Article(id=1154016884153377365, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1154016878675611672, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.01.12, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1670860800000, receivedDateStr=2022-12-13, revisedDate=1675008000000, revisedDateStr=2023-01-30, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753068665779, onlineDateStr=2025-07-21, pubDate=null, pubDateStr=null, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753068665779, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753068665779, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753068665779, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1154016878675611672, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, year='2024', volume='14', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='153', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=0, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1753068664473, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757481546563, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172525847715136459, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1154016878675611672, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172525847715136460, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1154016878675611672, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=116, endPage=124, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1154016884895769175, articleId=1154016884153377365, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, language=EN, title=Simulation Analysis of Single-Particle Impact Damage in Automotive Coating Samples, columnId=1153756966938731297, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, columnName=Other Technologies, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Studying the impactinduced failure phenomenon of automotive coatings is of great significance for predicting damage and guiding the structural design and optimization of the coatings. A finite element model for the singleparticle impact failure of automotive coating samples is established, and this model is solved by using an inhouse explicit finite element solver, FTWGPU. The predicted failure patterns of inply failure and interface delamination of the automotive coatings are in good agreement with the experimental outcomes, which verifies the effectiveness of this numerical method and reveals the failure mechanisms of inply failure and interface delamination in coatings under impact load.

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研究汽车涂层在冲击载荷下的破坏现象,对于预测涂层抗石击性能以及指导涂层结构设计和优化具有重要意义。建立了汽车涂层样本单颗粒冲击破坏有限元模型,使用自主开发的显式有限元求解器模拟汽车涂层冲击破坏过程。涂层层内破坏、基底与涂层界面分离破坏模式的仿真结果与试验结果的良好一致性,验证了仿真分析方法的有效性,揭示了涂层在冲击载荷下的层内破坏与界面分离破坏的失效机理。

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臧孟炎(1961-),男,湖南华容人,教授,主要研究方向为汽车CAE仿真方法与应用。Tel: 13922252102 E-mail:
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杨红(1996-),女,河南永城人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为汽车CAE技术。Tel: 15521018051 E-mail:

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结构名称 材料成分 厚度/μm
清漆层 溶剂型丙烯酸树脂 38.7
色漆层 水性丙烯酸树脂 22.9
中涂层 水性聚酯树脂 30.8
电泳层 环氧树脂 19.9
基底 冷轧钢 850.0
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结构名称 材料成分 厚度/μm
清漆层 溶剂型丙烯酸树脂 38.7
色漆层 水性丙烯酸树脂 22.9
中涂层 水性聚酯树脂 30.8
电泳层 环氧树脂 19.9
基底 冷轧钢 850.0
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结构名称 材料参数
清漆层 $\rho = {1325}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {8.10}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {3.2476}, P = {10.203}$ 3
色漆层 $\rho = {903}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {4.50}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {1.5580}, P = {7.7133}$
中涂层 $\rho = {1663}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {3.20}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {2.5461} \times {10}^{-6}, P = {17.3920}$
电泳层 $\rho = {1435}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {2.96}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {12.3505}, P = {2.8723}$
基底 $\rho = {7860}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {210}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.29}, A = {610}\mathrm{{MPa}}, B = {425}\mathrm{{MPa}},{C}_{\mathrm{{JC}}} = {0.03}, n = {0.547},{\varepsilon }_{0} = {1680}{\mathrm{\;s}}^{-1}$
钢球 $\rho = {7860}\mathrm{\;{kg}} \cdot {\mathrm{m}}^{-3}, E = {199.6}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.29}$
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结构名称 材料参数
清漆层 $\rho = {1325}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {8.10}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {3.2476}, P = {10.203}$ 3
色漆层 $\rho = {903}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {4.50}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {1.5580}, P = {7.7133}$
中涂层 $\rho = {1663}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {3.20}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {2.5461} \times {10}^{-6}, P = {17.3920}$
电泳层 $\rho = {1435}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {2.96}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.15}, C = {12.3505}, P = {2.8723}$
基底 $\rho = {7860}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/{\mathrm{m}}^{3}, E = {210}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.29}, A = {610}\mathrm{{MPa}}, B = {425}\mathrm{{MPa}},{C}_{\mathrm{{JC}}} = {0.03}, n = {0.547},{\varepsilon }_{0} = {1680}{\mathrm{\;s}}^{-1}$
钢球 $\rho = {7860}\mathrm{\;{kg}} \cdot {\mathrm{m}}^{-3}, E = {199.6}\mathrm{{GPa}},\nu = {0.29}$
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清漆层 色漆层 中涂层 电泳层
有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa 有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa 有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa 有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa
0.000 080 0 37.235 300 0.000 000 2.710 509 3 0.005 724 20.603 82 0.000 00 12.772 000
0.005 519 1 53.113 362 0.005 980 31.660 190 0.024 861 39.243 16 0.028 35 86.338 830
0.022 523 5 66.738 064 0.017 900 47.805 988 0.035 020 43.014 46 0.028 35 100.132 60
0.120 563 0 79.498 310 0.041 800 57.727 990 0.061 612 47.309 46 0.048 35 102.686 90
0.151 940 5 79.432 510 0.085 200 69.904 982 0.113 637 50.545 32 0.221 00 78.151 690
0.218 850 0 89.995 940 0.119 000 72.610 980 0.185 130 67.487 08 0.315 00 81.708 180
0.171 000 80.728 980 0.428 50 97.575 623
), ArticleFig(id=1154016946627535844, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1154016884153377365, language=CN, label=表 3, caption=各涂层屈服应力-有效塑性应变数据, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
清漆层 色漆层 中涂层 电泳层
有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa 有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa 有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa 有效塑性应变 屈服应力/MPa
0.000 080 0 37.235 300 0.000 000 2.710 509 3 0.005 724 20.603 82 0.000 00 12.772 000
0.005 519 1 53.113 362 0.005 980 31.660 190 0.024 861 39.243 16 0.028 35 86.338 830
0.022 523 5 66.738 064 0.017 900 47.805 988 0.035 020 43.014 46 0.028 35 100.132 60
0.120 563 0 79.498 310 0.041 800 57.727 990 0.061 612 47.309 46 0.048 35 102.686 90
0.151 940 5 79.432 510 0.085 200 69.904 982 0.113 637 50.545 32 0.221 00 78.151 690
0.218 850 0 89.995 940 0.119 000 72.610 980 0.185 130 67.487 08 0.315 00 81.708 180
0.171 000 80.728 980 0.428 50 97.575 623
), ArticleFig(id=1154016946707227622, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1154016884153377365, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
结构名称 拉伸强度/MPa 临界有效塑性应变 脆性损伤能量释放率/(N/m) 韧性损伤能量释放率/(N/m)
清漆层 225 0.60 30 40
色漆层 190 0.65 50 30
中涂层 200 0.60 35 25
电泳层 240 0.80 20 15
), ArticleFig(id=1154016946774336488, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1154016884153377365, language=CN, label=表 4, caption=多机理损伤模型参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
结构名称 拉伸强度/MPa 临界有效塑性应变 脆性损伤能量释放率/(N/m) 韧性损伤能量释放率/(N/m)
清漆层 225 0.60 30 40
色漆层 190 0.65 50 30
中涂层 200 0.60 35 25
电泳层 240 0.80 20 15
), ArticleFig(id=1154016946837251050, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1154016884153377365, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
损伤单元 损伤萌生时刻/us 有效塑性应变
径向裂纹 63.82 0.534 9
周向裂纹 88.01 0.2615
), ArticleFig(id=1154016946904359916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1154016884153377365, language=CN, label=表 5, caption=清漆层损伤单元损伤萌生时刻对应有效塑性应变, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
损伤单元 损伤萌生时刻/us 有效塑性应变
径向裂纹 63.82 0.534 9
周向裂纹 88.01 0.2615
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汽车涂层样本单颗粒冲击破坏仿真分析
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杨红 , 陈力 , 邹晨祺 , 臧孟炎
汽车工程学报 | 其他 2024,14(1): 116-124
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汽车工程学报 | 其他 2024, 14(1): 116-124
汽车涂层样本单颗粒冲击破坏仿真分析
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杨红 , 陈力, 邹晨祺, 臧孟炎
作者信息
  • 华南理工大学 广州 510640
  • 杨红(1996-),女,河南永城人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为汽车CAE技术。Tel: 15521018051 E-mail:

通讯作者:


臧孟炎(1961-),男,湖南华容人,教授,主要研究方向为汽车CAE仿真方法与应用。Tel: 13922252102 E-mail:
Simulation Analysis of Single-Particle Impact Damage in Automotive Coating Samples
Hong YANG , Li CHEN, Chenqi ZOU, Mengyan ZANG
Affiliations
  • South China University of Technology Guangzhou 510640 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.01.12
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研究汽车涂层在冲击载荷下的破坏现象,对于预测涂层抗石击性能以及指导涂层结构设计和优化具有重要意义。建立了汽车涂层样本单颗粒冲击破坏有限元模型,使用自主开发的显式有限元求解器模拟汽车涂层冲击破坏过程。涂层层内破坏、基底与涂层界面分离破坏模式的仿真结果与试验结果的良好一致性,验证了仿真分析方法的有效性,揭示了涂层在冲击载荷下的层内破坏与界面分离破坏的失效机理。

汽车涂层  /  冲击载荷  /  损伤模型  /  数值模拟

Studying the impactinduced failure phenomenon of automotive coatings is of great significance for predicting damage and guiding the structural design and optimization of the coatings. A finite element model for the singleparticle impact failure of automotive coating samples is established, and this model is solved by using an inhouse explicit finite element solver, FTWGPU. The predicted failure patterns of inply failure and interface delamination of the automotive coatings are in good agreement with the experimental outcomes, which verifies the effectiveness of this numerical method and reveals the failure mechanisms of inply failure and interface delamination in coatings under impact load.

automotive coatings  /  impact load  /  damage model  /  numerical simulation
杨红, 陈力, 邹晨祺, 臧孟炎. 汽车涂层样本单颗粒冲击破坏仿真分析. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (1) : 116 -124 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.01.12
Hong YANG, Li CHEN, Chenqi ZOU, Mengyan ZANG. Simulation Analysis of Single-Particle Impact Damage in Automotive Coating Samples[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (1) : 116 -124 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.01.12
现代车身涂层主要包括清漆层、色漆层、中涂层、电泳层, 各层涂层具备不同的功能。在汽车服役过程中,碎石等坚硬颗粒冲击涂层造成的损伤会影响汽车外观,导致汽车零部件腐蚀并可能引发安全事故。因此, 汽车涂层抗石击性能的预测成为当前亟需解决的问题。
目前,国内外学者主要运用试验方法研究汽车涂层的抗石击性能, 包括单颗粒冲击试验与多颗粒冲击试验。TREZONA 等 [ 1 ] 通过多颗粒冲击试验研究面漆厚度对涂层抗石击性能的影响, 用去除单位面积涂层所需的颗粒质量评价涂层的抗石击性能, 发现涂层抗石击性能随面漆厚度的增加线性增强。 LONYUK 等 [ 2 - 3 ] 通过单颗粒冲击试验分析聚合物涂层的抗石击性能与涂层机械性能的关系, 发现低玻璃态转变温度的底漆涂层体系具有更好的抗石击性能。LIU Yang 等 [ 4 ] 利用单颗粒冲击试验测得单层电泳层、单层中涂层以及多层涂层体系发生分层破坏的临界冲击速度, 多层涂层体系的临界冲击速度最大,抗石击性能最佳。
试验方法是研究涂层抗石击性能最有效且最直观的方法, 但制备涂层样本的工艺过程复杂, 时间周期长, 试验成本昂贵。采用数值模拟方法研究涂层的抗石击性能, 不仅耗费资源少, 且能对涂层内部在试验中难以观测到的冲击破坏机理进行观察研究, 对指导涂层材料设计和结构设计具有更重要的参考价值。车身涂料是典型的热固性高聚物黏弹性材料, 其力学行为受时间、温度影响较大, 可以同时表现出弹性固体和粘性流体的力学行为 [ 5 ] 。在多层涂层体系中, 颗粒冲击可能导致涂层发生层内和层间破坏, 层内破坏往往是裂纹在涂层内萌生和扩展引发的内聚破坏, 层间破坏表现为涂层与涂层之间或涂层与基底之间的分层现象。使用合适的材料模型准确地描述聚合物涂层复杂的力学行为, 以及使用合适的损伤失效模型模拟层间与层内破坏是进行涂层冲击破坏仿真分析的重点和难点。部分学者聚焦于涂层冲击破坏下的层间破坏问题, ZOUARI 等 [ 6 ] 考虑涂层在冲击工况下的应变率效应,使用 Johnson-Cook 材料模型结合 Tiebreak 接触模型, 模拟与铝合金基底结合的单层有机物涂层在球形颗粒冲击下的分层失效过程。AMINI 等 [ 7 ] 研究钢聚脲双层板的冲击响应对界面强度的依赖性, 采用 Tiebreak 接触模型模拟界面分层, 忽略了聚合物层对涂层分层的影响, 一旦达到失效准则, 界面会立刻释放。内聚力模型能模拟逐步脱粘的过程, 越来越多的学者选择使用内聚力模型模拟涂层/基底层间的破坏问题 [ 8 - 9 ] 。LONG Hao 等 [ 10 ] 引入界面内聚单元, 建立涂层/基体体系界面断裂二维有限元模型, 研究界面性能和涂层厚度对界面损伤演变的影响。XU Xiao 等 [ 11 - 12 ] 考虑涂层体系的薄壁结构特点, 开发一种基于实体壳单元的固有内聚力模型, 研究了颗粒冲击下的单层涂层体系中涂层与基底间的脱粘现象。部分学者专注于涂层冲击破坏下的层内损伤现象, TOI 等 [ 13 ] 基于连续损伤力学的弹粘塑性损伤本构模型, 研究了多层涂层样本单颗粒冲击导致的层内损伤。ZHANG Na 等 [ 14 ] 引入基于等效塑性应变的单元删除准则来模拟颗粒侵蚀下钢基热固性聚氨酯涂层面内的材料去除。
目前, 同时考虑层内与层间失效的涂层冲击破坏仿真研究报告还很少。实验室自主开发的包含多机理损伤模型、间断伽辽金/大变形内聚模型等功能在内的显式有限元求解器 [ 15 - 16 ] ,为涂层样本冲击过程发生的复杂破坏现象仿真分析提供了可能。以汽车钢基复合涂层样本为研究对象, 使用该专用软件研究复合涂层冲击破坏现象, 分析涂层冲击破坏机理。
该自研显式有限元求解器是一个具备并行计算功能, 专门用于薄壁复合结构冲击破坏仿真分析的软件。
针对涂层材料的冲击破坏现象, 软件开发了多机理损伤模型来描述涂层材料冲击过程中涂层层内的韧性破坏和脆性断裂。在计算过程中, 对柯西应力张量的计算如式(1) $\sim$ (2)所示。
$ \sigma = \left( {1 - D}\right) {\sigma }_{\text{eff }}\text{。} $
$ D = 1 - \left( {1 - {d}_{1}}\right) \left( {1 - {d}_{2}}\right) \text{。} $
式中: $D$ 为全局损伤变量; ${\sigma }_{\text{eff }}$ 为有效(未损伤)应力张量; ${d}_{1}$${d}_{2}$ 分别为脆性损伤变量与韧性损伤变量。当 $D$ 初始值为 0 时,表明材料未损伤,当 $D$ 等于 1 时, 代表材料已完全失效。为避免单元删除后在压缩状态下出现非物理的失效模式, 设定全局损伤变量 $D$ 的上限值为 0.95,单元将不被删除。
使用最大拉伸应力失效准则定义脆性损伤, 脆性损伤变量计算式为:
$ {d}_{1} = \max \left\lbrack {0,\min \left( {1,\frac{{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},\mathrm{f}}\left( {{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},\max } - {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},0}}\right) }{{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},\max }\left( {{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},\mathrm{f}} - {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},0}}\right) }}\right) }\right\rbrack 。 $
式中: ${\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},\max }$ 为考虑损伤的最大有效应变; ${\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},0}$ 为损伤开始时的有效应变; ${\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},\mathrm{f}}$ 为最终有效应变。脆性损伤的临界能量释放率计算式为:
$ {G}_{\mathrm{c},1} = \frac{1}{2}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{t}}\left( {{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},\mathrm{f}} - {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{{eff}},0}}\right) {L}_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{d}} \circ $
式中: ${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t}}$ 为拉伸强度; ${L}_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{d}}$ 为单元特征长度。
使用临界有效塑性应变准则定义韧性损伤。韧性损伤变量计算式为:
$ {d}_{2} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} 0 & {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{p}} < {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{c}}, \\ \int \frac{{L}_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{d}}}{{u}_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{f}}}\mathrm{d}{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{p}} & {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{p}} \geq {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{c}} \circ \end{matrix}\right. $
$ {u}_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{f}} = \frac{2{G}_{\mathrm{c},2}}{{\sigma }_{\mathrm{y},0}}。 $
式中: ${\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{c}}$ 为临界有效塑性应变; ${G}_{\mathrm{c},2}$ 为韧性损伤的临界能量释放率; ${\sigma }_{\mathrm{y},0}$ 为损伤初始时的米塞斯应力。
为准确描述涂层与基底间的界面分离现象, 提出了间断伽辽金/大变形内聚模型。该模型的优势在于:
1)可实现涂层大变形下稳定且高精度的层间破坏模拟;
2)通过引入间断伽辽金项解决了传统固有内聚力模型的人工柔度问题;
3)大变形内聚模型允许界面间网格不匹配, 可大幅减少金属基底单元的网格数量。详细内容参见文献 [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
图 1 所示,涂层样本尺寸为 ${90}{\mathrm{\;{mm}}}^{2} \times {200}{\mathrm{\;{mm}}}^{2}$ , 参照 DIN 多颗粒冲击试验标准 [ 17 ] ,直径为 $4\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ 的钢球以 ${51.1}\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s}$ 的速度垂直冲击涂层样本中心。根据载荷和结构的对称性, 以颗粒冲击点为中心, 建立涂层单颗粒冲击四分之一有限元模型, 如 图 2 所示。根据单颗粒冲击试验, 样本仅长侧边上设置固定约束,对称面施加对称面约束。在涂层样本冲击中心区域采用精细网格, 远离冲击中心的部分采用粗网格,单元尺寸从 ${10\mu }\mathrm{m}$${160\mu }\mathrm{m}$ 逐渐过渡。 由清漆层至电泳层根据涂层厚度分别划分成 4 层、 2 层、 3 层和 2 层六面体单元。由于试验中没有观察到各涂层间的分层现象, 各涂层单元间采用共节点方式处理。在电泳层与基底间插入大变形内聚力单元 [ 15 ] 描述涂层与基底间的分离现象,基底材料采用较粗网格以减小模型规模。
清漆层、色漆层、中涂层、电泳层和基底的材料成分及厚度见 表 1 。鉴于涂层材料在高应变率下表现出明显的应变率依赖性, 使用应变率相关的分段线性弹塑性模型 Cowper-Symonds 来描述涂层材料的力学行为。钢基底使用 Johnson-Cook 材料模型, 钢球在冲击试验中未发现明显的塑性变形, 将其定义为线弹性材料, 具体材料参数见 表 2表 3 。 各层涂层的屈服应力-有效塑性应变是基于文献 [ 18 ] $\sim$ [ 19 ] 中的高应变率试验曲线辨识得到, 应变率相关参数 $C$$P$ 是使用多个应变率下的应力值标定获得的。
涂层材料层内损伤采用多机理损伤模型评价, 各涂层的损伤参数见 表 4 。电泳层与基底之间的层间破坏采用大变形内聚模型评价, 内聚力模型的拉伸与剪切强度均为 ${15.5}\mathrm{{MPa}}$ ,拉伸与剪切破坏能量释放率均为 ${110}\mathrm{\;N}/\mathrm{m}$ ,摩擦因子取 0.5。
汽车涂层样本 $4\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ 单颗粒冲击试验电镜观察结果, 如 图 3 所示, 从试验现象观察到的冲击破坏包括 3 个特征:
1)冲击中心凹坑处出现涂层材料去除和发散的径向裂纹;
2)冲击中心外围观察到一圈周向裂纹及衍生的细小裂纹;
3)涂层隆起与基底产生界面分离,分离区域直径约为 $4\mathrm{\;{mm}}$
图 4 是钢球回弹后汽车涂层样本的冲击破坏仿真结果, 红色单元代表失效单元 (下同)。由 图 4 可以观察到涂层材料的损伤和涂层与基底的分离现象。有限元仿真结果很好地再现了冲击中心的涂层损伤与径向裂纹、以冲击中心为圆心的周向裂纹、 涂层与基底的界面分离(仿真结果分离半径为 1.74 $\mathrm{{mm}}$ ,试验为 $2\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ ),涂层样本冲击破坏模式的仿真结果与试验结果完全一致, 充分说明了本文采用的仿真分析方法和建立的有限元模型的有效性。
汽车涂层单颗粒冲击损伤演化历程如 图 5 所示。钢球冲击速度和钢球与涂层样本间接触力历程,如 图 6 所示。初始时刻,颗粒以 ${51.5}\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s}$ 的初速度冲击至涂层上表面;在 ${1.58\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 中,涂层率先出现损伤;在 ${3.0\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 中,电泳层与基底界面出现层间破坏。此后,在 ${6.64\mu }\mathrm{s}$${7.91\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 中,色漆层与电泳层依次出现损伤。
${35.40\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 钢球冲击速度降为 0 ( 图 6a) 时钢球开始回弹。从 ${63.88\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 开始,清漆层冲击中心区域出现损伤,然后产生辐射状径向裂纹,直到 ${88.06\mu }\mathrm{s}$ ,清漆层冲击中心外圈出现周向裂纹。在 ${93.60\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 时,清漆层周向裂纹向下扩展至色漆层 ( 图 5h 右侧图中隐去了清漆层)。在 ${113.95\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 时, 颗粒与涂层完全分离, 周向裂纹已经完全形成, 此时颗粒与涂层的接触力等于 0 ( 图 6b), 颗粒已完全和涂层样本分离, 尽管涂层样本还存在一定程度的振动。比较 图 5i 和 j 可知, 涂层层内损伤、涂层与基底间分离区域基本不再变化。
有限元仿真计算结束时刻各层涂层的损伤变量分布, 如 图 7 所示。由图可知, 所有涂层都存在中心区域损伤, 色漆层与中涂层的损伤区域较小, 清漆层与色漆层在冲击中心外圈出现周向裂纹, 清漆层损伤区域最大,损伤模式最复杂。
首先分析除清漆层以外的 3 层涂层中心区域损伤破坏机理。中涂层、色漆层和电泳层在损伤发生的初始时刻最大主应力云图, 如 图 8 所示。由图可知, 在冲击中心区域的最大主应力云图均为负值, 据此判断这 3 层涂层的中心区域损伤不是脆性破坏。
进一步选取中涂层、色漆层和电泳层发生损伤初始时刻的有限单元, 观察发生损伤单元的损伤变量与塑性应变历程曲线。如 图 9 所示, 3 层涂层发生损伤时单元塑性应变值达到临界有效塑性应变, 确定冲击中心区域除清漆层以外的涂层损伤属于韧性破坏。
图 5 可知, 清漆层径向裂纹初始损伤单元和周向裂纹初始损伤单元在损伤萌生时刻的塑性应变均未达到韧性破坏设定的临界有效塑性应变 ( 表 5 ), 因此, 认为清漆层的径向裂纹和周向裂纹不是韧性破坏。由 图 10 可知, 清漆层径向裂纹初始损伤单元和周向裂纹初始损伤单元在损伤萌生时刻的最大主应力达到脆性破坏的拉伸强度, 据此判断清漆层的径向裂纹、周向裂纹是脆性破坏。
结合 图 5图 6 分析可知,在 $0 \sim {35.40\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 时间段, 颗粒向下冲击挤压涂层, 清漆层进入屈服发生塑性变形, 但有效塑性应变未达到临界失效值, 涂层处于压缩状态。此后, 颗粒向上运动, 涂层开始卸载,卸载初期,颗粒与清漆层之间的摩擦力限制了清漆层材料向外流动, 清漆层中心区域未进一步发生塑性变形。在颗粒与涂层分离时, 颗粒与清漆层之间的摩擦力消失, 残余应力促使清漆层材料向外侧流动, 导致冲击中心附近周向拉伸应力增大, 清漆层出现径向裂纹。涂层材料继续向外流动增大了涂层的屈曲程度, 涂层表面出现较大的径向拉伸应力,清漆层发生拉伸破坏,形成周向裂纹。此后, 清漆层周向裂纹进一步扩展至色漆层, 形成周向裂纹。
涂层与基底界面分离包括 3 个阶段: 界面分层、涂层屈曲以及分层扩展。首先,颗粒向下冲击涂层,如 图 11 所示,在 ${3\mu }\mathrm{s}$ 时,涂层与基底界面间的剪切应力已经达到 ${100}\mathrm{{MPa}}$ ,且涂层与基底界面间此刻处于压缩状态, 界面间的剪切应力超过剪切破坏强度, 进入损伤演化阶段, 界面间出现明显的滑移, 当涂层与基底间切向位移超过临界分离量后, 涂层与基底界面分层, 界面分层属于纯剪切破坏。由于颗粒持续挤压涂层, 在涂层内产生较大的径向压缩应力, 如 图 12 所示, 所以在压缩应力的作用下涂层发生屈曲。由于涂层屈曲程度不断加剧,在涂层与基底界面间产生法向拉应力, 如 图 13 所示, 所以在剪切应力与拉应力的共同作用下, 分层不断向外扩展, 界面分离区域逐渐增大。
1)使用实验室自主开发的聚合涂层冲击破坏仿真计算软件仿真分析了汽车涂层样本单颗粒冲击破坏现象, 涂层层内损伤与层间破坏模式的仿真结果与对应试验结果的一致性, 验证了聚合物冲击破坏计算模型对汽车涂层冲击破坏仿真评价的可靠性。
2)分析结果表明,在汽车涂层冲击破坏过程中, 色漆层、中涂层和电泳层在冲击中心区域因挤压而先后发生韧性破坏。清漆层因拉伸应力发生脆性破坏, 形成中心区域损伤、径向裂纹与周向裂纹。涂层与基底界面间剪切应力诱发分层, 涂层内部的径向压应力导致涂层屈曲, 在混合模式下分层进一步扩展。
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2017YFE0117300)
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.01.12
  • 接收时间:2022-12-13
  • 首发时间:2025-07-21
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  • 收稿日期:2022-12-13
  • 修回日期:2023-01-30
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国家重点研发计划项目(2017YFE0117300)
作者信息
    华南理工大学 广州 510640

通讯作者:


臧孟炎(1961-),男,湖南华容人,教授,主要研究方向为汽车CAE仿真方法与应用。Tel: 13922252102 E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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