Article(id=1154021844198875232, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, issueId=1154021839199260977, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.11.003, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1711728000000, receivedDateStr=2024-03-30, revisedDate=1718121600000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-12, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753069848346, onlineDateStr=2025-07-21, pubDate=1732464000000, pubDateStr=2024-11-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753069848346, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753069848346, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753069848346, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1154021839199260977, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, year='2024', volume='46', issue='11', pageStart='1937', pageEnd='2141', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=0, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1753069847153, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753074308668, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1154040552191418639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, issueId=1154021839199260977, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1154040552191418640, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, issueId=1154021839199260977, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1962, endPage=1972, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1154021844547002465, articleId=1154021844198875232, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, language=EN, title=Interactive Scenarios Strategy Modeling and Simulation for Automated Driving Testing, columnId=1149809888211198868, journalTitle=Automotive Engineering, columnName=Feature Topic:Key Technologies on Intelligent and Connected Vehicles, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The interaction ability between Highly Automated Vehicles (HAV) with human-driven vehicles is critical to the operational safety and efficiency of hybrid traffic in future. In order to test the interactivity of HAV,the background vehicle in the testing scenario needs to have naturalistic interaction characteristics and reflect the heterogeneous interaction strategy of human drivers. Based on the game theory,the Game-theoretical Strategic Interaction Model (GSIM) is developed in this paper. In the individual utility function,the interactive social characterization parameters with distinguishable values are introduced to directionally regulate the interaction strategy of the background vehicle. The test results of unprotected left-turning scenarios at intersections show that GSIM preserves the interpretability of natural driving stepwise planning and mutual interactions to ensure simulation accuracy of interactive behaviors. GSIM is also able to effectively reflect the interactive strategy of human driving in high-risk scenarios,helping to provide challenging and valuable testing scenarios. Compared to traditional Intelligent Driver Models,GSIM improves average simulation accuracy by 42.8% in unprotected left turn scenarios and serious conflicts recurrence rate by 25.8%.

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自动驾驶汽车与人类驾驶汽车的交互能力对未来新型混合交通的运行安全和效率至关重要。为测试高等级自动驾驶汽车的交互能力,测试场景中的背景车须具备自然驾驶交互特征并反映人类驾驶员异质性交互策略。本文基于博弈论框架,建立了驾驶交互策略模型(game-theoretical strategic interaction model,GSIM)。GSIM通过在个体效用函数中引入可差异化取值的交互社会性表征参量,实现背景车交互策略的定向调控。十字路口无保护左转场景的测试实验表明,GSIM可保留自然驾驶逐步规划、双向交互的可解释性,保障交互行为的仿真精度;同时,可有效复现高风险场景中人类驾驶的交互策略,有助于提供具有挑战性的高测试价值场景。对比传统智能驾驶人模型,GSIM模型在无保护左转场景中轨迹仿真精度平均提升42.8%,严重冲突事件复现率提升25.8%。

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赵晓聪,博士研究生,E-mail:
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figureFileBig=weWq+YeiwsC5MeWCmd/zng==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1170312642922033882, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, articleId=1154021844198875232, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
建模方式 交互机制

背景车行为

生成依据

交互特征
轨迹回放 单向状态反馈 固定轨迹 静态、匀质、可观测
轨迹建模 双向状态反馈 交互各车前序状态 动态、匀质、可观测
策略建模 双向策略反馈

交互各车前序

状态、交互策略

动态、异质、

部分可观测

), ArticleFig(id=1170312642972365531, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, articleId=1154021844198875232, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

面向自动驾驶测试的背景车建模方式对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
建模方式 交互机制

背景车行为

生成依据

交互特征
轨迹回放 单向状态反馈 固定轨迹 静态、匀质、可观测
轨迹建模 双向状态反馈 交互各车前序状态 动态、匀质、可观测
策略建模 双向策略反馈

交互各车前序

状态、交互策略

动态、异质、

部分可观测

), ArticleFig(id=1170312643035280092, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, articleId=1154021844198875232, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

仿真

模型

语义交互

结果

一致率/%

速度RMSE/

(m·s-1

最小

APET

误差/s

平均

APET

误差/s

轨迹平均误差

(欧氏距离)/ m

左转 直行
IDM 78.0 2.26 +0.83 +0.66 2.60 3.89
SE-IBR 80.9 2.11 +1.45 +0.48 3.38 4.09
GSIM 82.8 1.81 +0.72 +0.56 1.82 1.73
), ArticleFig(id=1170312643094000349, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, articleId=1154021844198875232, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

仿真精度统计结果

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

仿真

模型

语义交互

结果

一致率/%

速度RMSE/

(m·s-1

最小

APET

误差/s

平均

APET

误差/s

轨迹平均误差

(欧氏距离)/ m

左转 直行
IDM 78.0 2.26 +0.83 +0.66 2.60 3.89
SE-IBR 80.9 2.11 +1.45 +0.48 3.38 4.09
GSIM 82.8 1.81 +0.72 +0.56 1.82 1.73
), ArticleFig(id=1170312643148526302, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, articleId=1154021844198875232, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测试类型

算法

失效率/%

最小APET/s 平均APET/s

严重冲突

事件数

最大加速度/

(m·s-2

最大加加速度/

(m·s-3

左转 直行 左转 直行 左转 直行
回放测试 7.4 4.4 1.2 3.9 2.1 4.9 20 0.78 2.33
IDM测试 9.6 7.4 1.4 2.6 2.5 4.0 31 0.83 3.15
SE-IBR测试 6.4 1.1 1.9 2.0 2.7 2.7 22 1.42 4.19
GSIM测试 37.2 2.1 1.4 3.6 2.0 4.6 39 0.86 4.38
), ArticleFig(id=1170312643232412383, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146120084050784272, articleId=1154021844198875232, language=CN, label=表 3, caption=

测试结果统计

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测试类型

算法

失效率/%

最小APET/s 平均APET/s

严重冲突

事件数

最大加速度/

(m·s-2

最大加加速度/

(m·s-3

左转 直行 左转 直行 左转 直行
回放测试 7.4 4.4 1.2 3.9 2.1 4.9 20 0.78 2.33
IDM测试 9.6 7.4 1.4 2.6 2.5 4.0 31 0.83 3.15
SE-IBR测试 6.4 1.1 1.9 2.0 2.7 2.7 22 1.42 4.19
GSIM测试 37.2 2.1 1.4 3.6 2.0 4.6 39 0.86 4.38
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面向自动驾驶测试的交互场景策略建模与仿真*
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孙剑 , 张赫 , 赵晓聪 , 刘懿如 , 田野
汽车工程 | 专题:汽车智能化关键技术 2024,46(11): 1962-1972
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汽车工程 | 专题:汽车智能化关键技术 2024, 46(11): 1962-1972
面向自动驾驶测试的交互场景策略建模与仿真*
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孙剑, 张赫, 赵晓聪 , 刘懿如, 田野
作者信息
  • 同济大学,道路与交通工程教育部重点实验室,上海 201804

通讯作者:

赵晓聪,博士研究生,E-mail:
Interactive Scenarios Strategy Modeling and Simulation for Automated Driving Testing
Jian Sun, He Zhang, Xiaocong Zhao , Yiru Liu, Ye Tian
Affiliations
  • Tongji University,The Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of the Ministry of Education,Shanghai 201804
出版时间: 2024-11-25 doi: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.11.003
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自动驾驶汽车与人类驾驶汽车的交互能力对未来新型混合交通的运行安全和效率至关重要。为测试高等级自动驾驶汽车的交互能力,测试场景中的背景车须具备自然驾驶交互特征并反映人类驾驶员异质性交互策略。本文基于博弈论框架,建立了驾驶交互策略模型(game-theoretical strategic interaction model,GSIM)。GSIM通过在个体效用函数中引入可差异化取值的交互社会性表征参量,实现背景车交互策略的定向调控。十字路口无保护左转场景的测试实验表明,GSIM可保留自然驾驶逐步规划、双向交互的可解释性,保障交互行为的仿真精度;同时,可有效复现高风险场景中人类驾驶的交互策略,有助于提供具有挑战性的高测试价值场景。对比传统智能驾驶人模型,GSIM模型在无保护左转场景中轨迹仿真精度平均提升42.8%,严重冲突事件复现率提升25.8%。

自动驾驶  /  场景测试  /  交互策略  /  博弈论  /  驾驶行为

The interaction ability between Highly Automated Vehicles (HAV) with human-driven vehicles is critical to the operational safety and efficiency of hybrid traffic in future. In order to test the interactivity of HAV,the background vehicle in the testing scenario needs to have naturalistic interaction characteristics and reflect the heterogeneous interaction strategy of human drivers. Based on the game theory,the Game-theoretical Strategic Interaction Model (GSIM) is developed in this paper. In the individual utility function,the interactive social characterization parameters with distinguishable values are introduced to directionally regulate the interaction strategy of the background vehicle. The test results of unprotected left-turning scenarios at intersections show that GSIM preserves the interpretability of natural driving stepwise planning and mutual interactions to ensure simulation accuracy of interactive behaviors. GSIM is also able to effectively reflect the interactive strategy of human driving in high-risk scenarios,helping to provide challenging and valuable testing scenarios. Compared to traditional Intelligent Driver Models,GSIM improves average simulation accuracy by 42.8% in unprotected left turn scenarios and serious conflicts recurrence rate by 25.8%.

highly automated vehicles  /  scenario testing  /  interaction strategy  /  game theory  /  driving behavior
孙剑, 张赫, 赵晓聪, 刘懿如, 田野. 面向自动驾驶测试的交互场景策略建模与仿真*. 汽车工程, 2024 , 46 (11) : 1962 -1972 . DOI: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.11.003
Jian Sun, He Zhang, Xiaocong Zhao, Yiru Liu, Ye Tian. Interactive Scenarios Strategy Modeling and Simulation for Automated Driving Testing[J]. Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 46 (11) : 1962 -1972 . DOI: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.11.003
随着高等级自动驾驶汽车(highly automated vehicles,HAV)的示范运行与开放道路准入部署,HAV逐渐进入现有驾驶环境,与人类驾驶汽车混合运行,形成人机混驾新型交通流。作为新型的交通参与者,HAV的交互能力不足将导致其难以适应既有的交通运行模式,甚至给道路安全带来负面影响[1]。根据2015-2020年美国加州自动驾驶路测事故报告[2]显示,HAV的报告事故率超过人类驾驶汽车的4倍,尽管事故责任方总是人类,但事故原因多为自动驾驶交互行为过于保守,不符合人类预期,难以被理解和预测。
人机混驾的复杂性对HAV交互能力提出新的挑战,同时也给自动驾驶测试带来新的要求。为充分反映HAV在人机混驾交通环境中的交互能力,测试中的背景车须具备自然驾驶交互特征并反映人类驾驶员异质性交互策略。
在测试实现方式上,公开道路、封闭场地和虚拟仿真是测试部署的3大支柱[3]。三者在测试真实性、测试可控性、测试效率和危险暴露率上各有侧重、互为补充。基于场景的虚拟仿真测试因其低成本、高效率、绝对安全、仿真场景可定制化设计等显著优势成为必需的基础测试环节,也是目前重要的研究热点[3- 4]
现有面向自动驾驶测试的仿真场景主要分为基于历史数据的回放场景和基于轨迹建模的交通流仿真场景。回放场景中的背景车具有完备时空信息,一般为固定时间长度内的车辆轨迹序列、车辆速度序列、动作序列等[5-7]。由于回放场景的生成依据已知的交互场景,其生成过程继承了自然驾驶交互的序列特点。但是,在测试应用中,背景车按照既定的完备轨迹或序列运动,无法根据被测车的逐步行为进行调整和反馈,因此测试过程仅能展现被测车对背景车的单向反馈,而无法形成双向交互。
基于轨迹建模的交通流仿真场景中,背景车具有根据被测车行为进行逐步规划轨迹的能力。常用的轨迹建模方法包括数据驱动、强化学习和行为解析模型等。数据驱动指从现有场景库中通过特征学习模型学习驾驶行为特征,生成新的交互场景[8],或者基于密度估计对交互行为进行抽样[9]。强化学习指通过获取场景状态、动作和奖励,指导背景车交互动作选择空间[10-12]。数据驱动与强化学习得益于模型载体具有优良的特征挖掘、模仿能力,将个体间行为交互关系映射于隐式之中。行为解析模型则可解释地提炼自然驾驶交互规则或特征,通过解析模型指导交互场景执行[13-15]。基于上述轨迹建模方法,交通流仿真场景可建立背景车与被测车的双向状态反馈,即背景车与被测车的可观测状态(位置、姿态等)对彼此的行为决策与运动规划产生影响。
然而,自然驾驶中交互事件发生多源于交通参与者对于有限道路资源的竞争与分配,参与交互的个体往往展现出显著的策略性行为[16],即交互个体会通过可观信息推测伴行对象的策略特性,并进行针对性响应。由于忽视了人类伴行者交互行为策略性,轨迹建模仍难以还原自然驾驶环境中的复杂交互动因。
交互策略在人类驾驶员中长期、普遍存在,是诸多驾驶人群体默守的驾驶社交准则[17]。驾驶社交准则作为不成文的共识,刻画了人类驾驶车辆之间的动作依赖关系。对人类驾驶交互策略的建模有利于进一步解构交互行为的形成机理,从而复现交互场景中的背景车行为。表1总结了3类背景车建模方式的差异,不同于可观测的物理状态与动作,交互策略是一种隐式、动态的驾驶行为特性,是隐含在交互各车行为决策和历史轨迹之下的底层动因,只能获得驾驶策略的执行结果,无法直接观测到驾驶策略的实质。与一般的轨迹回放和轨迹建模不同,策略建模将建立导致不同交互特征产生的驾驶策略的解析模型,是由果溯因的建模过程。同时,策略建模时需要对不同背景车的异质驾驶策略逐一进行差异化刻画和定量描述。
基于博弈论的驾驶交互行为模型具备刻画交互策略的数理本质[18-19],因而在竞争性驾驶交互策略建模方面[20- 21]得到广泛研究。Wang等[22]应用带启发式规则的博弈论方法来联合模拟HAV的换道和跟车决策。Rahmati等[23]使用Stackelberg博弈中的顺序移动结构来模拟交叉路口的冲突驾驶行为。此外,为了区分自然驾驶场景中的个性化交互策略,Ren等[24]的研究通过对比个体“实际执行的决策结果”和“最有利于交互对象的决策结果”来实时区分个体交互策略的谦和程度。Yu等[25]通过对比实际轨迹和预测轨迹来估计交互对象交互策略的动态激进性。Tian等[26]以推理能力作为区分决策能力的指标,基于level-k博弈框架构建了差异化的交互策略模型。Li等[27]利用聚类算法获得3类驾驶风格,并应用level-k博弈框架建立了考虑不同驾驶风格的超车模型。博弈论在模拟类人决策方面表现出色,Chahine等[28]假设自动驾驶汽车在智能网联环境中可以通信驾驶意图,当考虑意图信息不确定性时,验证了博弈模型运动规划器在匝道汇入和交叉路口的安全规划能力。Schwarting等[16]通过在博弈模型的效用函数中引入心理学指标社会价值倾向[29],从而实现个体交互策略异质性的刻画。
现有交互策略模型为面向自动驾驶测试的背景车行为建模提供了一定的研究基础,但仍存在以下不足。首先,现有研究多旨在分析人类驾驶交互策略特性,目前仍缺少可在轨迹层驱动背景车运动的驾驶交互策略模型;其次,现有策略模型虽提供了异质化策略描述的模型自由度,但缺少从人类驾驶轨迹中获取特定个体策略特性的方法论,故难以拟人化构建异质仿真背景车。为解决上述问题,本文基于博弈框架,将隐式、异质的交互策略进行解析表达,实现了轨迹层的驾驶交互策略建模,并应用于自动驾驶测试中的强交互场景构建。
本文的主要工作是:
(1)基于博弈框架,考虑驾驶交互场景中个体的策略性驾驶行为,建立轨迹层的驾驶交互策略模型(game-theoretical strategic interaction model,GSIM);
(2)为表征驾驶交互社会性,在博弈模型的效用函数中引入驾驶交互倾向值(interaction preference value,IPV),并通过辨识自然驾驶典型交互场景中人类驾驶人的IPV,实现拟人化的交互策略建模;
(3)以十字路口无保护左转场景为例,开展驾驶交互行为仿真,并验证了GSIM的轨迹层仿真精度与有效性;
(4)以Lattice规划器为被测物,验证了GSIM在高风险交互测试场景中还原背景车交互逻辑的性能。
被建模个体(本文中指背景车)在决策过程中不仅须考虑伴行者(本文中指被测车)对其决策行为产生的约束,同时要考虑伴行者对自身决策结果的潜在响应。此外,该类场景中伴行者的决策也应具有社会性,即:(1)被建模个体对伴行者行为的估计应当符合驾驶社交准则,从而正确认知伴行者的交互行为;(2)被建模个体对伴行者行为的响应应当符合驾驶社交准则,从而保证自身的交互行为可被理解且可被预测。
为刻画上述行为特点,策略性交互行为建模满足以下要求:(1)行为模型不仅体现个体级的行为动因,还体现个体间动作依赖关系;(2)行为模型中包含驾驶行为社会性的特征参数,以表征背景车在社会性层面的异质性。
博弈模型是一种用于刻画决策者之间动作依赖关系的典型模型框架,在该框架的基础上,通过在个体效用函数中引入交互倾向值,可实现对个体社会性的差异化的描述,进而实现交互策略表达。
交互策略在诸如十字路口无保护左转、匝道汇入等强交互事件中的影响尤其凸显(图1)。本文提出一种针对此类交互场景的交互策略建模方法,适用于描述满足以下条件的交互事件:(1)交互双方的未来路径存在一个冲突点;(2)双方须通过交互动作逐渐达成协作;(3)双方形成共同认可的通行顺序。同时,在交互中,亦有可能由于错误理解交互对象意图引起冲突恶化,进而引发危险的交互状态,此类高风险交互也属于策略建模的描述范围。本文将以无保护左转交互场景这一典型交互场景为例,构建并验证基于博弈框架的驾驶交互策略模型。
博弈模型的核心要素包含个体的效用函数和个体间的动作依赖,模型构建中下标 i表征背景车, - i表征被测车。以下论述以无保护左转场景中的左转车为背景车展开。
在理性人假设下,参与驾驶交互的个体依据最大化自身效用进行决策,因此效用函数是驱动个体行为直接要素。在由轨迹冲突导致驾驶交互场景中,可将交互个体的效用项分为两类:一类为个体收益项,即仅由自身行为决定的收益项,例如行驶效率、舒适性、合规性等;另一类为群体收益项,即同时受到自身行为和伴行者行为影响的收益项,例如避撞收益。
在无保护左转场景中,左转车和直行车的个体目标均为规划一条包含 N个轨迹段的无碰撞的轨迹 p i = p i 0 N R 2 × N + 1通过该路口,其中 p i n是第 n个轨迹段的末端( n 1 , N), p i 0是轨迹起点。由此可以示例性地给出个体收益项 R I
R I p i = τ i p i N - α n = 1 N r ( p i n ) - p i n
式中: α为常参数; τ i p i N表示轨迹 p i在参考路径(通常为车道的中心线,如图2所示)上的投影长度,即有效行程; r p i n是轨迹点 p i n在参考路径上的投影点;等号右侧第1项表征了个体对于行驶效率的追求,第2项表征了对于车道偏离的规避。
相应地,群体收益项可以示例性地给出为 R G
R G p i , p - i = N - n m + 1 p i n m - p - i n m 2   
式中 n m为交互双方距离最近时的轨迹点序号。 ( N - n m + 1 ) p i n m - p - i n m 2分别表征了交互双方冲突的时间和空间紧迫程度。
通过将个体与群体收益项进行加权求和即可得到个体的效用函数:
U = c o s   θ R I + s i n   θ R G
式中 θ即为IPV,用于表征个体驾驶交互社会性的参量。通过调整个体的IPV值,可使模型输出不同社会性的驾驶动作,例如,当IPV为0时,表示该个体的行为完全自私,仅考虑最大化自身的个体收益;当IPV值为 π / 4时,表示该个体的行为具有合作性,会同等地考虑个体和群体收益。
由于假设所有交互个体以最大化自身效用函数为目标,因此可将个体的决策目标表述为求解使得效用最大化的轨迹:
p i * = a r g m a x x i P i   U i p i , p - i ,   θ i
式中 P i是一个受约束的轨迹集,即要求车辆受到:(1)车辆运动学限制 p i n + 1 = 𝒟 ( p i n , u i n ),其中动作变量 - u ¯ u i n u ¯ R + u ¯为动作变量上界;(2)道路边界限制 r p i n - p i n ( w l a n e - w v e h ) / 2,其中 w l a n e w v e h分别为车道和车身宽度。
然而,由于式(4)的优化问题中存在未知变量 p - i(即交互对象的决策结果),该优化问题无法直接进行求解。因此,在此处引入博弈模型中的另一假设,即博弈双方均了解对方的决策遵循“效用最大化”。由此,可以将交互对象 - i的决策结果表述为
p - i * p i = a r g m a x x - i P - i   U - i p - i , p i ,   θ ^ - i
通过将式(5)代入式(4)即得到决策主体 i在考虑了交互对象行为策略后的优化问题:
p i * = a r g m a x x i P i   U i ( p i , p ^ - i ( p i ) ,   θ i )
s . t .   p ^ - i ( p i ) = a r g m a x x - i P - i   U - i p - i , p i , θ ^ - i
式(6)式(7)所述的双层优化问题可通过迭代最优回应法(iterative best response,IBR)求解。如图3所示,IBR方法在单个规划时间帧内通过顺次迭代求解两层优化问题直至收敛,即可获得满足纳什均衡条件的轨迹解。为确保测试中背景车运动规划的实时性,实际求解过程须对博弈模型线性化转化,以实现轨迹博弈的高效求解[30]
需要说明,式(6)式(7)所述的决策优化问题对交互各方均适用,即决策主体 i既可以为左转车,也可以为直行车。
IPV值决定了参与驾驶交互的个体对自身收益和群体收益的相对偏好,是一种个性化的行为参数。该参数影响了交互个体在驾驶过程中的策略选择,进而体现在车辆行驶轨迹的差异上。本研究中,通过结合博弈均衡和对车辆行驶轨迹的观测,提出了一种交互事件中对交互对象的IPV进行估计的方法。以无保护左转交互事件中的左转车视角为例,该方法具体包含以下步骤。
(1)在仿真中构建虚拟交互对象。在交互事件的初始时刻,交互对象的实际IPV未知,但可观测得到交互对象的位置、速度、车头朝向等运动状态。为了实现交互过程的仿真推演,可构建具有与实际交互对象相同运动状态,且具有特定IPV的虚拟交互对象,从而求解主车与虚拟交互对象得交互结果,推测交互事件发展趋势。本文研究假设交互对象的实际IPV: θ - i 𝒰 = ( - π / 2 , π / 2 ),故在分布 𝒰中采样 K个IPV值并分别构建虚拟交互对象。
(2)通过轨迹对比计算估计各个虚拟交互对象IPV的似然值。以一个IPV为 θ - i , k的虚拟交互对象为例,通过对主车与该虚拟交互对象的交互过程进行推演,可获得该虚拟交互对象的行驶轨迹 x k,同时在动态交互中可观测得到实际交互对象的历史轨迹 x ¯ - i,由此可通过观测轨迹与仿真轨迹的相似度估计 θ - i , k与实际交互对象IPV的似然值:
l k ( θ - i , k , θ - i ) p ( x k | θ - i ) 𝒩 ( x k | x ¯ θ - i , σ 2 )
式中 σ 2为轨迹点的随机偏移方差。式(8)的计算中假设交互对象的轨迹点服从以实际轨迹为均值,以 σ 2为方差的高斯分布,而IPV值为 θ - i , k与交互对象实际IPV的似然程度正比于从该高斯分布中采样得到虚拟交互对象轨迹点 x k的概率。
(3)基于虚拟交互对象IPV似然值加权估计实际IPV。似然值 l k反映了各个虚拟交互对象的IPV与实际交互对象的IPV的相似程度,因而可作为IPV采样值的置信权重,由此可加权计算实际交互对象IPV的估计值 θ ^ - i和估计方差 σ θ ^ - i 2
θ ^ - i = k w k θ k
σ θ ^ - i 2 = k w k θ k - θ ^ - i 2
式中 w k = l k / k l k为各个IPV采样值置信权重的归一化值。
本文使用的自然驾驶数据采集自上海市剑河路-仙霞路路口。如图4所示,该路口为一典型二相位交叉口,所采集得到的轨迹数据集中,左转车与直行车交互密集,且轨迹形状具有较高的多样性,适用于本文模型验证。数据采集时段为下午4:00-5:40的晚高峰时段,数据集共计包含210条左转轨迹和801条直行轨迹。通过限定左转车仅与“尚未通过冲突点的第1辆直行车”发生交互,共计提取交互事件片段130个。
应用1.2.3节中的IPV估计方法,可对每个交互事件中的左转车和直行车驾驶人的IPV进行统计分析。
图5为左转抢行和左转让行事件中驾驶人IPV均值的统计结果。在左转让行事件中,直行车IPV集中分布于0附近,即直行车多数表现为自私,而左转车则表现为相对合作;在左转抢行事件中,直行车虽总体上表现为自私,但分布方差更大,且出现了一部分表现更为合作的直行车。左转车的IPV在抢行事件中则出现了两峰值的分布,即驾驶人在执行左转抢行时,兼有合作型和竞争型。
本研究中采用两个对比模型:智能驾驶人模型(intellect driver model,IDM)和基于轨迹层纳什均衡博弈求解的交互行为模型(sensitivity-enhanced iterative best response,SE-IBR)。
IDM模型是自动驾驶测试相关研究常用的背景车建模方式[1031- 32],也是VISSIM和TESS NG主流仿真软件内置的交通流模型[33- 34]。与该模型对比,可体现GSIM相比目前主流的交通流解析模型的性能提升。
IDM模型的核心原理是,车辆的加速度不仅取决于自身速度与期望速度的差,还取决于与前车的距离以及前车的速度。IDM模型假设驾驶员希望以期望速度 v 0行驶,并与前车保持一个安全的车头时距 T和最小车距 s 0
图6所示,利用IDM模型进行仿真时,首先分别将两辆交互车投影至一个公共虚拟轴(黑色虚线),该虚拟轴须过冲突点,且在两交互车的轨迹方向夹角之间。在此虚拟轴上,左转车和直行车逼近冲突点的过程就从左转-直行两个方向投影到同一方向,两辆车进而形成虚拟队列和跟驰关系。然后,两车中的相对前车以加速至期望速度为目标进行纵向控制,相对后车则通过IDM计算纵向加速度。需要说明,由于IDM模型无法进行横向控制,当采用IDM模型进行仿真时,实际驾驶数据中的轨迹形状将作为已知条件。
SE-IBR[21]通过求解交互个体的轨迹层纳什均衡实现驾驶交互行为建模。如式(11)所示,SE-IBR模型的核心思路是利用敏感性分析将伴行交互对象的损益纳入规划主体的收益函数,实现了个体间动作依赖关系的构建。式(11)中的变量描述与式(4)一致,且为保证对比的公平性,实验中对SE-IBR模型采用与GSIM相同的运动学约束。该模型未引入对个体社会性的考虑。与该模型对比,可体现交互倾向值的引入对GSIM模型性能的提升作用。
p i * = a r g m a x x i P i ( p - i )   U i p i + U - i p - i
测试场景的初始状态来自交互事件片段,被测车和背景车均获得交互事件片段中实际车辆的初始运动状态,并将实际轨迹作为真实值用于计算仿真精度。仿真精度指标包括:语义交互结果一致率、速度均方根误差(root mean squared error,RMSE),交互事件的平均预期后侵入时间(anticipated post encroachment time,APET)和交互事件的最小APET。
(1)语义交互结果一致率
衡量仿真场景中左转车“抢行”或“让行”的语义结果与实际自然驾驶结果的一致率,即语义结果一致的场景在全部仿真场景中的占比。
(2)速度RMSE
R M S E = i = 1 N V i - v i 2 N
式中: V i i时刻实际轨迹中的速度真值; v i为该时刻的仿真速度; N为实际轨迹所包含的总帧数。
后侵入时间(post encroachment time,PET)表征了两车交互事件的冲突程度,其值为先行车辆的尾部离开冲突区域的时间与后行车辆的头部到达冲突区域的时间之差。在确定冲突区域时,首先把车辆几何形状抽象成矩形,然后计算交互两车按照当前速度方向的延伸轨迹重合区。如图7所示,红色平行四边形即为冲突区域。为了估计交互事件中各个时间点的冲突变化情况,在任一交互时刻假设两车均以匀速行驶,并计算该假设之下的PET值,即得到该时刻的APET。
为了展示时变的交互过程,图8中展示了一典型无保护左转场景的APET和加速度变化过程。左转车到达路口后选择在①和②两辆直行车的间隙通过。T=8时,左转车和直行车②的APET为0,即根据当前的行驶速度,左转车和直行车预期同时达到冲突点,场景具有强冲突。此后直至T=18,左转车保持加速但加速度逐渐减小至0,直行车持续减速让行,此后冲突逐渐消解。
GSIM与IDM、SE-IBR的集计仿真精度统计对比见表2。在轨迹层面,与IDM模型和SE-IBR模型相比,GSIM模型对无保护左转事件的轨迹仿真精度分别提升42.8%和51.9%。图9所示为各个交互事件中实际轨迹和仿真轨迹的平均速度分布情况,GSIM可以有效仿真由交互引起的车辆低速行驶的情况。
在安全性指标方面,结合表2图10可知,IDM模型的仿真结果偏向于安全,SE-IBR和GSIM的仿真场景更接近真实情况的平均危险程度。而与SE-IBR相比,GSIM对场景中强交互(对应较小的APET)时刻的仿真能力更强。总体而言,GSIM可以更精确、全面地仿真交互事件中的驾驶人异质性的策略,且有助于提供具有危险性的高测试价值场景。
在语义交互结果一致率上,GSIM模型仿真结果显著优于IDM。图11图12分别为利用IDM模型和GSIM模型仿真同一个自然驾驶场景片段的结果。该场景中人类驾驶人的左转车在有直行交互对象的情况下选择抢行,属于“违反直行车优先权”的交互案例。IDM模型对于该案例的仿真未能得到与实际交互结果相一致的语义情形,仿真得到的结果为左转车在相对高速的状态下选择了减速让行。GSIM模型在已知交互双方的社交倾向的条件下,有效还原了实际交互的语义结果,并且较好地还原了交互双方的轨迹。
图13所示的GSIM模型仿真轨迹分布可以发现,GSIM模型交叉口场景中的仿真轨迹可以呈现出二维面域分布特性,符合自然驾驶无保护左转场景中的实际轨迹分布。
本文采用的被测对象是自动驾驶Lattice规划器,该规划器源于DARPA无人驾驶大赛的规划算法;本研究采用内置于Apollo 2.5的Lattice规划器[35],该版本在安全性、稳定性和计算效率方面均有较为优良的性能。Lattice规划器采用横纵向解耦的规划方式,即分别在横纵向规划一维轨迹,然后耦合形成二维轨迹。Lattice规划器的运行流程包含以下步骤。
(1)轨迹采样:根据起点和终点的状态,在位置空间和时间上同时进行采样。采样的起始状态和终止状态各有6个参数:3个横向参数,即横向位置、车头朝向、车头朝向变化率;3个纵向参数,即纵向位置、速度、加速度。确定终点和起点状态以后,再通过5阶多项式连接起始状态和终止状态,从而得到规划的横向和纵向轨迹。
(2)Cost计算:在生成所有横向和纵向的一维轨迹以后,将其排列组合,合成二维轨迹,然后根据损失函数筛选出最优的合成轨迹。Lattice 规划器的损失函数可以分为安全性相关、舒适性相关以及目标完成度相关3类。
(3)轨迹后处理:筛选得到的最优轨迹还须经过碰撞检验、运动学和动力学可达性检验后处理以确保轨迹的可行性。如当前最优轨迹不满足检验,则删除后重新选择最优轨迹。
测试环境中的交叉口各方向车道数与上海市剑河路-仙霞路路口一致。为了充分验证异质性交互策略的仿真精度,尤其是对激进、竞争策略的仿真精度,测试中采用2.1节左转车辆抢行片段初始化测试场景。对一个测试场景共计进行8次测试:分别以左转车和直行车为被测车,被测车与4类背景车(实际轨迹数据回放、IDM模型、SE-IBR模型和GSIM模型)进行交互。当背景车由IDM控制时,其轨迹形状与实际轨迹形状保持一致;当背景车由GSIM控制时,GSIM的IPV与实际轨迹中估计得到的IPV保持一致,以模拟驾驶人在该驾驶片段中的交互风格。对于单次测试,测试流程及各主要环节的输入输出信息如图14所示。首先,从自动驾驶交互片段中读取左转和直行车的位置与速度,用于初始化仿真测试环境中的背景车和被测车;然后,利用被测规划算法和背景车行为模型分别计算被测车和背景车的规划轨迹,同时将当前时间帧的运动控制量(加速度和转向盘转角)输出至仿真测试环境;仿真测试环境结合被测车与背景车的运动控制量,更新两车的位置与速度;最后,若此时左转车和直行车均已通过冲突点则测试结束,否则进入下一时间帧。
本文所涉及的仿真实验在Intel i7-10700 CPU平台开展,背景车仿真模型与被测车运动规划算法分别占用单核独立运行。GSIM在全部测试场景中的平均单帧计算耗时 0.082   s ± 0.005   s,可满足10 Hz下的实时仿真测试需求。
对测试结果的评价主要从任务达成度、安全性和舒适性3个方面进行。任务达成度方面,Lattice规划器在给定采样范围(0.5-7 s)和容量(100个初始样本)内,如果在交互过程中的任一时刻均能得到可行轨迹,则任务达成,反之判定在该测试案例中失效,表示当前场景交互难度大,被测车无法得到可行规划;安全性方面,分别计算APET的均值和最小值,并计算交互过程中是否存在严重冲突事件(APET小于0.7 s);舒适性方面,计算了Lattice规划器的最大加速度和最大加加速度。
表3所示,Lattice规划器在GSIM测试中的平均失效率(包含左转和直行场景)最高,在IDM测试中次之,SE-IBR测试中最低。在完成驾驶任务的案例中,最小APET和平均APET两项安全性指标在3类测试中并无显著差异,但GSIM测试中出现了更多的严重冲突事件数。相较于IDM测试和SE-IBR测试,GSIM测试中的严重冲突事件复现率提升25.8%和77.27%。舒适性方面,Lattice规划器的最大加加速度在GSIM测试中排序第一。即在GSIM测试中,Lattice规划器更难以保证规划轨迹的舒适性。综上分析,当GSIM作为背景车时,交互任务的完成难度最高。
总体而言,GSIM所构建的交互测试环境可有效复现高风险场景中人类驾驶的交互策略,从而为被测车提供更为具有挑战性的测试案例。
HAV交互能力测试对人机混驾新型混合交通的安全至关重要。本文基于博弈框架,构建了一种背景车交互策略模型GSIM;通过在模型中引入并调控交互倾向值IPV,实现了异质化的背景车交互策略刻画。研究结果表明:
(1)基于博弈框架构建的GSIM模型可显示刻画驾驶交互中个体间动作依赖关系及交互个体的异质化策略特性,并可以在轨迹层输出个体的驾驶交互行为。
(2)驾驶交互事件仿真中,GSIM在保证交互行为具有自然驾驶合理性、可解释性的基础上,可确保驾驶交互事件轨迹层仿真精度。
(3)高风险驾驶交互场景测试中,相较于回放场景与基于轨迹建模的传统交通流仿真场景,本文提出的交互策略模型GSIM可有效识别并还原高风险交互中驾驶人的交互逻辑,从而更准确地发掘被测算法的失效场景。
后续研究中,将通过接入基于优化、采样、深度学习等的各类被测物,综合分析GSIM生成的背景车对测试结果的影响规律,以期发掘被测物失效场景的典型交互特征。
  • *国家自然科学基金杰出青年基金(52125208)
  • 国家自然科学基金重点项目(52232015)
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2024年第46卷第11期
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doi: 10.19562/j.chinasae.qcgc.2024.11.003
  • 接收时间:2024-03-30
  • 首发时间:2025-07-21
  • 出版时间:2024-11-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-30
  • 修回日期:2024-06-12
基金
*国家自然科学基金杰出青年基金(52125208)
国家自然科学基金重点项目(52232015)
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    同济大学,道路与交通工程教育部重点实验室,上海 201804

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赵晓聪,博士研究生,E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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