Article(id=1153813379631277046, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153813374610690435, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.07, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1717257600000, receivedDateStr=2024-06-02, revisedDate=1717603200000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-06, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753020146519, onlineDateStr=2025-07-20, pubDate=null, pubDateStr=null, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753020146519, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753020146519, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753020146519, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1153813374610690435, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, year='2024', volume='14', issue='4', pageStart='553', pageEnd='744', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=0, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1753020145323, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757481646291, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172526266059206864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153813374610690435, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172526266059206865, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153813374610690435, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=631, endPage=641, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1153813380122010616, articleId=1153813379631277046, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, language=EN, title=Modeling and Performance Evaluation of the MH-PEM Hydrogen Power System for Vehicle Use, columnId=1153813375445356933, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, columnName=Technology and Research, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The performance of the hydrogen power system is a critical factor in the design of fuel cell electric vehicles, as it includes the device's characteristics, control effectiveness, and energy management outcomes. This study investigated a typical hydrogen power system that uses a metal hydride (MH) hydrogen storage tank and a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. The aim was to evaluate the thermal coupling effects of the MHPEM hydrogen power system through mathematical modeling and realworld traffic testing. First, a multiphysical field coupling model of the MHPEM hydrogen power system was proposed based on the structure of the thermal exchange system. Then, numerical simulations and experiments were conducted based on the operating conditions of a rangeextended fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle. The results indicated that the proposed mathematical model can accurately characterize the dynamic features of the onboard hydrogen energy system. The comparison of simulation and experimental results showed great agreement, particularly in terms of power response and temperature dynamics. Further analysis of the influence of atmospheric temperature on the hydrogen supply flow was carried out by examining the temperature variation in the MH tank. The results show that the thermal coupling design is an effective method for improving energy efficiency. The results of this study may be used for optimal sizing, temperature control, and energy management strategy design of MHPEM hydrogen power systems.

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探讨了一种使用金属氢化物储氢罐和质子交换膜燃料电池的车载氢能源系统,旨在通过数学建模和工况测试评估氢能源系统内部的热量耦合效应。基于热交换系统结构和换热特性提出了氢能源系统多物理场模型,又基于增程式燃料电池物流车运行工况进行了数值模拟和试验验证。结果表明,所提出的数学模型能准确表征车载氢能源系统的动态特性,功率响应与温度动态变化具有显著的一致性。借助热交换系统提供热量补充,低温条件下固态储氢罐释氢速度加快,提高氢能源系统的动态响应速度和能源利用效率。研究结果可用于基于固态储氢与燃料电池耦合的氢能源系统最优尺寸设计、温度控制和能量管理策略设计。

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朱丹(1991-),女,安徽宿州人,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为氢能源动力系统状态估计与优化控制。Tel: 15002919527 E-mail:
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王晗(2002-),女,吉林白山人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为燃料电池发动机建模仿真与优化控制。Tel: 15584910107 E-mail:

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王晗(2002-),女,吉林白山人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为燃料电池发动机建模仿真与优化控制。Tel: 15584910107 E-mail:

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王晗(2002-),女,吉林白山人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为燃料电池发动机建模仿真与优化控制。Tel: 15584910107 E-mail:

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参数
活性面积 $/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 61[25]
单电池片数 45[25]
燃料电池堆质量/kg 5.5[25]
额定输出功率/W 1100[25]
电堆比热容/[J/(kg·K)] 1260[25]
自然对流热交换面积 $/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$ 0.040 205[24]
强制对流热交换面积 $/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$ 0.025 446 9[24]
辐射热量系数 ${c}_{1}$ 0.002 179[24]
辐射热量系数 ${c}_{2}$ 0.002 436[24]
热传递系数 ${m}_{1}$ 4 873[24]
热传递系数 ${m}_{2}$ 4 480[24]
热传递系数 ${m}_{3}$ 336[24]
), ArticleFig(id=1153824283030709073, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153813379631277046, language=CN, label=表 1, caption=MH-PEM氢能源系统模型参数[24-25], figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数
活性面积 $/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 61[25]
单电池片数 45[25]
燃料电池堆质量/kg 5.5[25]
额定输出功率/W 1100[25]
电堆比热容/[J/(kg·K)] 1260[25]
自然对流热交换面积 $/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$ 0.040 205[24]
强制对流热交换面积 $/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$ 0.025 446 9[24]
辐射热量系数 ${c}_{1}$ 0.002 179[24]
辐射热量系数 ${c}_{2}$ 0.002 436[24]
热传递系数 ${m}_{1}$ 4 873[24]
热传递系数 ${m}_{2}$ 4 480[24]
热传递系数 ${m}_{3}$ 336[24]
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基于固态储氢与燃料电池耦合的车载氢能源系统建模与特性分析
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王晗 , 朱丹
汽车工程学报 | 技术与研究 2024,14(4): 631-641
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汽车工程学报 | 技术与研究 2024, 14(4): 631-641
基于固态储氢与燃料电池耦合的车载氢能源系统建模与特性分析
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王晗 , 朱丹
作者信息
  • 长安大学 西安 710064
  • 王晗(2002-),女,吉林白山人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为燃料电池发动机建模仿真与优化控制。Tel: 15584910107 E-mail:

通讯作者:


朱丹(1991-),女,安徽宿州人,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为氢能源动力系统状态估计与优化控制。Tel: 15002919527 E-mail:
Modeling and Performance Evaluation of the MH-PEM Hydrogen Power System for Vehicle Use
Han WANG , Dan ZHU
Affiliations
  • Chang'an University Xi'an 710064 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.07
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探讨了一种使用金属氢化物储氢罐和质子交换膜燃料电池的车载氢能源系统,旨在通过数学建模和工况测试评估氢能源系统内部的热量耦合效应。基于热交换系统结构和换热特性提出了氢能源系统多物理场模型,又基于增程式燃料电池物流车运行工况进行了数值模拟和试验验证。结果表明,所提出的数学模型能准确表征车载氢能源系统的动态特性,功率响应与温度动态变化具有显著的一致性。借助热交换系统提供热量补充,低温条件下固态储氢罐释氢速度加快,提高氢能源系统的动态响应速度和能源利用效率。研究结果可用于基于固态储氢与燃料电池耦合的氢能源系统最优尺寸设计、温度控制和能量管理策略设计。

车载氢能源系统  /  金属氢化物氢存储  /  质子交换膜燃料电池  /  换热系统  /  模型测试

The performance of the hydrogen power system is a critical factor in the design of fuel cell electric vehicles, as it includes the device's characteristics, control effectiveness, and energy management outcomes. This study investigated a typical hydrogen power system that uses a metal hydride (MH) hydrogen storage tank and a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. The aim was to evaluate the thermal coupling effects of the MHPEM hydrogen power system through mathematical modeling and realworld traffic testing. First, a multiphysical field coupling model of the MHPEM hydrogen power system was proposed based on the structure of the thermal exchange system. Then, numerical simulations and experiments were conducted based on the operating conditions of a rangeextended fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle. The results indicated that the proposed mathematical model can accurately characterize the dynamic features of the onboard hydrogen energy system. The comparison of simulation and experimental results showed great agreement, particularly in terms of power response and temperature dynamics. Further analysis of the influence of atmospheric temperature on the hydrogen supply flow was carried out by examining the temperature variation in the MH tank. The results show that the thermal coupling design is an effective method for improving energy efficiency. The results of this study may be used for optimal sizing, temperature control, and energy management strategy design of MHPEM hydrogen power systems.

hydrogen power system automobile application  /  metal hydride hydrogen storage  /  proton exchange membrane fuel cell  /  thermal exchange system  /  simulation model test
王晗, 朱丹. 基于固态储氢与燃料电池耦合的车载氢能源系统建模与特性分析. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (4) : 631 -641 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.07
Han WANG, Dan ZHU. Modeling and Performance Evaluation of the MH-PEM Hydrogen Power System for Vehicle Use[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (4) : 631 -641 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.07
近年来, 环境和能源等因素推动了替代燃料的深入研究, 新型清洁能源的发展成为全人类发展的迫切需求 [ 1 ] 。作为一种清洁且高效的能源载体,氢能为能源革命带来了希望, 在交通运输、能量储存、分布式发电等领域得到了广泛关注 [ 2 - 3 ] 。氢燃料电池是一种将氢作为能源的能量转换装置, 通过稳定的电化学过程将化学能转化为电能, 具有高能量利用效率和低污染物排放的特点。由于质子交换膜燃料电池 (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell, PEMFC)具有紧凑性强、功率密度高、启动时间短、工作温度低等优点, 被作为车辆动力源广泛应用于交通领域 [ 4 - 5 ] 。然而,受限于氢气密度低、易燃爆的特点, 车载储氢面临巨大挑战。在诸多储氢方法中, 基于金属氢化物 (Metal Hydride, MH) 吸附氢气的固态储氢方式在安全性和体积密度方面具有显著优势 [ 6 - 7 ] 。此外, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐可在常温、 常压下使用, 经由温度控制提供所需的氢气流量。 因此,由 PEMFC 和基于 MH 的固态储氢罐集成的车载氢能源系统具有能量密度高、空间占比小、耦合性强、安全性高等优点,引起了广泛关注。
由于 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐内的释氢反应和 PEMFC 的电化学反应均包含强烈的热交换过程, 热力学分析是评估车载氢能源系统性能的关键。MH 储氢材料的吸氢和释氢过程即为氢原子进出晶格的过程, 部分研究者通过试验测试和数值模拟研究该过程中的热质耦合状态, JEMNI 等 [ 8 ] 最早通过状态数据分析提出反应平衡压是反应过程的重要表征, 指出反应过程中平衡压与温度的相关性, 研究者们还通过建立动态模型描述释氢过程中瞬态热量传输情况;储氢罐的设计也对热交换过程至关重要, 通过向储氢材料中增加催化剂、对材料进行纳米尺寸化、改造罐内结构能降低反应活化能,提高反应速度 [ 9 ] ;此外, 通过外界热量传递进行温度控制, 能有效提高氢气释放流速 [ 10 ] 。上述分析为本研究提供了理论基础,然而对于车载应用的适用性研究不足。 PEMFC 的运行是一个产热过程, 约有 50% 的化学能被转化为热量释放 [ 11 ] 。然而, PEMFC运行温度低,对流散热量不足,热量堆积导致电堆温度升高, 将对交换膜等关键部件造成不可逆的损伤, 因此, 冷却系统设计与温度控制策略的制定至关重要。LISO等 ${}^{\lfloor {12}\rfloor }$ 采用水冷方式调节燃料电池温度, 使用反馈 PID 控制方法控制换热器功率, 通过调节冷却液温度确保燃料电池运行在最优温度范围内。 OU Kai 等 [ 13 ] 研究了风冷系统的控制效果,采用模糊控制器调整散热风扇的转速, 从而按需移走燃料电池产生的热量, 试验结果表明, 燃料电池能维持稳定的温度,工作效率提高近 10%。AWIN 等 [ 14 ] 提出采用金属泡沫作为流场热交换介质, 将燃料电池能量密度提高 9.9%,同时降低氢气消耗量。上述分析表明,通过换热介质、热管理策略等方法能实现 $\mathrm{{PEMFC}}$ 的温度控制,燃料冗余热量被直接耗散, 未能加以利用, 降低了整车的能量利用率。
结合上述分析可知, 由 MH 储氢装置与 PEMFC 构成的车载氢能源系统存在热-电-流多物理场耦合特性。氢气作为燃料电池的入口燃料,其温度、压力、流量等参数会极大地影响燃料电池的电流输出特性, 温度变化会改变燃料电池中氢气扩散层和催化剂层的模电导率和水分输送, 从而影响燃料电池性能; 适当提高反应气体的压力有助于提高燃料电池效率, 而当氢气流速较低时, 燃料电池处于饥饿状态, 除降低能源转换效率外还会导致质子交换膜老化 [ 15 ] 。相关研究表明,利用燃料电池余热调节储氢装置运行是提高能源效率的有效方法。对于固定应用, SIDDHARTHA 等 [ 16 ] 提出了一种小型风力混合系统。通过水冷系统将燃料电池和储氢罐结合起来,以减少散热器负荷。REZA等 [ 17 ] 通过调整风冷系统, 将燃料电池的余热以对流形式引入储氢罐表面, 提高氢气利用率, 同时有助于减小储氢罐尺寸需求, 然而受限于对流散热传导效率, 余热利用率不高。JÖRG 等 [ 18 ] 设计了连接高温 PEMFC 和 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的嵌入式冷却管,试验结果显示,传导的热量使储氢罐产生足够的氢气, 然而冷却管道带来不可避免的热量损失。LIU Zhixiang 等 [ 19 ] 直接将储氢材料嵌入燃料电池电堆, 并通过温度控制提高热量传输效率。然而,该设计造成燃料电池结构发生变化,其可靠性与动态性能有待进一步研究。
综合上述分析, 本研究提出一种温度联合控制模块, 将燃料电池产生的剩余热量转移至储氢罐, 该设计结构简单, 无需改变设备内部结构, 有助于实现 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐和 $\mathrm{{PEMFC}}$ 的协同热量管理与车载应用。本文针对一辆配备 ${1.1}\mathrm{\;{kW}}$ 燃料电池的串联式混合动力邮递车,设计了车载氢能源系统的热量管理系统。利用Matlab/Simulink进行了热力学建模和仿真, 分析影响车载氢能源系统动态性能的关键因素, 为 MH-PEM氢能源系统的设计与控制提供理论参考, 助力基于固态储氢与燃料电池耦合的车载氢能源系统的推广应用。
利用 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 罐储氢、PEMFC 为燃料电池发动机的车载MH-PEM氢能源系统结构, 如 图 1 所示, 其中固态储氢罐与燃料电池存在热量耦合。MH 储氢罐与 PEMFC 发动机经由供氢管路相连, 氢气经过压力调节与加湿后输入燃料电池电堆进行反应, 剩余氢气被扩散到空气中。对于空冷型 PEMFC 发动机,反应所需空气由风机提供,空气流量随风机转速的提高而增大, 从而影响电堆的功率输出。同时, PEMFC 电堆温度也由风机控制, 较大的空气流量将提高热对流强度,维持电堆所需温度。MH 储氢罐的温度由水循环、换热器、加热器控制, 其中, 换热器将风机传递的热量用于加热循环水, 从而调节 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐反应温度;当环境温度或剩余储氢量过低时, 启动加热器迅速提高循环水温度, 促进释氢反应的进行。上述换热部件, 包括风机、水循环、换热器等共同构成了车载氢能源系统的换热系统, 可通过控制命令调节系统温度、氢气供给速度和空气流量,从而影响动态响应性能。
PEMFC温度响应动态建模和MH储氢罐热力学行为分析是换热系统及热管理策略设计的基础, 建立 MH-PEM 氢能源系统的数学模型是描述储氢罐、燃料电池、换热系统动态响应和换热性能的有效方法。
为简化数学建模过程, 提高模型可用性, 作出以下假设:
1)氢能源系统中氢气被认为处于理想状态, 并符合理想气体定律;
2)温度分布均匀,建模过程中简化了燃料电池和储氢罐的温度分布细节;
3)在氢气生成过程中, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢材料的体积变化被忽略 [ 20 ]
4)在氢能源系统运行过程中, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢材料的孔隙率、热导率、渗透性和 PEMFC 的电导率等特性保持恒定;
5)储氢罐、燃料电池及换热系统中的设备保持高效运行, 性能老化和功能衰退被忽略。
在上述建模假设的基础上, 通过质量和能量守恒以及热量和功率的转化来评估基于MH-PEM的车载氢能源系统动态性能。
MH-PEM氢能源系统运行过程中, MH储氢罐中发生释氢反应, 经过压力与湿度调节后被输送至 PEMFC用于产生电流。储氢罐内的吸氢与释氢反应为可逆反应, 可表示为:
$ {\mathrm{{MH}}}_{x} + \Delta \mathrm{H} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{M} + \frac{x}{2}{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\text{。} $
式中: ${\mathrm{{MH}}}_{x}$ 为储氢后的金属氢化物; $\mathrm{M}$ 为储氢金属或合金; ${\mathrm{H}}_{2}$ 为氢气; $\Delta \mathrm{H}$ 为反应焓,吸氢反应释放热量而释氢反应需额外吸收热量。
当前,多种金属氢化物如 ${\mathrm{{LaNi}}}_{5}{\mathrm{H}}_{6}$${\mathrm{{MgH}}}_{2}$${\mathrm{{TiFeH}}}_{2}$ 等常被用作储氢材料,不同的储氢材料反应趋势相似,而反应效率不同。
在 PEMFC 电堆中, 通过阳极通道输入的氢气与阴极开放通道获取的氧气相结合, 再通过电化学反应输出电能、水和热量, 其总反应可表示为:
$ 2{\mathrm{H}}_{2} + {\mathrm{O}}_{2} = 2{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O} + \Delta {\mathrm{H}}_{\mathrm{{FC}} \odot } $
式中: $\Delta {\mathrm{H}}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}$ 为燃料电池堆中进行的电化学反应产生的冗余热量。
对于车载氢能源系统, 输送至 PEMFC 电堆的氢气流量根据负载需求功率进行控制。此外, 为避免气体杂质和水汽积累, 在氢气循环中定期进行净化,每隔 ${10}\mathrm{\;s}$ 进行氢气喷流吹扫,该部分氢气快速通过流道而不参与电化学反应。与高压储氢罐不同,从 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐释放的氢气流量主要受热管理的影响。因此, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的物理状态动态变化情况, 包括压力、温度等, 可作为对储氢罐应对 PEMFC氢气流量需求时动态响应的显著标志, 反应动力性、质量与能量转移模型可由质量守恒和热能平衡方程建立 [ 21 ]
在模型假设下, 理想气体方程被用作 MH 储氢罐中的状态方程,如式 (3) 所示。
$ P = {\rho }^{\mathrm{g}}R{T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}} \circ $
对于 PEMFC 电堆, 最佳运行温度取决于电堆输出功率, 本文研究的 MH-PEM 氢能源系统中燃料电池电堆的工作温度范围为 ${45} \sim {63}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$
$\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢材料中产生氢气的速度取决于释氢反应, 计算式为:
$ {m}_{\mathrm{{MH}}} = - {C}_{\mathrm{d}} \times \exp \left( {-\frac{{E}_{\mathrm{d}}}{R{T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}}}\right) \left( \frac{P - {P}_{\mathrm{{eq}}}}{{P}_{\mathrm{{eq}}}}\right) \left( {{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}^{\mathrm{s}} - {\rho }^{\mathrm{s}}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${C}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 为动力学常数; ${E}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 为脱氢反应的活化能; ${T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}$$\mathrm{{MH}}$ 材料的反应床温度; ${\rho }^{\mathrm{s}}$$\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢材料密度; ${\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}^{\mathrm{s}}$ 为储氢材料与氢原子完全结合时的密度; $P$ 为罐内压力; ${P}_{\mathrm{{eq}}}$ 为在特定温度下热力学平衡压力, 将主导氢气生成反应的方向和速度, 表示为:
$ {P}_{\mathrm{{eq}}} = \exp \left\{ {{P}_{0} \times \left\lbrack {a - \frac{b}{T} + \left( {\Phi - {\Phi }_{0}}\right) \times \tan \left( {{\alpha }_{1}\pi \left( {\frac{H}{{H}_{\max }} - }\right. }\right. }\right. }\right. \\ \left. {\left. {\left. {\alpha }_{2}\right) ) - \frac{\beta }{2}}\right) .}\right\} $
其中,氢气与 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢材料的比率关系如式 (6)所示,该比率范围为 0~1。
$ \frac{H}{{H}_{\max }} = \frac{{\rho }^{\mathrm{s}} - {\rho }_{0}^{\mathrm{s}}}{{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}^{\mathrm{s}} - {\rho }_{0}^{\mathrm{s}}}。 $
基于质量变化连续性, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 质量变化速率如式 (7)所示。
$ {\dot{m}}_{\mathrm{{MH}}} = \left( {1 - \varepsilon }\right) \frac{\partial {\rho }^{\mathrm{s}}}{\partial t}。 $
式中: $\varepsilon$ 为储罐结构的孔隙率。
根据质量守恒定律, 罐内气态氢的变化速率可以表示为:
$ {\dot{m}}_{\mathrm{{MH}}} = \varepsilon \frac{\partial {\rho }^{\mathrm{g}}}{\partial t} = {\dot{m}}_{\mathrm{{MH}}} - {f}_{\text{out } \circ } $
式中: ${f}_{\text{out }}$ 为从罐中释放的氢气流速。氢气被引入至 PEMFC并用于电化学反应, 根据燃料电池输出电流, 所需的氢气流量可表示为:
$ {f}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2},\mathrm{{FC}}} = {M}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}}\frac{{N}_{\text{cell }} \times {I}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}}{2F} \circ $
式中: ${M}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}}$ 为氢气摩尔质量; ${N}_{\text{cell }}$ 为电堆中燃料电池单体数量; ${I}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}$ 为燃料电池电堆的电流输出; $F$ 为法拉第常数。
如前文所述, 约 12% 的氢气用于吹扫而未被用于电流生成, 这不可避免地降低了氢能源系统的能源利用效率。此外, 根据封闭状态下燃料电池氢气利用率测试,设置氢气平均利用因子为 ${0.95}$[22],则 MH储氢罐氢气输出流速需求如式(10)所示。
$ {f}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2},\mathrm{{FC}}} = {f}_{\text{out }} \times {88}\% \times {0.95}\text{ 。 } $
作为一种电力发生装置, 单片 PEMFC 的输出电压由 4 个关键因素决定, 如式 (11) 所示。
$ {V}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} = {E}_{\text{nernst }} - {V}_{\text{act }} - {V}_{\text{ohmic }} - {V}_{\text{conc } \circ } $
式中: ${E}_{\text{nernst }}$ 为单个 PEMFC 开路电压,其大小受运行条件的影响, 包括运行温度、氢分压、氧分压和水分压等。开路电压可通过 Nernst 方程计算, 如式 (12)所示。
$ {E}_{\text{nernst }} = {E}_{0} + \frac{\Delta S}{2F}\left( {{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} - {T}_{0}}\right) + \frac{R{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}}{2F} \times \\ \ln \left( \frac{{P}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}} \times {P}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}}^{1/2}}{{P}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${E}_{0}$ 为理论电压; ${\Delta S}$ 是反应熵; ${T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}$ 为 PEMFC 的工作温度; ${P}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}}\text{、}{P}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}}$${P}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}}$ 分别为氢气、 氧气和水汽分压。
总反应中氢气氧化反应和氧气还原反应的动力学特性不平衡, 为克服活化能垒导致的电压损失称之为活化过电势 ${V}_{\text{act }}$ ,会导致 PEMFC 输出电压降低, 可表示为:
$ {V}_{\mathrm{{act}}} = \frac{R{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}}{2\alpha F} \times \ln \left( \frac{i}{{i}_{0}}\right) 。 $
式中: $i$ 为电流密度; ${i}_{0}$ 为交换电流密度。
欧姆过电压产生于电子和离子穿过电极和膜时受到的阻力,主要受到燃料电池活化面积的影响, 如式 (14) 所示。
$ {V}_{\text{ohmic }} = i \times {S}_{\text{cell }} \times {R}_{\text{ohmic } \circ } $
式中: ${V}_{\text{ohmic }}$ 为欧姆过电压; ${S}_{\text{cell }}$ 为有效活化面积; ${R}_{\text{ohmic }}$ 为欧姆电阻。
氢气与氧气浓度导致 PEMFC 输出电压下降, 可表示为 ${V}_{\text{conc }}$ ,与极限电流密度有关,浓度损耗仅在大电流密度下才会显著影响燃料电池的性能, 如式(15)所示。
$ {V}_{\text{conc }} = B \times {T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} \times \ln \left( {1 - \frac{i}{{i}_{\mathrm{L}}}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${i}_{\mathrm{L}}$ 为限制电流。
因此, PEMFC 输出功率可表示为:
$ {\text{Power}}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} = {N}_{\text{cell }} \times {V}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} \times i \times {S}_{\text{cell }}\text{。} $
图 1 所示, 换热系统由水箱、水泵、风机、 加热器和连接管等换热设备组成, 分别建立了这些辅助组件的动态模型。
将氢气和氧气结合反应所生成的总能量表示为 ${H}_{\text{reac }}$ ,而 $\mathrm{{PEMFC}}$ 电堆的输出功率为 ${\mathrm{{Power}}}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}$ ,其温度变化如式(17)所示 [ 23 ]
$ {m}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}{C}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} \times \frac{\mathrm{d}{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}}{\mathrm{d}t} = {H}_{\text{reac }} - {\text{ Power }}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} - {\dot{Q}}_{\text{rad }} - {\dot{Q}}_{\text{conv }}。 $
式中: ${m}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}$${C}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}$ 分别为 $\mathrm{{PEMFC}}$ 的质量和比热容; ${Q}_{\text{rad }}$ 为由温度差异引起的辐射热; ${\dot{Q}}_{\text{conv }}$ 为对流散热量。 ${H}_{\text{reac }}$ 可计算为:
$ {H}_{\text{reac }} = {f}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2},\mathrm{{FC}}}\left\lbrack {{h}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}} + {c}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}}\left( {{T}_{\mathrm{{amb}}} - {T}_{0}}\right) }\right\rbrack + {f}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2},\mathrm{{FC}}}\left\lbrack {{h}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}} + }\right. \\ \left. {{c}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}}\left( {{T}_{\mathrm{{amb}}} - {T}_{0}}\right) }\right\rbrack + {f}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O},\text{ gen }}\left\lbrack {{h}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}} + {c}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}}\left( {{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} - {T}_{0}}\right) }\right\rbrack 。 $
式中: ${h}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}}\text{、}{h}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}}\text{、}{h}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}}$${c}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}}\text{、}{c}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}}\text{、}{c}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}}$ 分别为氢、氧和水的质量比焓和比热容。
PEMFC 中参与电化学反应的氢气流速 ${f}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2},\mathrm{{FC}}}$ 可由式 (9) 计算, 与之类似, 氧气消耗和水生成流速可计算为:
$ {f}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2},\mathrm{{FC}}} = {M}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{2}}\frac{{N}_{\text{cell }} \times {I}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}}{4F} \circ $
$ {f}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O},\text{ gen }} = {M}_{{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}}\frac{{N}_{\text{cell }} \times {I}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}}{2F}。 $
对于本文研究的空冷型燃料电池, 冗余热量主要通过热辐射和热对流散失。其中,辐射热量的估算如式(21)所示 [ 24 ]
$ {\dot{Q}}_{\mathrm{{rad}}} = {c}_{1}{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}}^{4} - {c}_{2}{T}_{\mathrm{{amb}}}^{4} \circ $
对流散热包括自然散热和强制散热, 分别由 PEMFC 和环境之间的温差, 以及由风机驱动的强制空气流造成,其大小计算如式(22)所示。
$ {\dot{Q}}_{\text{conv }} = {k}_{\text{nat }}{S}_{\text{nat }}\left( {{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} - {T}_{\text{amb }}}\right) + {k}_{\text{forc }}{S}_{\text{forc }}\left( {{T}_{\mathrm{{FC}}} - {T}_{\text{amb }}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${k}_{\text{nat }}\text{、}{k}_{\text{forc }}$${S}_{\text{nat }}\text{、}{S}_{\text{forc }}$ 分别为自然对流和强制对流的传热系数和换热面积。由于强制对流是由风机驱动,传热系数与风机的占空比 $u\left( t\right)$ 有关,则可通过式 (23) 计算:
$ {k}_{\text{forc }} = {m}_{1}{u}^{2}\left( t\right) + {m}_{2}u\left( t\right) + {m}_{3} \circ $
式中: $u\left( t\right)$ 的范围为(0,1); 系数 ${m}_{1}\text{、}{m}_{2}$${m}_{3}$ 由试验确定, 具体数值见 表 1
基于能量平衡方程, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的物理特性可表示为:
$ \left( {\frac{{V}_{\text{tank }}}{{V}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}} - 1 + \varepsilon }\right) {C}_{\mathrm{{pg}}}\frac{\mathrm{d}\left( {{\rho }^{\mathrm{g}}{T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}}\right) }{\mathrm{d}t} + \\ \left( {1 - \varepsilon }\right) {C}_{\mathrm{{ps}}}\frac{\mathrm{d}\left( {{\rho }^{\mathrm{s}}{T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}}\right) }{\mathrm{d}t} = \dot{Q} + {\dot{m}}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}\Delta {H}_{ \circ } $
式中: ${C}_{\mathrm{{pg}}}$${C}_{\mathrm{{ps}}}$ 分别为气态氢和 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 材料中储氢的比热容; $\dot{Q}$$\mathrm{{MH}}$ 获得的总热量变化。结合建模假设, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐内的温度均匀分布,可用热传递系数 $A$ 表示热传递效应。因此, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢材料与循环水之间的热传递可表示为:
$ {\dot{Q}}_{t\mathrm{{ank}}} = \frac{{Q}_{\mathrm{w}}}{{\dot{m}}_{\mathrm{w}}}{c}_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{w}}\left( {{T}_{\mathrm{w},\mathrm{{in}}} - {T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}}\right) \left( {1 - {e}^{-A}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${m}_{w}$ 为循环水的流量; ${T}_{\mathrm{w},\mathrm{{in}}}$ 为入口处的水温; $A$ 为热传递系数。
经由 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐内热量转移后的出水温度可表示为:
$ {T}_{\mathrm{w},\text{ out }} = {T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}} + \left( {{T}_{\mathrm{w},\text{ in }} - {T}_{\mathrm{{MH}}}}\right) {e}^{-A} \circ $
为分析 MH-PEM 氢能源系统在运行过程中动态响应特性, 采用 Matlab/Simulink 进行数值仿真, 并利用实车试验进行测试。在假设理想情况下, 发动机参数见 表 1
此外, 在实际运行条件下评估了 MH-PEM 氢能源系统的动态性能,并使用 Mobypost 车辆 [ 25 ] 进行测试。 图 2 左上角所示为燃料电池混合动力邮政运输车, 其混合动力系统由 MH-PEM 氢能源系统和动力电池串联构成, 动力电池经由逆变器和电机驱动车辆运行, 其中, MH-PEM氢能源系统作为增程器在动力电池荷电状态 (State of Charge, SOC) 低时为其充电,该过程为恒定电流充电。 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐采用 $\mathrm{{Ti}} - \mathrm{{Fe}}$ 系储氢合金材料,该类储氢材料具有制备成本较低、室温下吸放氢速度较快、热导率大、稳定性强、使用寿命较长等特点被广泛研究。 燃料电池发动机为空冷型开式阴极 PEMFC 发动机, 由于其结构紧凑、控制简单、成本低,在小功率车载应用中具有广阔的前景。
依据 图 1 搭建 MH-PEM 氢能源系统测试台, 如 图 2 所示, 主要功能是进行状态监测和数据采集, 布置温度、流量、压力传感器等 [ 44 ] ,其中包括插入 PEMFC 电堆的接触式热电偶温度传感器, 放置在双极板间隙,而 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐表面均匀分布着温度传感器。此外, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的入口和出口处均安装了水温传感器。使用流量和压力传感器测量输出氢气的流量和压力。结合氢能源系统输出电流, 利用采集的温度、压力数据进行数学模型验证和发动机性能评估。
对于 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐,平衡压力决定了反应速度和热交换特性,在本研究中,对基于 $\mathrm{{TiFe}}$ 基储氢材料的 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐进行平衡压力特性测试。 图 3 比较了储氢罐压力-浓度-温度(PCT)仿真曲线和试验测试数据, 取得了较好的一致性。其中, PCT 特性试验数据由 图 2 的试验台测试获得, 通过控制温度取得相同温度下的压力数据, 而氢气浓度数据是通过 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐出口处测试的氢气流量计算得到。测试过程中 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的出口阀完全打开,氢气直接释放到大气环境中, 而在 MH-PEM 氢能源系统的运行过程中, 氢气流速需按照 PEMFC 反应需求进行控制。为了避免燃料电池出现氢气饥饿现象,储氢材料的释氢反应速度需高于储氢罐氢气输出速度。 如 图 3 所示, 平衡压力随温度提高而增加, 即提高温度有助于产生氢气,当罐内含氢量较低时,为 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐提供额外热量传递有助于氢气的进一步释放。
对于氢能源系统中的 PEMFC 电堆, 其输出电压和功率的模型仿真结果与试验测试数据对比情况, 如 图 4 所示。仿真中采用 表 1 所示参数, 运行温度为 ${56}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 并保持稳定,氢气纯度为 0.9999,氢气分压为 ${150}\mathrm{{kPa}}$ 。PEMFC电堆的输出特性测试是在启动过程中进行的动态试验, 在该过程中, 运行温度迅速提升以提高输出性能。因此, 启动阶段收集到的试验数据处于不同温度, 与仿真结果相比存在一定误差。
本研究的主要目标之一是通过数学模型评估经由换热系统耦合的MH-PEM氢能源系统动态性能, 并利用试验加以验证。同时, 利用 Mobypost 车辆运行数据验证在特定环境温度下的动态性能。尽管部分参数无法直接从试验中获取, 通过数学模型可解释氢能源系统中的热量传递过程和影响。如第 4 节所述, MH-PEM氢能源系统与动力电池串联构成混合动力系统,氢能源系统主要用于为动力电池充电来增加续驶里程, 因此, PEMFC 电堆输出功率需求为恒定值。
氢能源系统机数值仿真和试验测试结果对比, 如 图 5 所示。启动过程中通过 ${180}\mathrm{\;s}$ 响应时间,发动机输出电流从 $0\mathrm{\;A}$ 提升至 ${35.9}\mathrm{\;A}$ ,并保持相对稳定。 因此, 在这段时间内出现了较高的输出电压, 如 图5 $\mathrm{\;b}$ 所示,瞬时输出电压超过 ${40}\mathrm{\;V}$ 后, MH-PEM 氢能源系统可产生稳定的功率输出。值得注意的是, 在 MH-PEM 氢能源系统中, 电流输出响应时间不仅取决于 PEMFC 启动时间,还受到 MH 氢气罐释氢反应、响应速度的影响。
运行过程中 PEMFC 电堆温度与环境温度变化情况, 如 图 6 所示。空冷型燃料电池结构简单、输出功率较小, 启动过程中电堆温度的提升由反应电化学反应驱动, 与输出电流成正相关。同时, 风机增强了热辐射和热对流强度,并用于调节 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐温度。尽管 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐与 $\mathrm{{PEMFC}}$ 之间的换热系统设计有助于提高热量利用率, 但燃料电池产生的冗余热量无法完全用于释氢反应。由 图 6 b 可知, 燃料电池周围的环境受到电堆辐射散热及对流散热的影响, 温度逐步提升并逐步趋于稳定。
氢气流量变化情况, 如 图 7 所示。在 Mobypost 车辆的 MH-PEM 氢能源系统中,每 10 s 进行一次氢气吹扫净化,因此, $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐输出的瞬时流量是参与反应的 2 倍以上。在 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐中,当氢气压力和温度的平衡状态被打破时, 氢气生成反应启动。然而, 在初始阶段受到温度和压力的影响, 释氢反应未能即刻满足需求,响应时间约 ${120}\mathrm{s}$
$\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢系统的温度变化,如 图 8 所示。环境温度为 ${20}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$$\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的温度变化情况,如 图 8 a 所示。MH 储氢罐为密闭容器,温度传感器置于测试罐体表面,而建模过程中假设温度分布均匀,模型仿真结果代表罐内反应床温度, 即循环水管附近的储氢材料温度, 因此, 受到温度梯度下降的影响, 测试数据与该仿真数据偏差较大。在释氢反应起始阶段, 由于从循环水中传递的热量低于反应需求, 罐内反应材料温度迅速下降; 随着反应的进行, 循环水温度受到燃料电池传导热量的增加而提升,变化情况如 图 8 b 所示。
运行过程中的压力变化, 图9 a所示。压力传感器置于 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的出口处。在初始阶段,罐内的少量气态氢气迅速释放,罐内压力下降,从而打破压力平衡状态。此外, 储氢材料中较高的氢含量可驱动释氢反应的进行。由 图 9 a 中的压力变化情况可知, 随着储氢罐温度的升高, 释氢反应进一步加快, 罐内氢气压力逐渐提升。而随着氢气的释放, 罐内含氢量与储氢材料氢原子比降低, 释氢反应速度下降, 罐内气态氢气量与压力下降。因此, 较高的氢原子比和反应温度使可逆反应趋于释氢方向, 换热系统设计有利于提高释氢反应效率。从 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐释放的氢气质量,如 图9 b所示, 受到氢气吹扫设置的影响, 用于电化学反应的氢气利用率约为 84%。
车载应用中不同环境温度下换热系统的效果, 如 图 10 所示,对比了环境温度为 ${16}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$${30}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$$\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐温度变化情况。运行过程中 $\mathrm{{PEMFC}}$ 电堆的温度通过调整风机转速控制, 使其处于最佳发电状态。因此, 在环境温度较高时, 需从 PEMFC 电堆中强制对流移除的热量更高,使 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐获取更多热量。在控制氢气流速的前提下, 温度提高也有助于释氢反应的进行。
需要注意的是,较低的环境温度会降低 PEMFC 电堆的发电效率和 MH 储氢罐的氢气供应速度。所提出的模型仿真结果显示, 当大气温度高于 $- {10}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时,从 PEMFC 电堆传递的热量足以促进 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐内释氢反应的进行。如果未对 PEMFC 电堆余热加以利用,需配备其他加热装置提升 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的温度,从而维持 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐的输出氢气流速和氢气总供给能力。因此, 利用 PEMFC 电堆的冗余热量加热 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐是改善氢能源系统能源效率的有效方式, 减少了结构冗余, 促进车载 MH-PEM氢能源系统的推广应用。
本文以基于固态储氢与燃料电池耦合的车载氢能源系统为研究对象, 建立数学模型研究其动态性能, 通过试验和实车数据进行验证与分析, 得出以下结论。
1)针对基于 MH 储氢罐和空冷型 PEMFC 的车载氢能源系统设计的主动热交换模块, 能利用 PEMFC电堆的冗余热量加热 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐,在维持电堆温度的同时促进释氢反应的进行。
2)所建立的数学模型能模拟 MH-PEM 氢能源系统的运行过程,模型准确性通过对比 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐 PCT特性曲线和 PEMFC 极化特性曲线的仿真数据与试验数据验证, 具有较好的一致性。
3)在实车运行条件下,仿真模型与试验数据具有较好的一致性, 电压、电流、压力、温度和氢气流量的变化情况能准确反应车载氢能源系统的动态性能。不同环境温度对换热效率影响程度不同, 在环境温度高于 $- {10}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时,所提出的换热策略可以通过余热利用来提高氢能源系统效率, 且在保证氢气流量的基础上, 环境温度越高, MH 储氢罐温度的提升范围越大。
综上所述, 本研究中 MH-PEM 氢能源系统的数学建模和动态性能分析对于集中式氢能源系统设计具有重要意义, 同时, 为实际车载应用测试提供了热管理策略的可行性分析。未来将针对 $\mathrm{{MH}}$ 储氢罐与 PEMFC 老化状态来完善系统模型, 进行复杂的驾驶循环测试, 并提出相应的控制方法。
  • 国家自然科学基金青年项目(52202462)
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(SQ2021YFE0192900)
  • 中国博士后科学基金面上项目(2022M710484)
  • 陕西省自然科学基础研究计划项目(2022JQ-501)
  • 中央高校高新技术研究支持计划项目(300102224208)
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.07
  • 接收时间:2024-06-02
  • 首发时间:2025-07-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-06-02
  • 修回日期:2024-06-06
基金
国家自然科学基金青年项目(52202462)
国家重点研发计划项目(SQ2021YFE0192900)
中国博士后科学基金面上项目(2022M710484)
陕西省自然科学基础研究计划项目(2022JQ-501)
中央高校高新技术研究支持计划项目(300102224208)
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    长安大学 西安 710064

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朱丹(1991-),女,安徽宿州人,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为氢能源动力系统状态估计与优化控制。Tel: 15002919527 E-mail:
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
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