its adjoint(a. schematic diagram of the inversion algorithm;b. total a posteriori NOx emissions in the Yangtze river delta during summer 2012—2015,the blue crosses indicate where the relative errors exceed 100%;c. a posteriori NOx emissions from the anthropogenic sources;Kong,et al,2019, figureFileSmall=Z8+udOEiYdHkoFUl8U/YMA==, figureFileBig=DX4yM4eGoNRfBoBkqUHaUA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213329586143661, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=CN, label=图1, caption=基于二维大气化学传输模型PHLET及其伴随模式的大气NOx排放反演(a. 反演算法示意,b. 反演生成的长三角2012—2015年夏季总NOx排放(蓝色叉号对应相对误差大于100%的数据点),c. 反演生成的长三角2012—2015年人为源NOx排放;单位:kg/(km2·h);Kong,et al,2019, figureFileSmall=Z8+udOEiYdHkoFUl8U/YMA==, figureFileBig=DX4yM4eGoNRfBoBkqUHaUA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213329825219000, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Comparison between EMG-fitted effective HCHO production rates with total anthropogenic non-methane VOCs(a)and NOx(b)from EDGAR inventory(Zuo,et al,2023, figureFileSmall=CFhZtYAcDdT5dAXfjlSiIg==, figureFileBig=rg+6Qa/ydJvw8op0gA/l+Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213329909105081, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=CN, label=图2, caption=EMG算法拟合得到的全球点源HCHO有效产率与EDGAR清单的对比(a. 与清单中非甲烷VOCs产率对比;b. 与清单中 NOx产率对比;Zuo,et al,2023, figureFileSmall=CFhZtYAcDdT5dAXfjlSiIg==, figureFileBig=rg+6Qa/ydJvw8op0gA/l+Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213329976213950, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Anthropogenic carbon-pollutant daily emission joint inversion by integrating satellite remote sensing NO2 observations and atmospheric chemical transport models(a. schematic diagram of the inversion system,b. a posteriori NOx emissions in China during early 2020,c. a posteriori CO2 emissions in China during early 2020;Zheng,et al,2020b, figureFileSmall=MZezPMSKjEo7jurcM8KGiQ==, figureFileBig=ohV7f/FWoRYKnR4q1VufZw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213330047517120, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=CN, label=图3, caption=耦合NO2卫星遥感观测、大气化学传输模型的人为源碳污日排放协同反演系统(a. 反演系统示意,b. 反演生成的2020年初中国NOx排放,c. 反演生成的2020年初中国CO2排放;Zheng,et al,2020b, figureFileSmall=MZezPMSKjEo7jurcM8KGiQ==, figureFileBig=ohV7f/FWoRYKnR4q1VufZw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213330143986117, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Annual mean distribution of China's carbon sink,namely,net biome production in 2015—2019 constrained with OCO-2 XCO2 observations,provided by(a)GCAS v2,(b)Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service,and(c,d)NASA OCO-2 Model Inter-comparison Project(v9 and v10)(adapted from He,et al,2023b, figureFileSmall=SvfORY+t37TQpaEJYyVbKA==, figureFileBig=y7Fe4D6vvJPRLw+IIh5mCQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213330236260807, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=CN, label=图4, caption=基于OCO-2 XCO2反演的2015—2019年中国陆地碳汇空间分布(a. GCASv2的反演结果;b.欧洲中期天气预报中心CAMS系统的反演结果;c. 美国NASA OCO-2 v9的集成结果;d. v10 MIP的集成结果;改自He,et al,2023b, figureFileSmall=SvfORY+t37TQpaEJYyVbKA==, figureFileBig=y7Fe4D6vvJPRLw+IIh5mCQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213330332729803, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Inversion methods(a)and target species(b)in the cited papers by Chinese researchers(first affiliation being a Chinese domestic institution;the 3D-Var, 4D-Var, ensemble Kalman filter and its variants are categorized as data assimilation methods;the adjoint of the 2D PHLET model,divergence model,Gaussian model,and local mass balance method are categorized as simplified inversion methods), figureFileSmall=mzoEOBQjs1yr9SXDge3PYw==, figureFileBig=WbDToXa7YVQv8syakgSK3A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213330441781712, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=CN, label=图5, caption=文中所引用的中国学者论文(第一单位为中国学术机构)中所使用的反演方法(a)与所针对的反演物种(b)分布(三维变分、四维变分、集合卡尔曼滤波及其相似方法为资料同化方法;二维模型(PHLET)伴随模式、散度模型、高斯模型和局地质量平衡方法为简化反演方法), figureFileSmall=mzoEOBQjs1yr9SXDge3PYw==, figureFileBig=WbDToXa7YVQv8syakgSK3A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213330529862102, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Historical evolution of inversion methods(a)and target species(b)in the cited papers by Chinese researchers(first affiliation being a Chinese domestic institution;be noted that the divergence method in Lin,et al(2007) involved chemical transport model,which is different with recent applications of divergence methods that are independent of model simulations), figureFileSmall=5tYv8mZel+wh4Totl0CJBA==, figureFileBig=CR/34SmEK/nnR10//WWj6g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1244213330634719706, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1243976137760620571, articleId=1244213316751573910, 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基于卫星遥感的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演
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姜哲 1 , 林金泰 2 , 何泰龙 3 , 江飞 4 , 金建炳 5 , 秦凯 6 , 沈路路 2 , 杨盼盼 1 , 臧增亮 7 , 张霖 2 , 张羽中 8 , 郑博 9 , 钟慧茹 2 , 朱雷 10
气象学报 | 综述 2025,83(5): 1339-1362
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气象学报 | 综述 2025, 83(5): 1339-1362
基于卫星遥感的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演
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姜哲1 , 林金泰2 , 何泰龙3, 江飞4, 金建炳5, 秦凯6, 沈路路2, 杨盼盼1, 臧增亮7, 张霖2, 张羽中8, 郑博9, 钟慧茹2, 朱雷10
作者信息
  • 1.天津大学地球系统科学学院,天津,300072
  • 2.北京大学物理学院大气与海洋科学系气候与海-气实验室,北京,100871
  • 3.麻省理工学院航空航天系,马萨诸塞州,02139
  • 4.南京大学国际地球系统科学研究所,南京,210023
  • 5.南京信息工程大学环境科学与工程学院,南京,211544
  • 6.中国矿业大学环境与测绘学院,徐州,221116
  • 7.国防科技大学气象海洋学院,长沙,410073
  • 8.西湖大学工学院,杭州,310030
  • 9.清华大学深圳国际研究生院,深圳,518055
  • 10.南方科技大学环境科学与工程学院,深圳,518055
  • 姜哲,主要从事大气环境数值模拟、资料同化及人工智能研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

林金泰,主要从事大气化学、卫星遥感、环境大数据及气候变化研究。E-mail:
Satellite-based emission inversion for air pollutants and greenhouse gases:A review
Zhe JIANG1 , Jintai LIN2 , Tailong HE3, Fei JIANG4, Jianbing JIN5, Kai QIN6, Lulu SHEN2, Panpan YANG1, Zengliang ZANG7, Lin ZHANG2, Yuzhong ZHANG8, Bo ZHENG9, Huiru ZHONG2, Lei ZHU10
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Earth System Science,Tianjin University,Tianjin 300072,China
  • 2.Laboratory for Climate and Ocean-Atmosphere Studies,Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences,Peking University,Beijing 100871,China
  • 3.Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics,Massachusetts Institute of Technology,Massachusetts 02139,USA
  • 4.International Institute for Earth System Science,Nanjing University,Nanjing 210023,China
  • 5.School of Environmental Science and Engineering,Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology,Nanjing 211544,China
  • 6.School of Environment and Spatial Informatics,China University of Mining and Technology,Xuzhou 221116,China
  • 7.College of Meteorology and Oceanography,National University of Defense Technology,Changsha 410073,China
  • 8.School of Engineering,Westlake University,Hangzhou 310030,China
  • 9.Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School,Shenzhen 518055,China
  • 10.School of Environmental Science and Engineering,Southern University of Science and Technology,Shenzhen 518055,China
出版时间: 2025-10-10 doi: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240145
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基于卫星遥感的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演研究,为全面认识这些关键大气成分来源、精准实施减排措施提供了不可或缺的信息和数据基础。中外相关研究在过去20年中有了长足的发展,中国学者做出了重要贡献,同时也对中国环境保护和碳中和事业提供了重要的科学支撑。在中国气象学会成立100周年及《气象学报》创刊100周年之际,系统梳理了中国学者近20年来在星基排放反演方面的研究进展。首先,对常用排放反演方法进行简要总结,包括资料同化、局地质量平衡、高斯模型、二维模型、机器学习等。在此基础上,展示中国学者在氮氧化物(NOx)、氨气(NH3)、甲醛(HCHO)、乙二醛(CHOCHO)、二氧化硫(SO2)和一氧化碳(CO)等大气污染物,以及二氧化碳(CO2)和甲烷(CH4)等温室气体排放(和碳汇)反演的研究成果。最后,探讨反演方法和反演物种的历史演化进程、当前所面临的主要挑战和未来可能的发展方向,以期进一步推动大气污染物和温室气体排放的准确定量。

排放反演  /  大气污染物  /  温室气体  /  卫星遥感

Retrievals of satellite-observed emissions of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gases provide essential information and data for understanding the sources of these key atmospheric compositions and for implementing precise emission control measures. Over the past two decades, significant progress has been made in the field of emission inversion, with Chinese researchers playing a substantial role. In celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Chinese Meteorological Society and Acta Meteorologica Sinica, this paper systematically reviews the advances in satellite-based emission inversion research by Chinese scientists during this period. (1) Several widely used inversion methodologies, including data assimilation, local mass balance, Gaussian models, two-dimensional (2D) models, and machine learning, are briefly summarized. (2) Emission inversion studies focusing on major atmospheric pollutants— such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCHO), glyoxal (CHOCHO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO)—as well as greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), are systematically elaborated. (3) Finally, the historical evolution of inversion methods and target species, challenges in current satellite-based emission inversion, and future research directions are discussed to promote more accurate quantification of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions. It is worth noting that contributions from Chinese researchers have provided critical scientific support to environmental protection and carbon neutrality efforts in China.

Emission inversion  /  Atmospheric pollutants  /  Greenhouse gases  /  Satellite observation
姜哲, 林金泰, 何泰龙, 江飞, 金建炳, 秦凯, 沈路路, 杨盼盼, 臧增亮, 张霖, 张羽中, 郑博, 钟慧茹, 朱雷. 基于卫星遥感的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演. 气象学报, 2025 , 83 (5) : 1339 -1362 . DOI: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240145
Zhe JIANG, Jintai LIN, Tailong HE, Fei JIANG, Jianbing JIN, Kai QIN, Lulu SHEN, Panpan YANG, Zengliang ZANG, Lin ZHANG, Yuzhong ZHANG, Bo ZHENG, Huiru ZHONG, Lei ZHU. Satellite-based emission inversion for air pollutants and greenhouse gases:A review[J]. Acta Meteorologica Sinica, 2025 , 83 (5) : 1339 -1362 . DOI: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240145
化石燃料、生物质燃烧和化肥使用等人为活动造成了包括氮氧化物(NOx)、氨气(NH3)、挥发性有机化合物(VOCs)、二氧化硫(SO2)和一氧化碳(CO)等大气污染物排放的显著增加。这些污染物不仅直接危害环境,而且会通过光化学反应生成臭氧(O3),或经由气-粒转化过程形成细颗粒物(PM2.5),造成严重的健康和生态影响。研究表明,中国每年与O3和PM2.5相关的过早死亡人数可能超过100万,并且其危害会随着人口老龄化程度的加深而增加(Xu,et al,2023Chen X K,et al,2024)。与此同时,人为活动也会导致二氧化碳(CO2)和甲烷(CH4)等温室气体浓度(文中均指体积浓度)的快速增长,其中CO2浓度已从工业革命前的280 ppm上升至2023年的423 ppm(NASA,2023)。一方面,快速上升的温室气体浓度和温室效应造成了全球变暖和更加频繁的极端天气事件(Hoegh-Guldberg,et al,2019Thackeray,et al,2022)。除了人为活动,自然过程也可通过排放和碳汇等形式对大气环境产生重要影响。其中,闪电和土壤排放是NOx的重要来源(Lu,et al,2021bPérez-Invernón,et al,2023);植物会产生大量的VOCs排放(Wang H,et al,2021);火山喷发会导致大量SO2被释放到大气中(Beckett,et al,2022);此外,野火也是大气污染物和温室气体的重要来源(Burke,et al,2023Zheng,et al,2023)。另一方面,全球陆地生态系统碳汇(以下简称陆地碳汇)在2013—2022年抵消了约34%的化石燃料和土地利用变化相关碳排放(Friedlingstein,et al,2023)。因此,准确评估大气污染物和温室气体的排放(包括碳汇),对理解其大气演化规律和环境气候影响、制定有效的排放控制和可持续性发展政策至关重要。
卫星遥感可以帮助定量大气污染物和温室气体的浓度和排放。随着近期卫星遥感仪器和反演算法的快速发展,卫星观测数据被广泛应用于大气污染和温室气体的时空变化研究,特别是为“自上而下”定量污染物和温室气体排放提供了重要机遇,弥补了传统的排放统计清单、过程模型等“自下而上”方法在准确性、时空分辨率、时效性等方面的不足。目前普遍使用的星载观测仪包括臭氧监测仪(OMI,Boersma,et al,2007)、对流层监测仪(TROPOMI,van Geffen,et al,2020)、对流层污染测量仪(MOPITT,Deeter,et al,2003)、全球温室气体观测卫星(GOSAT,Butz,et al,2011)等极轨卫星探测器,以及地球静止轨道环境监测仪(GEMS,Kim,et al,2020)、对流层排放污染监测仪(TEMPO,Zoogman,et al,2017)等静止卫星探测器。近10年来,中国也发射了包括环境痕量气体监测仪(EMI,Zhang C X,et al,2020)、地球静止轨道干涉红外探测器(GIIRS,Zeng,et al,2023)、紫外高光谱臭氧探测仪(OMS,Wang,et al,2024)、CO2观测科学试验卫星(TanSat,Liu,et al,2018)和世界首颗CO2主动遥感卫星(DQ-1,Han,et al,2018)等多种卫星探测器,为实现基于国产卫星的大气成分监测和排放定量提供了可能。
基于卫星遥感的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演在过去20年中有了长足的发展。早期的研究受限于卫星较低的空间覆盖率和重访频率,主要开展较低时空分辨率的排放定量(Jiang,et al,2017Miyazaki,et al,2020Zhang,et al,2021Qu,et al,2022Wang H M,et al,2022)。最近几年来,以TROPOMI为代表的高精度观测平台陆续出现,使得实现高时空分辨率(如千米级、日尺度)的排放反演成为可能(Kong H,et al,2022Li H,et al,2023Qin,et al,2023Zhang Q Q,et al,2023Tang,et al,2024a),尤其是新一代静止卫星的出现,正在快速推动精细化反演研究的发展(Shu,et al,2022Watine-Guiu,et al,2023Hsu,et al,2024)。因此,高时空分辨率的星基排放快速反演已经成为重要发展方向。
从排放反演方法来看,早期的研究受限于计算资源,大多使用局地质量平衡、三维变分等较为简单的方法(Arellano,et al,2004Fu,et al,2007Jones,et al,2009Lamsal,et al,2011Lin,et al,2011)。伴随着近年来计算机技术的发展,四维变分和集合卡尔曼滤波等更为复杂的资料同化方法得到广泛应用(Jiang Z,et al,2015Wang Y,et al,2020Jiang F,et al,2022He,et al,2023bJin,et al,2023)。与此同时,为了满足高时效且高分辨率排放反演的需要,基于高斯模型(Beirle,et al,2011Liu,et al,2016)、二维散度模型(Beirle,et al,2019Qin,et al,2023)、二维化学传输模型(Kong,et al,2019)等快速反演方法的研究也不断涌现。部分研究也开始探索机器学习技术在排放反演中的应用(Huang,et al,2021He T L,et al,2022Li S W,et al,2024),以期实现反演速度和时空分辨率方面的新突破。
近年来,中国学者在大气污染物排放的空间分布、变化趋势(Lin,et al,2011Jin,et al,2023Qin,et al,2023Zuo,et al,2023)以及温室气体源、汇和时空分布特征(Zheng,et al,2020bZhang,et al,2021He,et al,2023bShen,et al,2023)等多个方面的星基反演取得了一系列研究成果。相关研究聚焦快速变化的全球大气环境(Li,et al,2020Jiang Z,et al,2022Huang,et al,2023)和快速提升的国产卫星大气环境观测能力(Han G,et al,2018Liu,et al,2018Han X Z,et al,2020Su,et al,2022Zhang P,et al,2022Zeng,et al,2023),为领域发展和环境治理做出了重要贡献。文中在相关检索平台(Google Scholar和中国知网)以“物种名+排放(或反演)+卫星”为中、英文关键词检索相关文献,并结合作者已知的相关研究,梳理了中国学者近20年来在星基排放反演方面的研究进展,总结资料同化、局地质量平衡、高斯模型、二维模型、机器学习等相关研究方法,以及对NOx、NH3、SO2、CO、HCHO(甲醛,VOCs示踪物)、CHOCHO(乙二醛,VOCs示踪物)、CO2和CH4等大气成分排放(包括碳汇)的反演成果。探讨反演方法和反演物种的历史演化进程,当前所面临的主要挑战和未来可能的发展方向。
需要强调的是,文中在梳理中国学者相关研究时,虽已尽力拓展检索范围,但受制于客观条件,仍可能存在遗漏之处,影响分析的完整性和准确性。谨此向广大读者和科研工作者致以诚挚的歉意,并热切期盼大家就不足之处,特别是未涉及的重要文献,给予指正补充。
排放反演作为一种“自上而下”的方法,使用卫星等大气环境观测数据反向估计大气污染物和温室气体排放,其思路大致可分为两类。第一类方法需要先验排放数据(通常由“自下而上”的排放统计或者过程模型提供)和三维大气化学传输模式支持,主要包括资料同化、简化方法(如局地质量平衡),以及目前处于起步阶段的机器学习等。第二类方法不需要先验排放数据和大气化学传输模式支持,主要使用浓度观测数据和气象数据反演排放,主要包括高斯模型和二维模型方法等。本节将对这些反演方法进行简要总结。
资料同化在地球科学中的应用范围广泛。迄今为止,提出的各种资料同化方法在数学基础上是相同的,可以追溯到贝叶斯定理,其数学表达式通常为
P(x|y)=P(y|x)P(x)P(y)
式中,P(x|y)是希望表征的后验条件概率密度函数,Px)和Py)分别是变量xy的先验概率密度函数,而P(y|x)是给定参数x时变量y的似然函数。基于已知y的信息,找到优化的x,使P(x|y)最大化。
在排放反演应用中,x代表要优化的污染物排放,y是对应的大气污染物浓度观测(对于碳汇反演,x代表相应的碳汇通量)。假设所有的概率密度函数都服从高斯分布,则P(x|y)可以表示为(Rodgers,2000)(式中c代表常数,T代表矩阵转置)
lnP(x|y)=12[(F(x)y)TSΣ1(F(x)y)+(xxa)TSa1(xxa)]+c=12J(x)+c
通常情况下,研究人员采用不同复杂度的大气化学传输模式等物理模型来刻画xy之间的响应关系,因此式中F代表相应的模型。xa代表先验排放、SΣSa分别代表观测误差(来自测量结果和模式计算)和先验误差协方差,J定义为代价函数。资料同化的目的在于寻找使得代价函数最小化的污染物排放。通过将代价函数的梯度设置为0
xJ(x)=2xFTSΣ1(F(x)y)+2Sa1(xxa)=0
则后验排放可以解析地求解为(Rodgers,2000
x^=xa+(xFTSΣ1xF+Sa1)1xFTSΣ1(F(xa)y)
根据该解析方法,可构建三维变分排放反演方法。
上述解析方法对于数据量规模较大的排放反演应用较为困难,主要原因在于难以精确构建雅可比矩阵(xF),并且在优化过程中没有考虑时间依赖性(即排放和浓度之间的时间差异)。为了解决这一问题,研究人员提出了四维变分方法,该方法的代价函数被修改为(Elbern,et al,2000Henze,et al,2007
J(x)=k=1N(Fk(x)y)TSΣ1(Fk(x)y)+(xxa)TSa1(xxa)
式中,k代表从同化初始时刻到终止时刻的时间步长。其代价函数的梯度可以表示为
xJ(x)=k=1N[2SΣ1(Fk(x)y)Fkx]+2Sa1(xxa)
该方法相比解析方法的主要优势在于无需精确构建雅可比矩阵,而是使用反向模拟(伴随模式)的方式计算浓度对排放的敏感性(其中I为单位矩阵)
Fkx=I+FkFk1Fk1x
中国学者在变分方法方面开展了一系列创新,比如Kong等(2019)建立了二维大气化学传输模型(PHLET)及其伴随模式,实现了快速、千米级分辨率的排放反演;Tang等(2023)对被广泛使用的GEOS-Chem伴随模式进行了扩展开发,增添了对多种气象资料和先验排放数据的支持,为更好地评估先验数据所引起的排放反演误差提供了技术支撑。
四维变分方法经常需要建立三维化学传输模式的伴随模式,其开发和维护较为困难。为了解决这个问题,研究人员使用集合方法来评估不确定性,这促进了集合卡尔曼滤波的发展。该方法中,代价函数被改写为(Hunt,et al,2007Miyazaki,et al,2012
J(w)=[F(x¯b+Xbw)y]TSΣ1[F(x¯b+Xbw)y]+(k1)wTw
式中,w是一个均值为0的高斯随机扰动向量,也就是说,假设先验集合成员(数量为k)是围绕真实模式状态x随机采样的。x¯b代表先验集合成员的平均值,Xb表示其扩展范围。其优化后验排放同样通过对梯度归0计算得到。
相比四维变分使用反向模拟的方式计算从浓度到排放的敏感性,集合卡尔曼滤波通过扰动先验排放建立浓度和排放的关联函数,其准确性受到扰动集合数量的影响。此外,空间距离较远的浓度和排放数据可能产生不合理的空间关联,因此在实际应用中会考虑限制关联的空间范围。集合卡尔曼滤波的反演结果因此更多地反映了(准)局地模式模拟和观测数据的差异,对大气污染物和温室气体远距离输送的影响考虑较少。
资料同化受限于复杂的反演框架和高强度的计算需求,这促进了简化方法的发展。局地质量平衡方法常被应用于短生命周期大气污染物排放反演。由于生命周期较短,在模式空间分辨率较低的情况下可以不考虑格点之间的输送,因此仅需考虑格点内部的(局地)质量平衡,相应的排放计算可简化为(Martin,et al,2003Lin,et al,2011
EEa=ΩΩa
ΔEEa=β×ΔΩΩa
式中,Ea代表格点先验排放量,Ωa代表模式在先验排放驱动下模拟得到的柱浓度,E代表反演得到的排放量,Ω代表卫星柱浓度观测值,ΔΩ代表观测和模拟柱浓度的差值,β代表基于模式计算生成的格点柱浓度对排放变化的敏感性,ΔE代表对格点先验排放所做的优化调整。
高斯模型方法常被应用于孤立点源(如大型发电厂、工厂等)或近似点源(如城市)的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演。该方法不依赖于大气化学传输模式,使用高斯函数对观测到的大气污染物浓度随着风场的变化(通常来自气象同化资料)在点源下游地区的分布进行拟合(Beirle,et al,2011Liu,et al,2016
M(x)=E×(eG)(x)+B
其中,
e(x)=exp(xXx0)
G(x)=12πσexp(x22σ2)
式中,M代表大气污染物浓度,E代表排放强度,e(x)代表在风场影响下的输送和化学衰减,x代表点源下风向的位置,X是点源位置,x0e指数衰减距离(取决于风速及生命周期),B代表区域背景浓度,G(x)代表大气扩散(需要和指数项做卷积),σ是标准差,也是空间平滑参数。
二维散度模型方法是另一种不依赖大气化学传输模式对大气污染物和温室气体排放进行反演的方法,其核心是局地排放、水平输送和汇在每一日的平衡(Beirle,et al,2019Qin,et al,2023
E=(CV)+Cτ
式中,E代表大气成分的排放,C代表观测浓度,V代表水平风矢量,τ代表该成分的大气生命周期。通量(CV)的水平散度表征大气输送量,辐散代表向外输出,辐合代表向内输入。该方法往往采用预设的不随时空变化的生命周期数值。因此,对于化学性质活泼、非线性强的大气成分(例如NOx),该方法在不同地区和时间的反演质量存在较大差异,例如容易出现排放负值,这是一个重要局限。中国学者对二维散度模型进行了改进,例如Qin等(2023)考虑了时间变化,并灵活拟合了一阶化学衰减和传输项参数,以更好地估计局地化学输送过程的影响。
基于物理模型的资料同化反演框架复杂,且需要高强度的科学计算,这成为其应用的重要阻碍。与此同时,数据驱动的机器学习,特别是神经网络方法在大气环境研究中的应用正在迅速扩展。从数学上讲,神经网络的训练过程可以视为多变量非线性回归,旨在“学习”任何非线性的多维函数(LeCun,et al,2015Goodfellow,et al,2016)。基于该方法的反演思路与集合卡尔曼滤波相似,使用大气化学传输模式模拟结果进行神经网络训练,以建立浓度和排放的关联函数;进而以此为基础,使用完成训练的神经网络反演排放,和传统资料同化方法相比,可以极大降低对计算资源的需求。该方法在排放反演中的应用正处于起步阶段(Huang,et al,2021He T L,et al,2022Li S W,et al,2024)。
从统计学角度看,神经网络训练的目标是通过优化相互连接单元的参数(有时称为神经元),直接表征后验概率密度函数。每个神经元有两个可学习的参数,即权重(w)和偏置(b)。它接收来自前一层所有神经元的输出,并向下一层广播一个激活的输出。对于输出层中的神经元k,可以得出
zk=jajwjk+bk
ak=gk(zk)
式中,wjk是施加在前一隐藏层神经元j输出上的权重,bk是施加在神经元k上的偏置修正。zk是传播方程,它对前一层所有神经元加权输出进行求和。gk被称为激活函数,对传播信号执行非线性变换。ak是网络做出的预测值,aj是上一层的预测值。
在训练开始之前,网络会被随机初始化,神经网络的初始输出将与真实值有很大差异。与资料同化中的做法类似,代价函数可以定义为
J(aktk)=12(aktk)2
式中,tk代表真实值。代价函数对输出层中每个神经元的权重和偏置的梯度可以表示为
Jwjk=(aktk)gk(zk)aj
Jbk=(aktk)gk(zk)
通过将梯度设置为0,可以向后传播,并优化与神经元k连接的所有前一隐藏层神经元的权重和偏置。与四维变分类似,学习过程将迭代进行,直到代价函数最终被最小化。
本节将梳理中国学者使用不同反演方法得到的大气污染物排放结果。取决于卫星遥感数据所能包含的大气成分,已有的星基大气污染物排放反演主要针对与PM2.5和O3相关的气态污染物,包括NOx、NH3、HCHO、CHOCHO、SO2和CO。大气中的PM2.5来自直接排放和气态前体物的化学生成,并且往往以后者为主,因此较少利用卫星遥感直接反演PM2.5排放,限于篇幅文中暂不介绍。
氮氧化物(NOx)文中主要指NO和NO2,是主要空气污染物之一,其排放来自化石燃料、生物质燃烧,土壤,闪电等人为活动和自然过程。NOx直接影响人体健康,并且可在大气中氧化生成硝酸盐颗粒物,与VOCs通过光化学反应生成O3,并显著影响硫酸盐的非均相生成。NOx在大气中的生命周期约为数小时至数十小时(夏季短、冬季长),主要通过氧化产物硝酸及相应硝酸盐的干湿沉降清除离开大气,该过程所形成的酸沉降会导致土壤酸化、农作物减产和建筑物腐蚀。大气NO2浓度可以使用基于卫星的UV/Vis遥感仪器探测,例如全球臭氧监测仪(GOME,Martin,et al,2002)、OMI(Boersma,et al,2007)、TROPOMI(van Geffen,et al,2020)和中国产的EMI(Zhang C X,et al,2020)、OMS(Wang,et al,2024)等极轨卫星探测器,以及GEMS(Kim,et al,2020)、TEMPO(Zoogman,et al,2017)等静止卫星探测器。相应的星基观测数据被广泛应用于研究大气NO2生命周期和空间变化规律(Zhang,et al,2007Duncan,et al,2016Jiang,et al,2018),并以此为基础反演大气NOx排放(Lamsal,et al,2011Miyazaki,et al,2020)。
中国学者在基于卫星遥感的大气NOx排放反演方面取得了持续的进展。考虑到NOx较短的生命周期,排放反演较多使用局地质量平衡方法,该方法忽略了区域输送对NO2柱浓度的影响,因此适用于空间分辨率较低(几十至几百千米)的排放反演(Lin,et al,20112015Lin,2012Chen,et al,2021Zhu,et al,2021Li H,et al,2024)。但与此同时,中国学者也有使用局地质量平衡方法进行区域高分辨率NOx排放反演的探索(Yang Y,et al,2019a2021)。研究发现,相比使用单一观测数据来源,组合使用不同的卫星观测数据有助于增加观测信息数量(Lin,et al,2010Gu,et al,2014);并且,NO2柱浓度对NOx排放的非线性响应(Gu,et al,2016)及不同版本的卫星观测数据(Yang,et al,2019b)亦对NOx排放反演有重要影响。借助局地质量平衡方法可实现快速反演的优势,中国学者从不同角度对新型冠状病毒疫情期间封控对NOx排放的影响进行了深入评估(Zhang R X,et al,2020Zhu Y Z,et al,2022Liu,et al,2023)。在局地质量平衡方法之外,不需要大气化学传输模式支持的高斯模型方法及其变体也被学者广泛使用。该方法适用于对点源排放进行快速评估,也常常被应用于电厂和城市NOx排放反演(将城市当成点源),特别是以TROPOMI和GEMS等为代表的新一代观测平台的出现,进一步推动了相关应用的发展(张杰等,2015Liu F,et al,20162017李言顺等,2018Xue,et al,2022Luo,et al,2024Tang,et al,2024a2024bXu,et al,2024)。
学者们持续以反演算法创新实现快速、精细、可靠的NOx排放反演。Kong等(2019)建立了二维大气化学传输模型(PHLET,0.05° × 0.05°空间分辨率)和基于PHLET的伴随模式,突破了高斯模型、二维散度模型等国际上发展的快速反演方法在表征复杂排放来源和局地非线性化学输送过程的局限,并结合OMI观测数据反演了2012—2015年中国长三角地区夏季NOx排放(图1)。Kong H等(2022)优化了该方法并结合TROPOMI观测数据反演了2019年夏季中国NOx排放,从而揭示了人为源排放清单中缺失的众多中小型排放源。在此基础上,Kong等(2023)进一步反演了青藏高原夏季NOx排放,发现青藏高原湖泊存在此前未知的高强度NOx排放源,并指出该NOx来源可能与气候变暖背景下的湖泊微生物过程有关。同时,Qin等(2023)在散度模型方法基础上,利用对一阶化学衰减和传输项参数的拟合改进了对局地化学输送过程的表征,从而反演得到了中国能源“金三角”地区2019年逐日0.05° × 0.05°分辨率NOx排放数据集;Li X L等(2023)和Liu等(2024)进一步将该方法应用于中国山西省NOx排放、东南亚生物质燃烧和快速城市化所导致的NOx排放研究。Pan等(2023)使用二维散度模型和TROPOMI观测数据,建立了中国2019年1 km×1 km分辨率的NOx排放数据集,并揭示了超过100个现有排放统计清单里缺失的超级排放源(主要是工厂)。王思杰等(2024)对比了高斯模型、PHLET和散度模型在华北地区NOx排放反演的结果差异,发现高斯模型主要适用于点源排放,在排放源密集地区的效果较差;散度模型能快速识别主要排放源位置,但存在排放低估和负排放等问题;PHLET显式考虑了大气输送和非线性化学因素对排放反演的影响,所得结果和交通网络、人口分布等数据具有很好的一致性。
中国学者也在积极探索机器学习在NOx排放反演中的应用。利用WRF-CMAQ(空气质量模型平台)模拟数据集训练机器学习模式,Xing等(2022)基于OMI观测数据反演了中国2017年NOx排放,发现机器学习模式可以有效降低排放反演所需要的计算量。Li S W等(2024)使用WRF-CMAQ模拟数据集和OMI观测数据,建立了基于卫星观测的中国2017—2021年大气NO2浓度数据集,并以此为基础反演NOx排放,发现中国冬季NOx排放较高,但是在2020年下降了40%,其主要原因是新型冠状病毒疫情和减排。
氨气(NH3)是大气中含量最为丰富的碱性气体,可与SO2、NOx发生非均相反应,产生大量的硝酸铵和硫酸铵颗粒物。大气中的氨气主要来源于农业施肥和畜牧业排泄物两大人为排放(Li,et al,2021)。现有观测资料显示,由于密集的农业活动和牲畜养殖量,印度、中国华北地区等地已经成为全球大气高NH3浓度的区域。精细定量NH3排放的时空分布格局对于中国乃至全球大气环境研究和氮管理均具有重要科学意义和应用价值。红外卫星遥感是全球大气NH3监测的主要手段。当前普遍采用的星载观测仪器包括对流层发射光谱仪(TES,Beer,et al,2008)、大气红外探测仪(AIRS,Warner,et al,2016)、红外大气探测干涉仪(IASI,Clarisse,et al,2009)、跨轨道红外测深仪(CrIS,Shephard,et al,2015),以及中国的静止轨道干涉红外探测器(GIIRS,Zeng,et al,2023)。上述星基观测数据被应用于监测大气NH3时空变化规律(Ge,et al,2020Deng,et al,2021),并进一步利用大气化学模式和资料同化等方法实现对NH3排放的反演(Sitwell,et al,2022)。
学者们利用资料同化方法实现了基于卫星遥感的大气NH3排放反演。例如,Zhu等(2013)和Zhang等(2018)利用GEOS-Chem(全球三维大气化学模型)伴随模式和TES观测数据,反演了美国和中国的NH3排放。Jin等(2023)基于自主开发的大气污染物四维集合变分同化排放反演系统,通过与GEOS-Chem模式耦合同化IASI观测数据,并设计局部分析方法以有效提高同化分析计算效率,从而实现了中国NH3排放资料的“自上而下”反演,发现MEIC先验清单显著低估了华北、华东及西北地区的排放(同化增量达50%)。在资料同化方法之外,中国学者也开展了基于局地质量平衡方法的大气NH3排放反演(陈培林等,2023文鹏帆等,2024)。Luo等(2022)利用大气模式模拟结果构建了NH3排放-浓度的快速计算线性模型,并基于IASI观测数据反演得到了2008—2018年全球尺度4°(纬度)× 5°(经度)的NH3月排放资料;Liu等(2022b)使用IASI观测数据、GIIRS观测数据以及GEOS-Chem模拟数据,快速反演了中国2008—2019年的NH3排放;Liu等(2022a)使用IASI观测数据,反演了河北省畜牧业NH3排放,发现2008—2020年NH3排放以每年5.8%的增速持续上升,并且NH3排放整体呈现“春、夏季高,秋、冬季低”的特征。此外,基于高斯模型方法的NH3排放反演也有成功的实践,比如Xie等(2024)使用高斯模型和IASI观测数据,反演评估了新疆维吾尔自治区乌鲁木齐市和格尔木市2008—2023年5—9月的NH3排放率及生命周期,其结果有助于改善对中国西部城市NH3排放的理解。
HCHO与CHOCHO可被卫星监测到,是VOCs排放的有效示踪物。HCHO主要来自植被及人类活动排放的各类VOCs的二级氧化以及有机物燃烧;CHOCHO的VOCs源相对较少,产率整体上偏低。HCHO和CHOCHO在大气中的清除路径包括OH氧化、光解及沉降,生命周期通常只有几个小时。因此,HCHO和CHOCHO的大气浓度可以有效地表征区域VOCs排放强度,并用于反演VOCs排放量。目前主要用于监测HCHO和CHOCHO大气浓度的卫星遥感仪器包括OMI(González Abad,et al,2015)、TROPOMI(De,et al,2018)、臭氧测绘和分析套件(OMPS,Nowlan,et al,2023)、GEMS(Kwon,et al,2019)、TEMPO(Zoogman,et al,2017),以及中国的EMI(Su,et al,2022)等。这些卫星遥感数据被广泛用于评估VOCs时空分布(陈智海等,2019)、人为排放(Sun,et al,2021Pu,et al,2024)以及对流层O3污染生成(Wang W N,et al,2021Ren,et al,2022)。
VOCs排放反演研究多数围绕VOCs排放与HCHO、CHOCHO近似线性的关系展开。早期的Fu等(2007)结合卫星HCHO观测和GEOS-Chem模式模拟,用线性回归的方法对亚洲地区植物源、人为源、生物质燃烧源VOCs排放进行了约束;Zhu等(2014)分析了OMI卫星2005—2008年夏季观测到的下风向羽流区HCHO相对于区域背景值的增强。近期中国学者的工作中,王峰等(2021)和Li W等(2023)使用局地质量平衡方法和TROPOMI观测数据,分别反演了中国东部VOCs排放和青海省VOCs和NOx排放;Feng等(2024a)使用集合卡尔曼滤波方法和TROPOMI观测数据,反演了中国2022年夏季VOCs排放,发现先验排放清单高估VOCs排放量约50%。近年来,更多研究开始关注点源排放。其中,Zuo等(2023)基于TROPOMI卫星识别了全球HCHO排放点源,将HCHO观测与风向数据进行匹配,通过高斯模型拟合HCHO浓度沿着下风向的变化,从而得到全球点源相对其背景的HCHO产率(图2),发现拟合结果与EDGAR排放清单估算的产率具有高相关性(相关系数r=0.76)。由于HCHO和CHOCHO在不同VOCs排放源产率的差异,协同使用卫星HCHO和CHOCHO观测反演VOCs排放比单独用HCHO或者CHOCHO更具优势。比如,Cao等(2018)基于GEOS-Chem伴随模式和卫星HCHO、CHOCHO观测对中国VOCs的排放进行了反演,指出VOCs排放的季节变化显著高于现有清单,并且协同使用卫星HCHO和CHOCHO观测对反演区分VOCs种类及约束人为源排放具有必要性。
大气中的SO2主要来源于化石燃料燃烧及各种含硫原料的生产加工过程的排放,火山爆发也会导致大量SO2被释放到大气中。SO2不仅会对人体健康造成严重危害,还会氧化形成硫酸盐颗粒物,对全球环境和气候造成影响。卫星遥感是监测大气SO2的重要手段。SO2星载观测仪器包括OMI(Theys,et al,2015)、OMPS(Yang,et al,2013Li C,et al,2024)、TROPOMI(Theys,et al,2017),中国的EMI(Xia,et al,2021)、OMS(Wang,et al,2024)等极轨卫星探测器,以及GEMS(Kim,et al,2020)、TEMPO(Zoogman,et al,2017)等静止卫星探测器。丰富的SO2观测数据对深入了解SO2时空分布特征(魏夜香等,2023),改进SO2模式参数化方案和反演SO2排放都具有重要意义(Hu,et al,2022Weismann,et al,2023)。
学者们多用高斯模型或者羽流法,基于卫星观测数据估计SO2点源排放。例如,Wang等(2015)利用OMI的SO2观测数据,采用改进的二维高斯拟合方法反演中国26家燃煤电厂烟气脱硫设施运行前后的SO2排放,结果表明,2005—2010年由于烟气脱硫设备的安装运行,这26家燃煤电厂平均减少了56%±21%的SO2排放量;Cai等(2022)使用AIRS和TROPOMI观测数据,分析了2019年雷科克火山爆发的SO2排放。大气SO2排放也可以使用四维变分方法同化卫星数据进行反演,例如Wang等(2016)基于GEOS-Chem及其伴随模式同化OMI观测数据反演人为源SO2排放,评估了2008年8月北京及周边地区的减排控制措施对SO2排放量的影响,发现北京夏季奥林匹克运动会期间SO2排放下降约20%,且后验排放改善了模式对SO2近地面浓度及垂直柱浓度模拟的准确性。此外,基于局地质量平衡方法的SO2排放反演也有成功的实践,比如Li等(2018)使用OMI观测数据反演了中国2005和2010年的SO2和NOx排放,发现先验排放清单低估了中国SO2的排放,并指出排放低估可能与对散煤排放的不准确估计有关。
CO是一种主要的空气污染物,来自不完全燃烧所产生的排放以及碳氢化合物在大气中的氧化生成,主要通过OH氧化清除。CO可通过光化学反应生成O3,对对流层OH浓度和大气氧化能力具有重要影响。CO在对流层大气中的生命周期为2—3个月,可以在区域或洲际尺度进行长距离输送,常被用作示踪物研究大气污染传输。大气CO浓度可以使用基于卫星的红外遥感仪器测量。普遍使用的星载观测仪包括大气层制图扫描成像吸收频谱仪(SCIAMACHY,Bogumil,et al,2003)、AIRS(McMillan,et al,2005)、IASI(George,et al,2009)、MOPITT(Deeter,et al,2003)和TROPOMI(Landgraf,et al,2016)等。这些星基观测数据被广泛应用于研究大气CO生命周期和时空变化(刘诚等,2013Hedelius,et al,2021),并以此为基础反演CO排放(Jiang,et al,2011Miyazaki,et al,2020)。
早在2007年,中国学者就使用MOZART模式和MOPITT观测数据反演了全球大气CO排放(Lin,et al,2007)。近期的反演研究更多地使用资料同化方法,比如Jiang等(2017)建立了结合卡尔曼滤波和四维变分的双步反演方法,以去除与远距离输送相关模式偏差的影响,并使用该方法同化MOPITT观测数据,从而反演得到了全球2001—2015年CO排放;Zheng等(2018)使用基于LMDZ-INCA模式的四维变分方法同化MOPITT观测数据,反演了东亚地区2005—2016年CO排放,发现先验排放清单低估了中国CO排放的下降速度;Tang等(2023)在GEOS-Chem模式伴随模式(四维变分)中增加了对更多种气象和先验排放数据的支持,并在后续工作中使用该模式同化MOPITT观测数据,反演得到了全球2003—2022年大气CO排放,发现人为源CO排放降低导致北半球中低纬度地区大气CO浓度降低,而林火导致北半球高纬度地区大气CO浓度增加。此外,研究者试图利用高斯模型实现CO点源排放的快速监测定量,例如Tian等(2022b)结合高斯模型和TROPOMI观测数据,反演了中国和印度4个工业点源CO排放;Tian等(2022a)进一步使用该方法,反演了中国14处工业点源CO排放,发现多数工业点源CO排放高于排放清单估计。
使用现有卫星探测器可以较好地监测CO2和CH4的大气浓度变化,并开展相应的排放和碳汇反演。受限于技术手段,目前尚无氧化亚氮(N2O)这一重要温室气体的卫星观测。本节依据第2节介绍的排放反演方法,进一步梳理学者针对CO2和CH4所开展的反演研究。
CO2是最重要的人为温室气体,其浓度自工业革命以来显著增长,从280 ppm上升至423 ppm(2023年)。人为活动是大气CO2的主要排放来源,其中化石燃料燃烧和土地利用分别贡献约88.1%和11.9%(Friedlingstein,et al,2023)。21世纪以来,基于红外卫星遥感的全球CO2柱浓度(XCO2)监测快速发展。目前主要的星载观测仪器包括GOSAT(Butz,et al,2011)及GOSAT-2(Suto,et al,2021)、轨道碳观测(OCO-2及OCO-3,Crisp,et al,2017Eldering,et al,2019),以及中国的TanSat(Liu,et al,2018Hong,et al,2022)和DQ-1(世界首个主动监测碳卫星)(Han,et al,2018)。相应的遥感监测数据被广泛应用于识别大气CO2的时空分布特征和变化规律(白文广等,2010何江浩等,2020),为星基碳排放反演提供了重要数据基础(Wu,et al,2020Nassar,et al,2021)。CO2在大气中的生命周期长(至少数十年)且背景浓度高,因此人为源碳排放导致的CO2浓度增强信号较弱(通常小于5 ppm),在很多时候与卫星观测误差大致相当(Nassar,et al,2017Reuter,et al,2019),使得直接基于碳卫星观测反演碳排放具有较大挑战。随着卫星探测器的发展以及多种排放反演算法的涌现,使得在不同尺度下的碳排放反演成为可能。
碳卫星监测下的CO2排放反演方法包括数据驱动法和模型驱动法。数据驱动法通常结合卫星观测得到的XCO2数据与当地风场信息,在稳态假设条件下估算大型点源和孤立城市的排放量(Hu,et al,2021Guo,et al,2023Lin,et al,2023)。例如,Wang Y L等(2019)开发了烟羽监测反演框架,以定量表征城市级和点源的碳排放量及其不确定性(Wang Y L,et al,2020);Zheng等(2020a)基于2014—2019年OCO-2观测数据,运用高斯烟羽模型将XCO2增强信号与附近的人为排放源相关联,定量了中国46个城市中60个烟羽案例的CO2排放量,发现其年排放总量为1.3 Gt,占全国的13%,反演结果与中国MEIC清单较为一致,但与全球清单(EDGAR、ODIAC)存在显著差异。模型驱动法通常使用三维欧拉模型(如区域气象-化学在线耦合模式(WRF-Chem))和拉格朗日模型(如随时间反向拉格朗日传输模型(X-STILT)、区域气象-拉格朗日粒子扩散耦合模式(WRF-FLEXPART))。Yang等(2017)使用GOSAT卫星观测数据和集合卡尔曼滤波方法,反演了中国2012年的CO2排放。He等(2024)对比了3种CO2排放反演方法,包括数据驱动的高斯烟羽模型以及分别基于WRF-Chem和WRF-FLEXPART的最大似然法。他们基于2014—2021年OCO-2观测数据,反演得到了中国10个和美国13个电厂的CO2排放,发现数据驱动的高斯烟羽模型在复杂风场环境的应用相对受限。此外基于机器学习方法的CO2排放反演也有成功的实践,如张少卿等(2023)使用多卫星XCO2观测数据,结合地理信息数据,建立了机器学习模型来评估中国人为源碳排放。
考虑到碳卫星在数据数量和质量方面的局限,以及XCO2浓度增强信号较弱的缺陷,研究人员尝试利用与CO2具有同源排放特征的大气污染物(CO、NOx等)作为指示物,构建碳污排放协同反演技术。中国学者在该领域取得了重要的突破,如Zheng等(2021)使用基于MOPITT观测数据反演得到了CO、CO2的排放量,并分析了林火对全球碳排放的影响;Zheng等(2023)进一步研究了北半球高纬度地区林火对全球碳排放的影响,发现2021年北半球高纬度地区林火产生的碳排放占全球生物质燃烧碳排放的23%。相较于CO2,NOx在大气中的生命周期较短(数小时),相应的NO2卫星观测数据精度高,使得其大气浓度对人为源排放的响应更为敏锐,从而易于构建源-浓度关系,进而可用于辅助CO2排放估计。Zhang Q Q等(2023)利用叠加柱模型,基于NO2卫星观测反演武汉市NOx排放,并结合现有排放清单中的CO2/NOx排放比值进一步核算CO2排放,发现武汉市2020年初碳排放大幅度下降,与新型冠状病毒疫情封控期情况一致。Zheng等(2020b)开发了一套耦合近实时NO2卫星遥感观测、大气化学传输模型与25 km分辨率排放清单的人为源碳污日排放协同反演系统(图3),揭示了2020年初新型冠状病毒疫情期间中国人为源CO2排放的大幅下降;他们的后续工作进一步实现了长时间跨度的人为源碳污排放持续监测反演(Li H,et al,2023)。
陆地生态系统可以通过光合作用吸收大气CO2,并通过呼吸作用排放CO2,其净通量整体呈现为碳汇,在减缓大气CO2浓度增加和全球变暖方面发挥着重要作用。最新的全球碳收支(GCB)报告显示,2013—2022年全球陆地碳汇为3.3±0.8 PgC/a,抵消掉了约34%的全球化石燃料碳排放(Friedlingstein,et al,2023)。然而,受到气候变化、氮沉降以及CO2施肥效应等多因素的影响,陆地碳汇呈现显著的时空变化,是导致全球大气CO2浓度呈现明显季节和年际波动的主要因素(Le Quéré,et al,2013)。因此,精确评估陆地生态系统碳汇及其时空变化特征具有十分重要的科学意义。GOSAT、OCO-2和TanSat等碳卫星的发射,为陆地碳汇的反演提供了宝贵的观测数据。研究表明,卫星XCO2数据可以很好地用于改进对区域尺度陆地碳汇的反演估算(Deng,et al,2014Wang H W,et al,2019Wang H M,et al,2022),降低陆地碳汇核算结果的不确定性,并定量揭示极端气候事件对陆地碳汇的影响(Liu J J,et al,2017Wang J,et al,2022He,et al,2023a),增加对气候变化对陆地碳汇影响的认识。
中国学者在基于碳卫星的陆地碳汇反演方面取得了显著的进展。Yang D X等(2021)和Wang H M等(2022)基于国产TanSAT卫星XCO2数据产品,对全球和不同地区的陆地碳汇进行了反演估算;Jiang F等(2022)利用其自主研发的星基全球碳同化系统GCASv2,同化了GOSAT XCO2数据,构建了2010—2019年逐月的1°分辨率全球陆地碳汇数据产品;Kong Y W等(2022)基于GEOS-Chem和集合卡尔曼滤波的同化算法(THU系统),通过同化OCO-2 XCO2数据,估算了全球和不同区域的陆地碳汇状况;Jin等(2024)利用其自主研发的GONGGA系统,同化了OCO-2 XCO2数据,建立了2015—2022年全球陆地生态系统碳通量数据产品;Li J Y等(2024)利用OCO-2 XCO2和地表CO2观测数据,反演了全球2019—2021年陆地碳汇。此外,2023年,GCASv2、GONGGA和THU系统同时参加了全球碳计划,在全球碳收支的反演估算中做出了中国贡献(Friedlingstein,et al,2023)。
在区域陆地碳汇及其变化机制方面,He等(2023b)反演得到中国2015—2019年陆地碳汇在0.34 PgC/a(GCASv2)和0.47±0.16 PgC/a(中位数±标准差;OCO-2 v10 MIP)之间,指出中国年碳汇最强的区域在南方地区(图4),而生长季的碳汇峰期则出现在东北地区和其他主要农业区;Kou等(2023)基于GOSAT XCO2数据估算了中国2016年陆地碳汇为0.47 PgC/a;Wang J等(2022)基于同化了GOSAT卫星观测数据的全球陆地碳汇数据产品,首次揭示了2019年印度洋正偶极子事件对印度洋周边地区陆地碳汇的影响,发现该事件使得亚太地区的陆地碳汇显著降低,而印度和非洲地区的碳汇显著增加,并且其造成的影响与2015—2016年极端厄尔尼诺事件相当;Chen H等(2024)分析了北美西南部2020—2021年连续特大干旱和大规模野火事件对陆地碳汇的影响,发现持续的干旱和野火导致了巨大的陆地生态系统CO2损失,其损失量(95.07 TgC)超过该地区年碳汇总量的80%。
由于现有卫星观测在空间覆盖率、重访频率、数据量、观测精度等方面仍旧有限,对区域陆地碳汇的估算仍存在较大的不确定性。反演结果也受到反演模型、先验排放和碳汇通量等方面的影响。例如,碳汇估计时往往假设人为源碳排放是已知的,因此在区域碳汇总量和空间分布的估计方面引入了难以准确定量的误差。此外,不同的卫星XCO2观测数据的一致性方面也存在不足,这也是导致陆地碳汇反演结果差异的重要原因。对于中国的碳汇,不同学者反演得到的陆地碳汇量(−1.11—−0.30 PgC/a)及其空间分布(图4)存在显著差异(Jiang,et al,2016Wang J,et al,2020He W,et al,20222023b)。Zhang L Y等(2023)利用12个生态系统模型结果作为先验碳汇通量,基于GOSAT XCO2反演了全球不同区域的陆地碳汇,发现GOSAT数据只能在大洲尺度得到可靠的估算结果,在次大洲以及更小尺度,GOSAT观测数据仍旧不足,因此先验通量的选择对反演结果影响很大。Piao等(2022)在综述论文中指出,未来需要发展新一代高时空分辨率的国产温室气体浓度观测卫星,建立高分辨率辐射传输模型和分子光谱数据库,以提高XCO2观测的准确性,从而有效提升中国陆地碳汇的反演估算水平。
CH4是仅次于CO2的第二大人为温室气体。在100 a的时间尺度上,它的全球增温潜势是CO2的27倍;在20 a的时间尺度上,其增温潜势是CO2的84倍(IPCC,2023)。全球约60%的CH4排放来自人类活动,主要包括油气产业、煤矿、畜牧业、农业、垃圾填埋与废水处理等。大气CH4浓度可以通过红外卫星遥感监测,目前普遍使用的星载观测仪包括SCIAMACHY(Frankenberg,et al,2005)、GOSAT及GOSAT-2(Parker,et al,2020Suto,et al,2021)、TROPOMI(Lorente,et al,2021)等。中国风云气象卫星和高分系列卫星也在CH4监测中扮演越来越重要的角色(陈良富等,2021姚璐等,2022)。
中国学者在基于卫星遥感的大气CH4排放反演方面取得了重要进展,相应的反演工作被用于量化全球CH4源汇及验证国家尺度CH4排放清单(Zhu S H,et al,2022张羽中等,2024)。例如,Zhang Y Z等(2021)利用GOSAT卫星观测量化了2010—2018年全球CH4排放和汇的变化;Lu等(2022)结合GOSAT卫星观测数据和地面、飞机原位观测数据,对北美CH4排放进行了高分辨率反演分析;Zhang Y Z等(2022)、Liang等(2023)和Zhao等(2024)研究建立了高分辨率区域反演方法,利用卫星观测量化了中国CH4排放的空间分布和变化趋势,发现中国CH4排放变化与能源、农业和环境政策有关,2010年开始呈上升趋势,2016年之后增速放缓。
中国学者在油气开采(Zhang Y Z,et al,2020Shen,et al,20222023Lu,et al,2023Li F,et al,2024)和煤矿(Bai,et al,2024Hu,et al,2024Tu,et al,2024)等能源相关CH4排放方面有更为深入的研究。目前星基排放反演得到的中国煤矿、油气CH4排放总量比“自下而上”方法低20%左右。其中,反演得到的煤矿CH4排放量为12.0—17.5 Tg/a,油气排放量为0.72—5.50 Tg/a。与“自下而上”方法相比,卫星对减小估算误差起到了显著作用。不过,这些研究多采用GOSAT卫星,该卫星数据的空间覆盖率低(相邻观测轨道间隔260 km),每隔3 d采样一次,无法在区域尺度上准确定位不同的人为排放源;其次,这些反演方法的空间分辨率不够,如很多研究集中于200—400 km的分辨率(Lu,et al,2021aZhang Y Z,et al,2021),因此无法在空间上区分煤矿和其他源的排放;此外,先验排放清单会影响估算结果,特别是当卫星观测较少的时候,这些反演方法对先验清单比较敏感。最新的利用TROPOMI高分辨率卫星反演得到的中国煤矿CH4排放量为15—18 Tg/a,并且可以提供更高的空间分辨率(50 km左右)(Chen,et al,2022Liang,et al,2023Shen,et al,2023);部分研究则利用TROPOMI探测到了山西省很多点源的排放(Han,et al,2024)。因此,秦凯等(2023)建议结合多源卫星遥感和反演算法,以煤矿聚集区和单一煤矿两个尺度建立中国煤炭行业星基CH4排放清单。
现有研究显示,在采用最先进卫星遥感观测的情况下,星基CH4排放反演具有高时效性和高空间分辨率,在未来CH4减排和实现“碳中和”目标道路上将发挥越来越重要的作用。将点源卫星的点源检测预警和区域卫星的清单校核结合起来,形成多层级系统,是未来温室气体排放卫星监测的发展方向。
中国学者在星基大气污染物和温室气体排放反演的算法开发和应用方面取得了丰硕成果。在这些研究中,NOx排放是中国学者最为关注的(占比37.5%),其中主要使用的反演方法包括局地质量平衡、高斯模型、散度模型和二维模型伴随模式(图5)。两种主要的温室气体(CO2和CH4)所受到的关注分别占比21.9%和17.7%,其中CO2的主要反演方法包括集合卡尔曼滤波及其相似方法和高斯模型,而CH4的主要反演方法是三维变分。同为长生命周期温室气体,CO2和CH4的主流反演方法差异明显,因此需要更多的研究以理解反演方法差异对温室气体排放评估造成的影响。NH3(8.3%)、CO(6.3%)、VOCs(5.2%)和SO2(3.1%)等大气污染物受到的关注相对较少,其中NH3的主要反演方法包括局地质量平衡和四维变分;CO的主要反演方法包括四维变分、三维变分和高斯模型;VOCs的反演方法较为多样化,多种方法均有涉及;SO2的主要反演方法是高斯模型。总体而言,局地质量平衡(27.1%)、高斯模型(24.0%)、三维变分(14.6%)、集合卡尔曼滤波及其相似方法(13.5%)是最为常用的反演方法(图5),而四维变分(7.3%)、散度模型(7.3%)、二维模型伴随模式(3.1%)和机器学习(3.1%)等方法总体占比较少。
温室气体和大气污染物生命周期的不同对反演方法的选择造成显著影响。对于长生命周期的温室气体,排放反演需要充分考虑远距离输运,因此更多的使用基于模式模拟的资料同化方法;对于短生命周期的大气污染物,区域传输在一定程度上可以忽略,这有利于不依赖模式模拟的简化方法的应用,但对生命周期及其时空变化的估计是一个关键难题。具体而言,对温室气体(CO2和CH4)的主要反演方法是资料同化(四维变分、三维变分、集合卡尔曼滤波及其相似方法),共占比约73%(26篇论文);对大气污染物(NOx、NH3、VOCs、SO2和CO)的主要反演方法是简化方法(质量平衡、高斯模型、散度模型和二维模型伴随模式),共占比约83%(48篇论文)。此外,需要指出的是,基于模式模拟的反演方法和不依赖模式模拟的反演方法在原理上差异极大,但其应用的反演物种区别较小。如图5所示,四维变分方法被用于3种大气污染物和2种温室气体的排放反演;高斯模型方法被用于5种大气污染物和2种温室气体的排放反演。
反演方法以及不同物种所受到的关注度,与环境保护政策、计算机技术和环境监测技术的发展等因素息息相关,呈现出明显的历史演化特征。如图6所示,局地质量平衡方法和资料同化方法的应用较为平稳;二维散度模型的应用自2022年起稳步增长;高斯模型的应用自2021年起快速涌现,截至2024年已超过传统的反演方法;作为一种新兴的反演方法,中国学者对机器学习排放反演的相关研究始于2022年,目前还处于初步探索阶段。从反演物种的角度来看,作为主要的大气污染物,NOx的排放定量是最受关注的;此外,针对深入理解气候变化的迫切需求,对温室气体CO2和CH4的关注度自2020年起快速增长。2007—2017年平均每年仅发表约1篇星基排放反演的研究论文,2022—2024年上升为每年18篇左右,体现了近期相关研究的蓬勃发展。
星基排放反演面临多种挑战和机遇。三维大气化学传输模式可以较完整地模拟大气物理和化学过程,以其为基础的资料同化方法理论上适用于所有种类的大气污染物和温室气体排放反演。但是,高计算资源需求限制了资料同化结果的分辨率,难以满足精细化管理需求,并且资料同化对先验排放数据较为敏感,尤其是难以处理先验排放数据中缺失的排放源。高斯模型和二维散度模型等数据驱动方法不依赖模式模拟,但仍然基于质量守恒等物理约束。这些方法无需先验排放信息,可以较好地识别已有排放资料中缺失的排放源,以TROPOMI和GEMS为代表的新一代高精度观测平台的出现,进一步促进了这些方法的应用。但是,这些数据驱动方法没有(或者难以准确)表征非线性大气化学过程的影响,因此可能会得到不合理的反演结果,比如散度模型可能产生负排放。学者们通过对反演方法的研发,获得了多个具有自主知识产权的先进算法,显著提升了排放反演结果的可靠性。鉴于模式驱动与数据驱动方法各有优劣,协同应用二者可能为诊断偏差来源开辟新途径,进而提升模式驱动反演的准确性。
星基排放反演结果受卫星观测和反演算法随机误差和系统偏差的双重影响。随机误差可以通过增加观测数据、设置更合理的误差矩阵等方法加以改善,但消除未知系统偏差仍是一个难以解决的痛点问题。利用不同大气成分之间的同源特性和化学关联,开展多观测多物种协同反演是一个可行的解决思路,中外也开展了一些尝试。从贝叶斯理论角度,每引入一个新的独立观测源都能减小后验概率分布的方差,其中不同观测系统的互补性尤为重要:比如卫星可以提供大范围观测,地面观测网络可以获取高频率的连续观测数据(Che,et al,2015)。在利用地面观测网络反演大气污染物和温室气体排放方面已取得了重要的进展(Huang,et al,2021Wu,et al,2023Zhong,et al,2023Zhou,et al,2023Feng,et al,2024b)。综合星基和地基观测的优势,协同使用卫星和地面观测数据,构建更完整的大气过程描述系统,将有助于降低系统偏差的影响。
作为近年来新兴的研究手段,机器学习在排放反演中的应用日益受到重视。但是,机器学习主要基于输入变量间的相关性建立关联函数,没有刻画真实的物理化学过程,因此可能导致对大气污染物排放做不真实预测。在未来的反演研究中,如何更好地协同融合物理模型和机器学习技术,构建相应的同化算法,实现对观测数据的充分、可靠利用,是一个值得探索的重要方向。结合交通网络、火点热源等其他地球大数据,则有望进一步突破大气成分卫星观测本身在分辨率、覆盖率和准确性方面的局限,提升排放反演数据的时空分辨率和可靠性。
中国学者在排放反演领域深耕多年,取得了具有国际水平的成果,在部分领域取得了国际领先的成就。整体上,中国的排放反演研究受限于起步较晚、人才短缺等因素,多为对已有理论方法的发展应用,原创性算法较少。受限于对排放反演不确定性的顾虑等历史惯性因素,排放反演数据主要被作为“自下而上”的排放清单或者过程模型的补充,中外基本没有类似于排放清单的长期、多成分、公开的排放反演数据集。星基反演依赖高质量大气浓度数据,但是中国星载大气环境遥感在卫星硬件设备、光谱数据质量、大气浓度反演水平、数据开放共享程度等方面与欧美地区尚有差距。因此,现阶段的星基反演仍主要依赖国外卫星数据,自主的星基光谱-浓度-排放全体系反演能力仍不健全。此外,重要温室气体—N2O的卫星观测缺失是全球性挑战。可喜的是,近年来中国学界在开发原创算法、构建国产数据集以及提升资料开放共享方面进步显著。中国正在大力发展星载大气环境观测能力,EMI、GIIRS、TanSat、DQ-1、OMS等自主平台不断涌现。若进一步系统化整合地基、机载、走航等观测,强化星地校验与空-天-地一体化评估,将显著提升国产立体监测能力与数据质量,助力排放监测、反演和评估。在未来,发展基于国产卫星的大气污染物和温室气体浓度反演产品,建立基于国产和国际多源卫星数据的全体系排放反演能力,为中国和全球环境治理提供基础数据和科学依据,是中国学者的全新机遇与使命。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(42277082; 42430603)
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2025年第83卷第5期
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2025.20240145
  • 接收时间:2024-09-06
  • 首发时间:2026-03-27
  • 出版时间:2025-10-10
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  • 收稿日期:2024-09-06
  • 修回日期:2025-09-12
基金
国家自然科学基金项目(42277082; 42430603)
作者信息
    1.天津大学地球系统科学学院,天津,300072
    2.北京大学物理学院大气与海洋科学系气候与海-气实验室,北京,100871
    3.麻省理工学院航空航天系,马萨诸塞州,02139
    4.南京大学国际地球系统科学研究所,南京,210023
    5.南京信息工程大学环境科学与工程学院,南京,211544
    6.中国矿业大学环境与测绘学院,徐州,221116
    7.国防科技大学气象海洋学院,长沙,410073
    8.西湖大学工学院,杭州,310030
    9.清华大学深圳国际研究生院,深圳,518055
    10.南方科技大学环境科学与工程学院,深圳,518055

通讯作者:

林金泰,主要从事大气化学、卫星遥感、环境大数据及气候变化研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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