Article(id=1154033084921009086, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, issueId=1154033077719393113, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.10.011, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1715356800000, receivedDateStr=2024-05-11, revisedDate=1719158400000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753072528342, onlineDateStr=2025-07-21, pubDate=1729785600000, pubDateStr=2024-10-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753072528342, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753072528342, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753072528342, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1154033077719393113, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, year='2024', volume='46', issue='10', pageStart='1723', pageEnd='1936', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=0, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1753072526626, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753074249753, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1154040305079804333, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, issueId=1154033077719393113, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1154040305079804334, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, issueId=1154033077719393113, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1842, endPage=1852, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1154033085592097728, articleId=1154033084921009086, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, language=EN, title=Research on the Estimation Method of Road Friction Coefficient Ahead Based on Point Cloud Reflection Properties, columnId=1149809889280750125, journalTitle=Automotive Engineering, columnName=Selected Papers, runingTitle=null, highlight=

The road friction coefficient is a significant factor that impacts the decision-making control strategy of the autonomous driving system. To achieve prospective and high-precision perception of the road friction coefficient, a novel estimation method for road friction coefficient based on the LiDAR equipped in vehicles is proposed in this paper. Firstly, a road dataset is constructed by collecting data from dry asphalt, concrete, wet asphalt, icy, and snowy road surface. Then, road point cloud is extracted using cloth simulation filtering and RANSAC algorithms, and abnormal noise points are removed based on Gaussian filtering. The road surface is divided into different regions according to the variation of point cloud reflectivity with distance and incident angle, and features are extracted accordingly. A road recognition model is constructed based on the deep neural network and trained by the collected dataset. Finally, the friction coefficient of the road ahead is determined based on the statistical experience of road material and peak friction coefficient. The test results show that the proposed algorithm achieves road type recognition accuracy of over 99.3%, with an average running cycle of 55ms, enabling real-time and high-precision estimation of the road peak friction coefficient.

, articleAbstract=

The road friction coefficient is a significant factor that impacts the decision-making control strategy of the autonomous driving system. To achieve prospective and high-precision perception of the road friction coefficient,a novel estimation method for road friction coefficient based on the LiDAR equipped in vehicles is proposed in this paper. Firstly,a road dataset is constructed by collecting data from dry asphalt,concrete,wet asphalt,icy,and snowy road surface. Then,road point cloud is extracted using cloth simulation filtering and RANSAC algorithms,and abnormal noise points are removed based on Gaussian filtering. The road surface is divided into different regions according to the variation of point cloud reflectivity with distance and incident angle,and features are extracted accordingly. A road recognition model is constructed based on the deep neural network and trained by the collected dataset. Finally,the friction coefficient of the road ahead is determined based on the statistical experience of road material and peak friction coefficient. The test results show that the proposed algorithm achieves road type recognition accuracy of over 99.3%,with an average running cycle of 55ms,enabling real-time and high-precision estimation of the road peak friction coefficient.

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路面附着系数是影响自动驾驶系统决策控制策略的重要因素。为实现对道路附着系数前瞻性的高精度感知,本文基于车载激光雷达设计了一种新的路面附着系数估计方法。首先采集了干燥柏油路面、混凝土路面、湿滑柏油路面、结冰路面和积雪路面构建道路数据集;基于使用布料模拟滤波和RANSAC算法进行了道路点云提取、基于高斯滤波去除反射率异常噪点;根据点云反射率随距离和入射角变化的规律将路面划分为不同区域分别提取特征;基于深度神经网络构建了道路识别模型,并基于采集数据集进行了训练,最后基于路面材质和峰值附着系数的统计经验确定了前方道路的附着系数。测试结果表明,本文提出的算法道路类型辨识精度超过99.3%,算法平均运行周期55 ms,可实现实时高精度的路面峰值附着系数估计。

, articleAbstract=

路面附着系数是影响自动驾驶系统决策控制策略的重要因素。为实现对道路附着系数前瞻性的高精度感知,本文基于车载激光雷达设计了一种新的路面附着系数估计方法。首先采集了干燥柏油路面、混凝土路面、湿滑柏油路面、结冰路面和积雪路面构建道路数据集;基于使用布料模拟滤波和RANSAC算法进行了道路点云提取、基于高斯滤波去除反射率异常噪点;根据点云反射率随距离和入射角变化的规律将路面划分为不同区域分别提取特征;基于深度神经网络构建了道路识别模型,并基于采集数据集进行了训练,最后基于路面材质和峰值附着系数的统计经验确定了前方道路的附着系数。测试结果表明,本文提出的算法道路类型辨识精度超过99.3%,算法平均运行周期55 ms,可实现实时高精度的路面峰值附着系数估计。

, correspAuthors=null, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
高镇海,教授,博士,E-mail:gaozh@jlu. edu. cn。
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Vehicle system dynamics[M]. 2nd ed. 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路面类型 训练集数据量 测试集数据量
干燥柏油路面 36 457 9 914
积雪路面 38 962 9 741
混凝土路面 55 710 13 927
结冰路面 43 960 10 990
湿滑柏油路面 40 350 10 087
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各类路面样本数量

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路面类型 训练集数据量 测试集数据量
干燥柏油路面 36 457 9 914
积雪路面 38 962 9 741
混凝土路面 55 710 13 927
结冰路面 43 960 10 990
湿滑柏油路面 40 350 10 087
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路面

类型

干水泥

路面

湿水泥

路面

混凝土

路面

积雪

路面

结冰

路面

附着系数 0.55~0.8 0.45~0.7 0.55~0.8 0.2~0.45 0.1~0.2
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路面类型和附着系数关系

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路面

类型

干水泥

路面

湿水泥

路面

混凝土

路面

积雪

路面

结冰

路面

附着系数 0.55~0.8 0.45~0.7 0.55~0.8 0.2~0.45 0.1~0.2
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算法 本文算法 文献[23]算法 文献[17]算法
精度/% 99.3 88.8 94.49
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算法精度对比

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算法 本文算法 文献[23]算法 文献[17]算法
精度/% 99.3 88.8 94.49
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点云输入

周期

路面点云提取算法平均运行周期 路面类型识别算法平均运行周期 算法总周期
100 30 25 55
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算法运行周期 (ms)

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点云输入

周期

路面点云提取算法平均运行周期 路面类型识别算法平均运行周期 算法总周期
100 30 25 55
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基于点云反射特性的前方道路附着系数估计方法研究*
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胡宏宇 , 唐明弘 , 高菲 , 鲍明喜 , 高镇海
汽车工程 | 精选论文 2024,46(10): 1842-1852
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汽车工程 | 精选论文 2024, 46(10): 1842-1852
基于点云反射特性的前方道路附着系数估计方法研究*
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胡宏宇, 唐明弘, 高菲, 鲍明喜, 高镇海
作者信息
  • 吉林大学,汽车底盘集成与仿生全国重点实验室,长春 130022

通讯作者:

高镇海,教授,博士,E-mail:gaozh@jlu. edu. cn。
Research on the Estimation Method of Road Friction Coefficient Ahead Based on Point Cloud Reflection Properties
Hongyu Hu, Minghong Tang, Fei Gao, Mingxi Bao, Zhenhai Gao
Affiliations
  • Jilin University,National Key Laboratory of Automotive Chassis Integration and Bionics,Changchun 130022
出版时间: 2024-10-25 doi: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.10.011
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路面附着系数是影响自动驾驶系统决策控制策略的重要因素。为实现对道路附着系数前瞻性的高精度感知,本文基于车载激光雷达设计了一种新的路面附着系数估计方法。首先采集了干燥柏油路面、混凝土路面、湿滑柏油路面、结冰路面和积雪路面构建道路数据集;基于使用布料模拟滤波和RANSAC算法进行了道路点云提取、基于高斯滤波去除反射率异常噪点;根据点云反射率随距离和入射角变化的规律将路面划分为不同区域分别提取特征;基于深度神经网络构建了道路识别模型,并基于采集数据集进行了训练,最后基于路面材质和峰值附着系数的统计经验确定了前方道路的附着系数。测试结果表明,本文提出的算法道路类型辨识精度超过99.3%,算法平均运行周期55 ms,可实现实时高精度的路面峰值附着系数估计。

路面附着系数  /  激光雷达点云  /  布料模拟滤波  /  RANSAC  /  深度神经网络  /  高斯滤波  /  路面类型识别

The road friction coefficient is a significant factor that impacts the decision-making control strategy of the autonomous driving system. To achieve prospective and high-precision perception of the road friction coefficient,a novel estimation method for road friction coefficient based on the LiDAR equipped in vehicles is proposed in this paper. Firstly,a road dataset is constructed by collecting data from dry asphalt,concrete,wet asphalt,icy,and snowy road surface. Then,road point cloud is extracted using cloth simulation filtering and RANSAC algorithms,and abnormal noise points are removed based on Gaussian filtering. The road surface is divided into different regions according to the variation of point cloud reflectivity with distance and incident angle,and features are extracted accordingly. A road recognition model is constructed based on the deep neural network and trained by the collected dataset. Finally,the friction coefficient of the road ahead is determined based on the statistical experience of road material and peak friction coefficient. The test results show that the proposed algorithm achieves road type recognition accuracy of over 99.3%,with an average running cycle of 55ms,enabling real-time and high-precision estimation of the road peak friction coefficient.

road friction coefficient  /  LiDAR point cloud  /  cloth simulation filtering  /  RANSAC  /  deep neural network  /  Gaussian filtering  /  road type recognition
胡宏宇, 唐明弘, 高菲, 鲍明喜, 高镇海. 基于点云反射特性的前方道路附着系数估计方法研究*. 汽车工程, 2024 , 46 (10) : 1842 -1852 . DOI: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.10.011
Hongyu Hu, Minghong Tang, Fei Gao, Mingxi Bao, Zhenhai Gao. Research on the Estimation Method of Road Friction Coefficient Ahead Based on Point Cloud Reflection Properties[J]. Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 46 (10) : 1842 -1852 . DOI: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.10.011
自动驾驶系统中,路面附着系数(road friction coefficient)的准确感知对于车辆的决策规划和动态控制至关重要。随着近年来自动驾驶技术的发展和普及,其行驶的路面从高附着均质的理想路面逐渐扩展到复杂多变的非理想路面。为应对这些变化,提升自动驾驶系统的安全性、舒适性和经济性,须实现一种高实时性、强抗干扰能力、高精度的前瞻式路面峰值附着系数估计方法。
传统路面附着系数估计算法通过建立与路面附着系数相关的车辆动力学模型,并结合状态观测器设计实现路面附着系数估计。现有研究主要聚焦于通过轮胎或车辆动力学响应特性实现路面附着系数估计[1-3]。常见的状态观测器包括卡尔曼滤波[4]、无迹卡尔曼滤波[5]、容积卡尔曼滤波[6]、模糊自适应融合估计器[7]等。
这些估计方法可以在特定条件下准确估计路面附着系数,但其固有缺陷使其无法满足自动驾驶系统规划控制系统的需求:这些方法存在时间滞后问题,算法只能得到车辆已有的动力学数据,无法预判前方道路未来的附着系数;此外这些方法须满足苛刻的激励条件,这类激励条件在正常行驶中由于防抱死制动系统(anti-lock braking system,ABS)、电子稳定程序(electronic stability program,ESP)等系统的介入较难触发。
为使自动驾驶系统具备对前方道路附着系数的前瞻性认知能力,研究者们提出了利用红外[8]、摄像头[9-13]、雷达[14-15]、轮胎力[16]等传感器辨识路面类型,在此基础上进一步估计路面附着系数的方法。随着机器视觉和深度学习的发展,近年来基于视觉和激光雷达进行路面类型识别逐渐成为其中的主要方法。基于视觉的方法可以实现高精度的路面分类效果[217-21],但作为一种被动式感知方法,基于视觉的方法受光照影响较大,在夜间无光照道路、进出隧道、逆光等场景下算法识别精确度会受到严重影响。此外,图像作为二维数据无法直接提供距离信息,通过双目摄像头进行距离识别会增加额外的算力需求。
与视觉方法相比,激光雷达具有不受外界光照影响且可直接提供精确距离信息的优势。随着激光雷达技术的不断发展,其成本逐渐降低,已在部分车型实现量产化应用。激光雷达点云在不同材质和粗糙程度路面上的点云密度和反射率有很大差异[22],根据这些差异可以准确区分路面类型,进而估计路面附着系数,近年来越来越多研究者基于激光雷达点云特性进行路面类型识别和附着系数估计。
2019年同济大学熊璐等[15]提出基于激光雷达实现无人车辆路面分类方法,并基于不同路面材质的激光雷达反射强度差异,设计了一种路面附着系数概率估计模型。2021年侯欣辰等[23]进一步完善了这一方法,首先基于极大似然估计方法求解结构化道路常见类型路面的激光雷达反射强度分布模型参数,并依此建立典型路面数据库;利用Kullback-Leibler 散度表征反射强度分布相似度,结合所建立的路面数据库辨识路面类型,然后映射出对应的附着系数估计值。2023年Liu等[24]提出了一种基于激光雷达的路面类型分类的弱监督学习算法,使用K近邻聚类根据激光雷达反射率参数实现高精度路面分类,分类精度大于98%。此外,还有研究利用K-近邻算法(K-nearest neighbors,KNN)根据激光雷达的反射率信息对路况进行分类[25]。另一种方法是将激光雷达数据转换为图像。Sebastian等[26提出了一种用卷积编码器确定路况和天气的方法,将激光雷达点云转换为范围图像]
目前基于激光雷达实现路面分类的研究中,一般根据激光雷达点云反射率差异实现路面材质分类。除路面材质,激光雷达点云反射率还受到激光传播距离、光束入射角等因素的影响;此外,路面材质和粗糙程度除影响激光雷达反射率,还会影响地面点云密度等其他参数。因此基于激光雷达点云进行路面类型识别是一个考虑多种影响因素的复杂问题,聚类算法、模糊逻辑算法等传统算法难以适用于这类复杂分类问题;此外路面上存在破损、凹槽、地面标识、填充物等非路面区域,这些区域的激光点云仅通过高程难以完全滤除,所以检测的路面是一个非完全均质路面。针对这些问题,本文提出了一种基于深度神经网络的路面识别算法,首先基于高斯滤波算法根据路面点反射率差异显著程度过滤点云噪声,然后考虑距离和入射角对估计结果带来的影响,将路面根据距离划分为不同区域,分别提取特征,设计了一个适用于不同区域的深度神经网络,实现了路面类型的准确识别,最后根据路面类型与附着系数的关系获取车辆对应区域的路面附着系数值。
本文总体结构如图1所示。
本文主要研究基于激光雷达点云进行结冰道路、积雪道路、柏油路、混凝土道路和湿滑道路的分类和附着系数估计。这些道路类型是城市交通场景下最常见的几类道路,对其附着特征的准确辨识是自动驾驶系统决策和控制的前提条件。对于激光雷达,不同类型路面下点云反射率均值、方差、密度和高程均值、方差有显著差异,可根据这些信息实现路面类型的区分。
采用一辆乘用车作为数据采集平台,如图 2所示。数据采集中使用一个80线RoboSense激光雷达作为主雷达,其垂直角分辨率为0.1°,水平角分辨率为 0.1 °,水平方向FOV角度范围为 0 ° ~ 360°,垂直方向的角度范围为 - 25 ° ~ 15 °,安装高度为1.8 m。由于自车的遮挡和主雷达安装位置较高,主激光雷达在自车附近没有点云数据,无法识别车辆周围路面类型,为此在车辆两侧配备了2个32线RoboSence补盲雷达,其水平方向FOV角度范围为 0 ° ~ 360 °,垂直方向FOV角度范围为 0 ° ~ 90 °,水平角分辨率为 0.1 °,垂直角分辨率为 2.81 °
为方便路面识别和数据后处理,在数据采集平台上安装了ZED双目摄像头同步采集路面图像信息。
本文使用英伟达Orin搭建了数据采集和路面识别平台,其由2个GPC(图形处理簇)组成,每个GPC包含4个TPC(纹理处理簇),每个TPC由2个SM(流处理器)组成。总计拥有2 048个CUDA Core和64个Tensor Core,为深度学习算法提供了算力保证。
数据采集区域为长春市市区道路,涵盖2024年1月到2024年3月的积雪、结冰、湿滑柏油路面和干燥柏油路面以及混凝土路面,其数据量如表1所示。
原始激光雷达点云存在大量与路面识别任务无关的点,为提升识别效果,缩减计算时间,须首先将道路点云从原始点云中提取出来。在原始点云中,非道路区域中的树木和建筑物等在空间分布上远离地面,而道路区域就处在地面上,且具备清晰的道路边界。因此本文首先基于布料模拟滤波(cloth simulation filtering,CSF)提取地面点云,然后基于随机样本一致算法(random sample consensus,RANSAC)提取路面点云。
布料模拟滤波算法是一种通过布料来模拟物理中自由落体过程的地面滤波算法。该算法稳健性强、处理速度快且参数较少,能够适应多种地形。算法首先将原始点云进行翻转,然后假设存在一个虚拟的刚性布料,该布料可以在重力的作用下覆盖在地形表面上,将该布料放在翻转后的点云上方,在重力和布料节点间的相互作用力下,每个布料节点最终会到达某个位置,此时的布料形状即为地表形状。最后通过比较原始激光点到生成的布料曲面之间的距离与设定距离阈值的大小,实现地面点的提取。
本文首先定义一个虚拟的布料模型,该模型由一系列的粒子组成,每个粒子具有空间位置 ( x , y , z )和弹性系数 k e。布料的形状和状态通过粒子间的相互作用力来维持。
为描述布料与地面点云的匹配程度,定义一个能量函数 E,该函数衡量了布料粒子与地面点云之间的距离差异以及布料自身的形变能量:
E = i ω d d ( p i , S ) 2 + ω r r ( p i )
式中: p i表示布料上的第i个粒子; S表示参考地面点云; d ( p i , S )表示粒子 p i到参考地面点云 S的距离函数,其计算公式如式(2)所示; r ( p i )是粒子 p i的形变能量函数,本文中形变能量函数由弹性势能构成,其计算公式如式(3)所示; ω d ω r是权重系数,用于平衡数据拟合项和正则化项。
d ( p i , S ) =
m i n j ( x i - x j ) 2 + ( y i - y j ) 2 + ( z i - z j ) 2
r ( p i ) = j n e i g h b o r s ( i ) k e ( d i j - d i j 0 ) 2
为找到使能量函数 E最小化的布料粒子位置,采用梯度下降优化算法。在每次迭代中,计算能量函数关于每个粒子位置的梯度,并沿着负梯度方向更新粒子的位置:
p i t + 1 = p i t - α E ( p i t )
式中: p i t是第t次迭代时粒子 p i的位置; α是学习率,控制每次更新的步长; E ( p i t )是能量函数 E p i t处的梯度。
通过不断迭代更新粒子的位置,直到能量函数 E收敛到局部最小值或满足预设的停止条件。当布料粒子达到稳定状态后,可以认为与布料粒子位置接近的点云数据属于地面点云。本文通过设置距离阈值将原始点云数据与布料粒子位置进行比较,从而提取出地面点云。地面点云提取效果如图 3所示。
基于布料模拟滤波算法提取的地面区域包含路面区域和非路面区域,如路肩之外的区域。为保证算法的准确性,需要进一步从地面点云中提取路面区域。由于RANSAC算法具有鲁棒性和通用性强且计算效率高的优点,因此本文基于RANSAC实现了激光雷达路面区域提取。
RANSAC算法的核心在于通过随机采样点云中的点来估计平面模型。假设随机选择非共线的三点 p 1 , p 2 , p 3,则平面的法向量 n和截距 d可通过向量的叉积和点积运算得出:
n = ( p 2 - p 1 ) × ( p 3 - p 1 ) d = - n p 1
式中“×”和“·”分别表示向量的外积和内积运算。得到法向量 n和截距 d后,点云中任意点 p i到该平面的距离 d i可通过下式计算:
d i = | n p i + d | n
式中 n表示法向量 n的模。本文通过比较各点到平面的距离与设定阈值的大小关系,将点云划分为内点(即路面点)和外点(即非路面点)。经过多次迭代,逐渐排除噪声和异常值,从而得到稳定且精确的路面平面模型,路面识别结果如图 4所示。
实验结果表明,基于RANSAC的激光雷达路面识别方法具有较高的准确性和鲁棒性以及高实时性。在不同场景和路况下,该方法均能够有效地识别出路面区域。
在实际的道路中,会存在少量交通标识、局部填料等结构,这些区域无法通过高程过滤,但它们的材质与路面不同,点云反射率和高程分布特征也不同。如包含斑马线的柏油路面,其点云如图 5所示,其中坐标点高度和点半径代表反射率,在斑马线区域反射率与路面点云有很大差异。因此基于RANSAC算法提取到的路面点云是正常路面区域点云和噪声点云的混合,路面点云的概率密度函数可用式(7)表示。
p ( x ) = k = 1 K φ k N ( x | μ k , σ k )
式中 N ( x | μ k , σ k )为第k个高斯分布的概率密度。
为消除这些噪声的影响,本文引入了高斯滤波算法。
假设混杂噪声点的路面点云为 P = [ p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , . . . , p n ],对于其中每个数据点 p i ( x i , y i , z i , I i ),其反射率 I i滤波后的值 I ^ i可表示为
I ^ i = 1 N j = - k k G ( j ) I i + j
式中: N是归一化常数,确保权重之和为1; k为滤波器宽度; I i + j为领域内点的反射率值; G ( j )为高斯函数,其表达式为
G ( j ) = 1 2 π σ e - j 2 2 σ 2
在得到滤波数据后,本文通过比较原始点云数据和滤波后的数据的残差检测异常点,然后设计了自适应阈值确定异常点。对于每个数据点 p i ( x i , y i , z i , I i ),其反射率残差 e i可表示为
e i = I i - I ^ i
自适应异常点阈值如下:
T = 0 , σ e < 1 0.95 μ e , σ e 1
式中: μ e为残差均值; σ e为残差方差。
激光雷达在均质平面上的点云反射率服从正态分布[27],而距离和角度是影响激光雷达反射率的重要影响因素。同种路面在不同距离下的激光雷达反射率均值和方差有显著差异,不同路面在同一距离下也有显著差异,因此本文将点云数据根据距离远近划分为不同的区域进行路面识别。为保证每个区域点云数量足够用于计算分布规律,本文对比了不同类型路面的点云密度衰减规律,其结果如图 6所示。
图中横坐标为点云与激光雷达距离,纵坐标为每平方米内点云数量。数据采集平台除顶部激光雷达外还在左右两侧倾斜安装了2部32线补盲雷达,20 m内点云为主雷达和补盲雷达的叠加,点云如图 7所示,这导致20 m内的点云密度远大于20 m外的点云密度。
图 6可知,距离大于40 m时,点云密度过小,不足以准确计算点云分布规律,因此本文最远检测距离为40 m。
为实现合理的路面区域划分,本文基于采集的数据集分别对不同划分距离 Δ d下各区域点云平均数量进行比较,其结果如图8所示。
图 8中横坐标为距离,纵坐标为不同 Δ d下单位区域内包含的点云数量,为方便比较以对数表示。 Δ d     1 2 5 10 20   m时,40 m处点云平均数量分别为0.003 6,0.027,12.3,136.7和1 161.7。 Δ d为10和20 m时点云数量较大,具备统计意义,而20 m的分割间距过大,因此本文选择将路面以10 m为单位进行区域划分,如图 9所示,将路面区域划分为4个区域。
完成道路区域识别和划分后须进行数据处理以获得特征数据,首先须从点云数据中选择特征向量。
如上文所述,道路区域与自车距离是影响道路分类准确性的重要因素,因此首先将距离 s作为一个特征值;对于每个道路区域,区域内点云的反射率符合正态分布,因此可以选择点云反射率均值 μ和方差 σ作为一组道路特征;对于雪地、结冰路面等复杂道路情况,点云高程信息与柏油路面、混凝土路面会有显著差异,因此本文将区域内点云高度均值 μ z和方差 σ z作为特征;此外,由图 6可得,不同类型路面在相同距离下点云密度有显著差异,因此本文将点云密度 ρ作为一个特征。
综上所述,本文选取的路面特征向量为
x = s , μ , σ , μ z , σ z , ρ
本文基于深度神经网络根据特征向量对路面进行分类。该网络由6个隐藏层和1个输出层组成,如图 10所示。每层传递函数都设置为一个Relu函数。每层神经元的数量分别设置为16、16、32、32、16和16。输出层的激活函数使用Softmax,其中输出作为每个类对应的概率。
采用尺度共轭梯度(SCG)反向传播算法对网络进行了优化。SCG是一种共轭梯度算法(CGA)的变化。由于大多数CGA对每次迭代都进行搜索,所以它们需要的计算方法复杂,计算时间长。为克服这一问题,本文设计了具有步长尺度机制的SCG。SCG的基本思想是将莱文伯格-马夸特算法中使用的模型-信任区域方法与CGA结合起来。因此,本文使用SCG来优化分类问题。
在DNN中,通过最小化目标数据与神经网络输出之间的误差来进行优化。训练集中的误差函数可以写成:
E = f ( x ; θ ) - T
式中: f ( x ; θ )为神经网络输出; T为标签数据; x为选取的特征向量; θ为神经网络参数。用于训练网络的损失函数为均方误差(MSE)函数,即
L n = 1 N b l = ( n - 1 ) N b + 1 n N b E l T E l + λ 2 θ 2 2
式中 n N b为每个批次数据的索引和批次大小。为防止过拟合,本文引入了正则化策略,增加 L 2参数范数惩罚,使用超参数 λ λ 2 θ 2 2到MSE函数。然后采用SCG算法,对网络的最优参数进行更新如下:
θ n = θ n - 1 + γ n n L n
式中: γ n为步长; n为共轭方向。步长由文献[18]中的算法计算得到。通过优化过程可以得到最终的最优参数为
θ * = a r g m i n θ n ( L n ( f ( x , θ ) , T ) )
在得出分类结果后,可以将路面材质映射至附着系数的统计数据经验值。根据文献[17]和文献[28],本文中各种路面的附着系数如表2所示。
为验证本文提出算法的有效性和实时性,本文首先使用采集的数据集进行了算法训练,然后进行了算法精度和实时性验证。
为验证所提出算法的有效性,首先使用收集训练集数据进行深度神经网络训练。训练集路面类型包括柏油路面、混凝土路面、积雪路面、结冰路面和湿滑路面。其中积雪路面定义为覆盖较厚的积雪路面,结冰路面定义为大部分区域结冰的路面,深度神经网络训练过程如图 11所示。从图中可以看到,网络损失随训练回合数增长而逐渐降低,其中300回合前网络损失降低较快,之后逐渐收敛,在训练结束时,损失值从50降低到0.7;网络分类精度随训练回合增长逐渐上升,在前400回合精度上升较快,之后逐渐收敛,训练结束时分类精度从50%提升到99.3%,可以实现准确路面分类。
5种路面的召回率分别为99.41%、99.0%、100%、96.03%、100%。召回率定义为模型正确预测为正类的样本数(true positives,TP)占所有实际为正类的样本数(true positives + false negatives,FN)的比例。其数学表达式为
R e c a l l = T P T P + F N
为验证算法在不同距离下的识别精度,本文基于验证集分别验证了4个检测区域的识别效果,识别精度如图 12所示。不同距离下的路面识别混淆矩阵如图 13所示。
图 12图 13可知,路面平均跟踪精度随检测距离有所变化,但其最低跟踪精度依然大于98.2%,具备高精度识别路面类型的能力。为验证算法精度,将本文提出的算法与文献[23]和文献[17]路面分类的算法进行了平均精度对比,其中文献[23]中利用Kullback Leibler 散度表征激光雷达点云反射强度分布相似度进行路面类型识别,文献[17]中基于轻量级神经网络通过图像识别路面类型,对比结果如表 3所示。
表 3可知,本文提出的算法相比其他两种方法,其精度有明显提升。
为准确获取路面点云数据,消除路面中非路面材质对分类结果的影响,本文引入了高斯滤波算法。在如图 14所示的包含长实线、斑马线和其他道路标线的道路场景中,使用高斯滤波的效果如图 15所示。
图 15的噪声提取结果,使用高斯滤波算法可以有效过滤路面上由于道路标线等区域引起的噪声信息,实现路面点云的准确提取。为比较高斯滤波算法对本文道路分类模型准确度的提升效果,使用同样的训练集和测试集训练了一个未使用高斯滤波算法对点云进行处理分类模型,5种路面的召回率分别为99.08%、98.06%、99.9%、95.28%、100%,其不同区域中的分类精度如图16所示。
不同距离下的混淆矩阵如图17所示。
2种模型在不同距离下的平均分类精度对比如图18所示。
由测试结果可以看到,加入高斯滤波算法的模型在不同距离下5种路面类型分类任务中的表现好于无高斯滤波模型。两种算法的分类精度在 x < 10   m范围内差异较小,在 x > 10   m范围内差异较大,这是因为车辆两侧的补盲雷达提高了 x < 10   m范围内点云密度,降低了噪声点云在点云总数中的比例。
前文所述的所有内容都基于x86架构的计算机,为验证算法实车部署的实时性和稳定性,使用英伟达Orin工控机并进行了实车实验,实车部署架构如图 2所示。实车测试场景包括干燥柏油路面、积雪路面、混凝土路面、结冰路面和湿滑柏油路面,测试时长为40 s,激光雷达点云反馈周期为100 ms,测试总步长为400步。
图 19中展示了各种路面在不同距离下的附着系数识别结果,其中子图(1)、(6)、(11)、(16)分别表示干柏油路面在x为10、20、30、40 m距离的附着系数,其他路面附着系数以相似规律表示。从实车测试结果可知,路面附着系数识别算法在柏油路面、积雪路面和混凝土路面精度较高,误检测比例较低,在结冰路面误检测比例比其他路面稍高,这与2.1节中的精度测试结果相符。
最后进行了算法实时性测试,算法实车测试中的运行周期如表4所示。
实时性测试结果表明,算法总运行周期为55 ms,小于激光雷达点云反馈周期100 ms,可以实现实时运行。
首先进行了算法训练,然后进行了算法精度验证和实车测试。精度验证结果显示本文提出的算法平均分类精度可达99.3%,可以实现高精度路面分类,而无高斯滤波的算法精度为98.88%,这说明加入高斯算法可以有效提升算法精度。实车测试结果表明,本文提出的算法运行周期小于激光雷达单帧数据周期,可以实现实时检测,且实际分类效果与精度测试效果一致。
针对自动驾驶系统中路面附着系数的准确感知问题,提出了一种基于车载激光雷达的路面附着系数在线估计方法。通过对激光雷达数据的深入分析和处理,成功设计并实现了高精度、实时性强的路面类型识别与附着系数估计。测试结果表明,该算法在多种路面类型上的识别精度超过99.3%,平均运行周期仅为55 ms,满足实时性需求。该算法不仅能够应对多变的路况,还能够为自动驾驶车辆提供前瞻性的路面状态信息,从而显著提升决策规划和动态控制的安全性与可靠性。
随着激光雷达技术的持续进步和成本的进一步降低,预计会有更多自动驾驶车辆采用类似的路面估计方法。此外,深度学习模型的不断优化和算法效率的提升,将使得路面附着系数估计更加准确和高效。未来的研究方向可以包括:多模态传感器数据融合,结合激光雷达、摄像头、红外传感器等多种传感器数据,以实现更全面的路面状态感知;算法鲁棒性提升,针对雨、雪、雾等恶劣天气条件下的路面附着系数估计,提高算法的鲁棒性和适应性;算法泛化能力增强,考虑到不同地区路面材料和维护状况的差异,研究算法的泛化能力和适应性使其能够更好地服务于不同地区的自动驾驶车辆;路面附着系数的动态预测,除静态的路面类型识别,还可以探索路面附着系数的动态变化规律,为自动驾驶系统提供更加精确的预测信息。
通过这些研究工作,期望能够进一步提升自动驾驶系统在复杂环境下的性能,为实现安全、高效、舒适的自动驾驶出行提供坚实的技术支撑。
  • *吉林省重大科技专项(20220301009GX)
  • 重载车辆模块化可扩展构型设计研究项目(52394261)
  • 吉林省科技发展计划项目(202302013)
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2024年第46卷第10期
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doi: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.10.011
  • 接收时间:2024-05-11
  • 首发时间:2025-07-21
  • 出版时间:2024-10-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-05-11
  • 修回日期:2024-06-24
基金
*吉林省重大科技专项(20220301009GX)
重载车辆模块化可扩展构型设计研究项目(52394261)
吉林省科技发展计划项目(202302013)
作者信息
    吉林大学,汽车底盘集成与仿生全国重点实验室,长春 130022

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高镇海,教授,博士,E-mail:gaozh@jlu. edu. cn。
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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