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In response to the challenges posed by the widespread adoption of fast charging in lithiumion battery health assessment, this study develops a stateofhealth estimation model for dynamic fastcharging scenarios. Twelve direct features are extracted from the partial voltage curve during the fast charging process, followed by a comprehensive analysis of degradation mechanisms strongly correlated with these features. Subsequently, feature selection is conducted based on degradation mechanisms and correlation analysis, and the radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) is deployed to establish the estimation model. The validation results indicate that the constructed data features exhibit excellent generalization across various battery degradation paths, improving accuracy by over 17% compared to traditional feature selection methods. Satisfactory estimation results are obtained even under different fast charging protocols and with a smaller training dataset.

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针对快速充电对锂离子电池健康状态评估所提出的挑战,构建了适用于多步快速充电场景的锂离子电池健康状态估计模型。先从锂离子电池快速充电电压曲线中提取了12个直接特征,并分析了与这些特征强相关的衰退机制。随后,基于衰退机理并通过相关性分析进行特征筛选,使用径向基函数神经网络建立了健康状态估计模型。验证结果表明,所构建数据特征在电池间衰退路径存在显著差异情况下依然具有良好的泛化能力,相比于传统特征筛选方法估计精度提升超过17%。即使在不同的快速充电协议以及较小训练数据规模下,仍取得了令人满意的估计结果。

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宋伟萍(1994-),女,陕西西安人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为新能源汽车能量管理与动力电池状态估计。Tel: 15229381191, E-mail:

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宋伟萍(1994-),女,陕西西安人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为新能源汽车能量管理与动力电池状态估计。Tel: 15229381191, E-mail:

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(in Chinese), articleTitle=The Number of Motor Vehicles in China Reached 435 Million, and the Number of Drivers Reached 523 Million. The Number of New Energy Vehicles Exceeded 20 Million, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1153801997313626780, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153797767118967048, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2022, volume=44, issue=2, pageStart=194, pageEnd=206, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[3], rfOrder=3, authorNames=张志刚, 张涛, 汤爱华, journalName=西南大学学报(自然科学版), refType=null, unstructuredReference=张志刚, 张涛, 汤爱华, 等. 车用锂电池健康状态下快充方法研究综述[J]. 西南大学学报(自然科学版), 2022,44(2):194-206., articleTitle=车用锂电池健康状态下快充方法研究综述, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1153801997384929950, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153797767118967048, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2022, volume=44, issue=2, pageStart=194, pageEnd=206, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[3], rfOrder=4, authorNames=ZHANG Zhigang, ZHANG Tao, TANG Aihua, journalName=Journal of Southwest University (Natural Science Edition), refType=null, unstructuredReference=ZHANG Zhigang, ZHANG Tao, TANG Aihua, et al. 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电池规格 详细信息
额定容量/Ah 1.1
额定电压/V 3.3
测试温度 $/{}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 30
充电上截止电压/V 3.6
充电下截止电压/V 2.0
充电协议 6 步恒流快充,持续时间 ${10}\mathrm{\;{min}}$
放电协议 恒流放电 (4C)
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电池规格 详细信息
额定容量/Ah 1.1
额定电压/V 3.3
测试温度 $/{}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 30
充电上截止电压/V 3.6
充电下截止电压/V 2.0
充电协议 6 步恒流快充,持续时间 ${10}\mathrm{\;{min}}$
放电协议 恒流放电 (4C)
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单体电池序号 详细信息
充电倍率 初始电压/V 初始容量/Ah
No. 0 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.115 1.04
No. 10 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.076 1.06
No. 11 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.084 1.06
No. 21 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.096 1.05
No. 1 ${3.6} - {6.0} - {5.6} - {4.755}$ 2.098 1.05
No. 3 ${3.6} - {6.0} - {5.6} - {4.755}$ 2.098 1.05
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单体电池序号 详细信息
充电倍率 初始电压/V 初始容量/Ah
No. 0 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.115 1.04
No. 10 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.076 1.06
No. 11 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.084 1.06
No. 21 ${4.8} - {5.2} - {5.2} - {4.16}$ 2.096 1.05
No. 1 ${3.6} - {6.0} - {5.6} - {4.755}$ 2.098 1.05
No. 3 ${3.6} - {6.0} - {5.6} - {4.755}$ 2.098 1.05
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特征 GPR PCC 特征 GRA PCC
${P1}$ 0.770 2 -0.9753 dU1 0.794 1 -0.7667
${P2}$ 0.754 2 -0.9893 dU2 0.7543 -0.5252
${P3}$ 0.683 4 $- {0.865}\;1$ dU3 0.912 1 0.884 0
${V1}$ 0.7698 -0.9843 ${K1}$ 0.771 9 0.062 0
${V2}$ 0.7638 -0.994 1 ${K2}$ 0.841 9 0.175 6
${V3}$ 0.740 9 -0.972 9 ${K3}$ 0.848 0 0.723 5
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特征 GPR PCC 特征 GRA PCC
${P1}$ 0.770 2 -0.9753 dU1 0.794 1 -0.7667
${P2}$ 0.754 2 -0.9893 dU2 0.7543 -0.5252
${P3}$ 0.683 4 $- {0.865}\;1$ dU3 0.912 1 0.884 0
${V1}$ 0.7698 -0.9843 ${K1}$ 0.771 9 0.062 0
${V2}$ 0.7638 -0.994 1 ${K2}$ 0.841 9 0.175 6
${V3}$ 0.740 9 -0.972 9 ${K3}$ 0.848 0 0.723 5
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性能指标
MaxAE/% MAE/% RMSE/%
${x}_{\text{All }}$ No. 0 4.49 1.84 2.00
No. 10 7.81 0.67 1.17
No. 11 1.86 0.38 0.53
No. 21 2.29 0.41 0.68
平均值 4.11 0.91 1.20
${x}_{\text{Fused }}$ No. 0 3.84 1.72 1.90
No. 10 5.59 0.91 1.21
No. 11 1.71 0.27 0.38
No. 21 2.49 0.44 0.67
平均值 3.41 0.84 1.04
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性能指标
MaxAE/% MAE/% RMSE/%
${x}_{\text{All }}$ No. 0 4.49 1.84 2.00
No. 10 7.81 0.67 1.17
No. 11 1.86 0.38 0.53
No. 21 2.29 0.41 0.68
平均值 4.11 0.91 1.20
${x}_{\text{Fused }}$ No. 0 3.84 1.72 1.90
No. 10 5.59 0.91 1.21
No. 11 1.71 0.27 0.38
No. 21 2.49 0.44 0.67
平均值 3.41 0.84 1.04
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机器学习算法数据特征 性能指标
MaxAE/% MAE/% RMSE/%
GPR ${x}_{\text{All }}$ 3.84 0.83 1.00
${x}_{\text{Fused }}$ 3.28 0.75 0.92
RFR ${x}_{\text{All }}$ 4.41 0.69 0.84
${x}_{\text{Fused }}$ 3.62 0.58 0.74
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机器学习算法数据特征 性能指标
MaxAE/% MAE/% RMSE/%
GPR ${x}_{\text{All }}$ 3.84 0.83 1.00
${x}_{\text{Fused }}$ 3.28 0.75 0.92
RFR ${x}_{\text{All }}$ 4.41 0.69 0.84
${x}_{\text{Fused }}$ 3.62 0.58 0.74
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面向多步快速充电场景的锂离子电池健康状况估计
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宋伟萍 1 , 刘丹 1 , 李耀华 2 , 冯乾隆 3
汽车工程学报 | 绿色低碳技术专栏 2024,14(6): 1048-1060
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汽车工程学报 | 绿色低碳技术专栏 2024, 14(6): 1048-1060
面向多步快速充电场景的锂离子电池健康状况估计
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宋伟萍1 , 刘丹1, 李耀华2, 冯乾隆3
作者信息
  • 1 陕西国防工业职业技术学院 汽车工程学院 西安 710300
  • 2 长安大学 汽车学院 西安 710064
  • 3 中国汽车技术研究中心有限公司 天津 300300
  • 宋伟萍(1994-),女,陕西西安人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为新能源汽车能量管理与动力电池状态估计。Tel: 15229381191, E-mail:

Health State Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Multi-Step Fast Charging Scenarios
Weiping SONG1 , Dan LIU1, Yaohua LI2, Qianlong FENG3
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Automobile Shaanxi Institute of Technology Xi'an 710300 China
  • 2 School of Automobile Chang'an University Xi'an 710064 China
  • 3 China Automotive Technology and Research Center Co., Ltd. Tianjin 300300 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.12
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针对快速充电对锂离子电池健康状态评估所提出的挑战,构建了适用于多步快速充电场景的锂离子电池健康状态估计模型。先从锂离子电池快速充电电压曲线中提取了12个直接特征,并分析了与这些特征强相关的衰退机制。随后,基于衰退机理并通过相关性分析进行特征筛选,使用径向基函数神经网络建立了健康状态估计模型。验证结果表明,所构建数据特征在电池间衰退路径存在显著差异情况下依然具有良好的泛化能力,相比于传统特征筛选方法估计精度提升超过17%。即使在不同的快速充电协议以及较小训练数据规模下,仍取得了令人满意的估计结果。

锂离子电池  /  健康状态  /  多步快充  /  特征筛选

In response to the challenges posed by the widespread adoption of fast charging in lithiumion battery health assessment, this study develops a stateofhealth estimation model for dynamic fastcharging scenarios. Twelve direct features are extracted from the partial voltage curve during the fast charging process, followed by a comprehensive analysis of degradation mechanisms strongly correlated with these features. Subsequently, feature selection is conducted based on degradation mechanisms and correlation analysis, and the radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) is deployed to establish the estimation model. The validation results indicate that the constructed data features exhibit excellent generalization across various battery degradation paths, improving accuracy by over 17% compared to traditional feature selection methods. Satisfactory estimation results are obtained even under different fast charging protocols and with a smaller training dataset.

lithium-ion battery  /  state of health  /  multi-step fast charging  /  feature selection
宋伟萍, 刘丹, 李耀华, 冯乾隆. 面向多步快速充电场景的锂离子电池健康状况估计. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (6) : 1048 -1060 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.12
Weiping SONG, Dan LIU, Yaohua LI, Qianlong FENG. Health State Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Multi-Step Fast Charging Scenarios[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (6) : 1048 -1060 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.12
锂离子电池 (Lithium-Ion Battery, LIB) 以其高能量和功率密度、低自放电和长寿命等特点, 在能量存储、电源供应和电动车辆等领域得到广泛应用。尽管近几年锂离子电池的成本迅速下降了80%[1],但我国新能源汽车的保有量仍仅占汽车总保有量的 $6\% {}^{\lbrack 2\rbrack }$ 。续航焦虑被认为是限制消费者购车意愿的主要原因之一。此外, 电动汽车的能量补充效率明显低于内燃发动机汽车 [ 3 ] ,这一客观因素也进一步抑制了消费者的购买意愿。因此, 快速充电技术逐渐被认为是推动电动汽车规模化应用的关键要素之一。为此, 国内外政府及企业已投入大量工作, 以提升快速充电站的数量和功率。随着基础设施的不断改善, 电动汽车的快速充电频率逐渐增加, 仅中国公共交通领域的平均月快速充电频率已经超过 75% [ 4 ]
然而, 现有研究表明, 在快速充电过程中, 高充电倍率可能会引发锂电镀 [ 5 ] ,将进一步加速电池老化过程, 甚至可能带来安全隐患。此外, 锂离子电池的复杂降解机制、实际运行中的强烈不确定性以及现有测量技术的局限性也对准确的健康评估提出了重大挑战。因此, 开发有效的健康特征提取方法, 从有限的可测数据中诊断电池健康, 将为防止过充、确保安全以及梯次利用提供有力支撑。
健康状态(State of Health, SOH)通常用于从电池的容量和阻抗定量上评估其老化水平 [ 6 ] 。然而, 直接测量容量和阻抗是具有挑战性且耗时的, 特别是在车辆运行期间。因此,探索和改进 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计手段是当前研究的热点之一。一般来说, $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计方法可以分为两类: 基于模型的方法和基于数据驱动的方法 [ 7 - 8 ] 。基于模型的方法依赖于基于物理的降解行为建模或经验模型来捕捉系统的衰退轨迹。基于物理的建模方法, 电化学模型[9-10](Electrochemical Model, EM) 和等效电路模型 [ 11 ] (Equivalent Circuit Model, ECM) 是两种常用的电池模型。电化学模型包含一系列复杂、相互耦合的偏微分方程 [ 12 ] ,可以反映电位和电压的变化过程, 并描述电池内部的反应过程。然而, 由于其建模复杂性和计算强度较高, 在实际应用中难以实现, 因此, 一些研究者专注于提高其计算效率并使其适应在线应用 [ 13 ] 。相比之下, ECM由产生与电池相同电行为的电路元件组成, 比电化学模型更简洁。然而, ECM缺乏物理意义, 忽略电池内部微观反应, 因此无法描绘电池老化过程中的详细信息。此外, 已有研究通常会将自适应滤波器与 ECM 结合进行参数更新 [ 14 ] 。与基于物理模型不同,经验模型忽略了电池的内部机制,是通过分析 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ (如容量或内阻)与电池特性之间的映射关系建立的。然而, 从历史数据中获得的这些相关性对电池老化状态和工作条件的变化敏感。因此, 经验模型经常与滤波算法结合,以使用最新的可用数据更新模型参数 [ 15 - 16 ] 。然而,基于模型的方法需要大量历史数据, 而这些数据对试验设备和场景提出了严格的要求, 这在实际操作中难以实现。此外, 由于模型设计用于特定系统, 其有限的泛化能力进一步限制了该方法的应用。
数据驱动方法利用历史监测数据来预测电池的退化趋势, 而无需精确了解其机制和传播规则。与基于物理的模型相比, 数据驱动方法仅基于训练数据建立数学模型, 避免了复杂的建模过程。此外, 数据驱动模型在应用于不同系统时更加灵活, 因为只需重新校准参数。国内外研究者对这一领域十分关注, 径向基函数神经网络 (Radial Basis Function Neural Network, RBFNN) [ 17 ] 、高斯过程回归 (Gaussian Process Regression, GPR) [ 18 ] 、长短时记忆网络 (Long Short-Term Memory, LSTM) [ 19 ] 等模型被广泛应用。
除了改进机器学习技术外, 所选的数据特征也显著影响 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估算的效率和准确性。为了全面评估不同特征在 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估算中的性能, JIANG Bo 等 [ 20 ] 进行了一项系统的比较研究, 分别从宽带 EIS 特征、模型参数特征和固定频率阻抗特征中提取了特征。结果表明,固定频率阻抗特征在 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估算中表现出色。然而, 由于成本和空间的限制, 目前在电动汽车中安装能测量 EIS 数据或其他特定信号的新型传感器是有挑战的。相比之下,电压和电流作为基本的且能直接测量的数据, 更适用于生成用于健康预测的特征。例如, 基于曲线的方法, 如增量容量分析(Incremental Capacity Analysis, ICA)、 微分电压分析(Differential Voltage Analysis, DVA) 和微分热伏安法(Differential Thermal Voltammetry, DTV), 从电压和温度数据生成的曲线中提取特征, 在 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 预测方面表现出色。值得注意的是,上述方法都是在恒定电流和恒定电压(Constant Current Constant Voltage, CC-CV) 充电模式下进行的, 并且具有特定的充电速率和温度要求。这些不可避免的情况直接限制了它们在多步快速充电条件下的应用。为解决上述限制, HU Xiaosong 等 [ 21 ] 从充电曲线中提取了 12 个特征, 然后建立了一个双层 GPR模型, 以预测电池组在特定多步充电过程中的 SOH 和剩余寿命 (Remaining Useful Life, RUL)。 然而, 并非所有特征都与预测准确性有很强的相关性, 而更高维度的输入数据意味着更重的计算负担,这也对现有的电池管理系统(Battery Management System, BMS) 提出了新的挑战。
综上所述, 尽管国内外学者在动力电池 SOH 评估方面开展了大量研究, 但大多仍是基于 CC-CV 策略设计的, 或对测量技术和操作环境有额外要求。相比之下, 相对较少的研究关注了在快速充电条件下的 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 评估研究,特别是在仅有电压、电流数据可用的情况下。此外, 由于电池管理系统 (BMS) 中的充电安全策略, 多步快速充电过程中每个步骤的电流会受到充电条件的显著影响, 例如电池老化状态、温度和电网实时负载状态。因此, 提取和构建适用于各种快速充电场景的数据特征对于电池健康评估至关重要, 并有助于推动快速充电技术在电动汽车领域的进一步普及。为填补这一研究空白, 本文整合了衰退机制分析和数据驱动技术进行特征筛选,并进一步分析了所构建特征在 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估算中的性能, 为后续实车运行工况下的特征有效筛选提供了理论依据。
本研究的主要贡献如下:
1)基于从快速充电过程中推导出的 12 个高度相关的直接特征, 系统分析了每个特征背后的主要衰退模式;
2)融合衰退机理与相关性分析构建数据特征, 并基于RBFNN 构建了一个数据驱动模型以实现 SOH估计;
3)进行了在不同预测模型、快速充电协议及训练数据规模下的 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计对比分析,验证了所构建的数据特征的普适性和有效性。
为研究锂离子电池在快速充电协议下的衰退特性,本研究采用了MIT-Stanford电池数据集 [ 22 - 23 ] 。 该数据集已被国内外研究者广泛应用于电池健康评估和电池老化模式识别的深入研究中 [ 24 - 25 ] 。数据集包含了 169 个商业磷酸铁锂(LFP)电池的循环老化测试结果, 电池及测试详细信息见 表 1 。该数据集所采用的多步快速充电协议的标准格式如 图1 $\mathrm{a}$ 所示, 完整的快速充电过程中的电压和电流曲线如 图1 $\mathrm{\;b}$ 所示。每个充电协议由 4 个恒定电流和 1 个恒流恒压充电工步组成。仅最后 1 个工步 (CC5-CV) 在所有充电协议中都相同, 每个充电工步分别覆盖 20% 的荷电状态(SOC)窗口。例如, CC1 的范围从 0% 到 20% SOC, CC2 的范围从 20% 到 40% SOC,依次类推。
下文从 3 种快速充电协议中选择了 6 个单体电池, 并使用每个循环的实际放电容量来表征其衰退状态与循环次数的关系。不同充电协议下不同单体电池容量的衰退趋势如 图 2 所示。单体电池 No. 0、 No. 10、No. 11 和 No. 21 特别采用相同的充电协议, 将在后续的特征提取、筛选和模型构建中使用。单体电池 No. 1 和 No. 3 则在不同的充电协议下进行循环测试, 将用于验证构建的数据特征的稳健性。这些单体电池的详细充电协议和参数见 表 2 。在本研究中, 最大放电容量与初始容量的比值被定义为 SOH, 表示为:
$ {\mathrm{{SOH}}}_{i} = \frac{{C}_{i}}{{C}_{0}}\text{。} $
式中: ${\mathrm{{SOH}}}_{i}$ 为第 $i$ 个循环时的实际健康状态值; ${C}_{i}$ 为第 $i$ 个循环时的最大放电容量,单位 $\mathrm{{Ah}};{C}_{0}$ 为该单体电池的初始额定容量,单位 $\mathrm{{Ah}}$
本节首先从部分快速充电曲线中提取特征, 并进一步分析由这些特征表征的电池退化机制。随后, 融合机理分析与相关性分析结果进行特征的有效筛选。随后,详细描述了基于RBFNN的SOH预测模型, 并定义了用于评估相应估算性能的定量指标。
研究外部特征信号与内部降解机制之间的关联, 提取有用的特征对于在线 SOH 评估至关重要。 大量研究将锂离子电池的衰退模式归类为锂库存损失(LLI)、电极中活性阳极材料损失(LAM)和内阻增加 [ 26 ] 。这些衰退机制将直接导致容量下降和功率衰减, 进而反映在充电和放电过程中电压曲线的变化中。在此启发下, 本文从快速充电曲线中提取了与电池退化强相关的直接特征。 图 3 展示了不同充电协议下充电电压曲线随循环次数增加的演变趋势。值得注意的是, 受到上截止电压的限制, 第 4 充电阶段的特征在循环的后期消失。此外, CUI Dingsong 等 [ 27 ] 通过对典型区域的电动汽车运行数据统计分析发现, 当前阶段电动汽车的高频充电区间为 ${20}\% \sim {80}\% \mathrm{{SOC}}$ 。因此,为保证所提取特征在实际应用工况下的可行性, 本文着重考虑在前 3 个恒流充电阶段进行特征的提取。从部分电压曲线中获取的直接特征如 图 4 所示, 将在下文详细介绍。
在多步快速充电过程中,当 SOC 达到每一充电阶段的阈值(20%、40%、60%)时,电压达到该阶段的峰值。锂离子电池充电过程的本质是Li ${}^{ + }$ 从阴极迁移到阳极。在这个过程中, 随着锂含量的减少, 阴极电位增加, 而随着锂含量的增加, 阳极电位下降 [ 28 ] 。此外,随着循环次数的增加,固体电解质界面 (Solid Electrolyte Interface, SEI) 在石墨阳极表面的形成、电解液的分解和锂钝化会导致锂的不可逆消耗,使它们无法用于随后的充放电 [ 7 ] 。 因此, 在电池老化过程中, 当冲入相同的电荷时, 更多的Li ${}^{ + }$ 被迫从阴极分离,进一步扩大了阴极和阳极之间的电位差, 导致峰值电压逐渐上升。如 图5 $\mathrm{a} \sim \mathrm{c}$ 所示,前 3 步的峰值电压 $\left( {{P1}\text{、}{P2}\text{、}{P3}}\right)$ 在循环过程中呈现出显著的单调性。相比之下, 第 2 步和第 3 步的峰值电压 $\left( {{P2}\text{、}{P3}}\right)$ 自第 900 次和第 787 次循环以来一直保持在 ${3.6}\mathrm{\;V}$ ,表明充电模式提前切换到恒压模式。
每当 SOC 增加 20%,充电电流将突然降至接近 0,并切换到下一充电阶段所需的数值 (如 图 1 b 所示),导致电池电压从峰值迅速下降到谷值。类似地, 谷值电压反映了在特定 SOC 下阴极和阳极之间的电位差。因此, 这种差异会随着循环过程中 LLI 的加剧而不断增大。由 图 5 d~f可知,前 3 步的谷值电压随着循环次数的增加而增加, 表明每单位电压可存储的电荷量正在减少。此外, 谷值电压在循环后期上升更加迅速, 反映了循环后期电池退化加速的趋势。
每个充电步骤的峰值电压和谷值电压之间的降落是对切换点处充电电流突然变化的响应。许多研究已经证明, 随负载电流变化的电压降可以用于辨识内阻 [ 27 ] 。通常,在电池循环过程中电极和电解质材料的退化会直接导致内阻的增加。此外, SEI 的生长和不稳定性也会增加电阻。因此, 可以提取电流切换点处的电压降作为特征,计算式如式 (2) 所示。
$ \mathrm{{dU}} = {U}_{i} - {U}_{i + 1}\text{。} $
式中: $\mathrm{{dU}}$ 表示电压降,单位 $\mathrm{V};{U}_{i}$${U}_{i + 1}$ 分别表示峰值电压和谷值电压,单位 $\mathrm{V}$
图5 $\mathrm{g} \sim \mathrm{i}$ 所示, $\mathrm{{dU}}1$$\mathrm{{dU}}2$ 在早期阶段相对不显著增加,然而在后期阶段迅速上升。相比之下, dU3 在早期阶段变化不明显, 但在后期下降更加显著, 呈现与 dU1 和 dU2 相反的趋势。出现这种现象的原因是随着循环次数的增加, ${P3}$ 上升到 ${3.6}\mathrm{\;V}$ 并保持不变 (如 图 5c 所示),但 ${V3}$ 随循环单调增加 (如 图 5f所示)并逐渐接近上截止电压。因此,在后期阶段, ${P3}$${V3}$ 之间的差异将减小到 0 。
由于锂离子电池老化过程中内阻的增加, 电压将更快地上升并更早地达到上限。因此, 在固定的采样间隔内, 随着电池老化, 电压增量将扩大, 这可以通过每个充电步骤中电压曲线的斜率来反映。 这里,斜率定义如式(3)所示。由 图 5j~1可知, ${K2}$${K3}$ 随着循环次数单调增加,而 ${K1}$ 变化相对不显著。此外,可以观察到 ${K2}$${K3}$ 在后期阶段突然下降到 0 ,这表明电压已经达到上限,充电模式已切换到恒压模式。
$ K = \frac{{U}_{i - 1} - {U}_{i - 6}}{5}\text{ 。 } $
式中: $K$ 表示充电曲线的斜率; ${U}_{i - 1}$${U}_{i - 6}$ 分别表示峰值电压之前 1 点和前 6 点的电压值, 单位 V。
基于上述提到的特征提取方法, 从部分充电曲线中提取了 4 类特征,且每一类特征都与动力电池的衰退模式存在直接关联。然而,许多研究表明, 特征的维度将直接影响模型预测所需的时间和计算资源。此外,并非所有特征都与 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 强相关,盲目选择特征可能会降低 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 的评估准确性。因此, 开展所提取特征与 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 之间的相关性分析是必要的。鉴于皮尔逊相关性分析 (Pearson Correlation Coefficient, PCC) 和灰色关联分析 (Grey Relational Analysis, GRA) 在动力电池健康状态评估研究中的出色表现,本文选用这两种方法对所提取特征与 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 间的相关关系进行量化表征。前者用于提供线性相关的方向和强度, 后者则提供定量测量的方法。PCC 和 GRA 的计算如式(4)和式(5)所示。
$ {\rho }_{{x}_{i}} = \frac{\mathop{\sum }\limits_{{i = 1}}^{n}\left( {{x}_{i} - \bar{x}}\right) \left( {{z}_{i} - \bar{z}}\right) }{\sqrt{\mathop{\sum }\limits_{{i = 1}}^{n}{\left( {x}_{i} - \bar{x}\right) }^{2}{\left( z - \bar{z}\right) }^{2}}}。 $
式中: $n$ 表示样本容量; $x\text{、}z$ 表示两个待计算变量 (指各健康特征一起电池单体容量); $\bar{x}$$\bar{z}$ 则分别表示 $x$$z$ 的均值。
$ \left\{ {\begin{array}{l} {\xi }_{i}\left( k\right) = \frac{\mathop{\min }\limits_{i}\mathop{\max }\limits_{k}\left| {z\left( k\right) - {x}_{i}\left( k\right) }\right| + \rho \mathop{\min }\limits_{i}\mathop{\max }\limits_{k}\left| {z\left( k\right) - {x}_{i}\left( k\right) }\right| }{\left| {z\left( k\right) - {x}_{i}\left( k\right) }\right| + \rho \mathop{\min }\limits_{i}\mathop{\max }\limits_{k}\left| {z\left( k\right) - {x}_{i}\left( k\right) }\right| } \\ {r}_{i} = \frac{1}{n}\mathop{\sum }\limits_{{k = 1}}^{n}{\xi }_{i}\left( k\right) \end{array}。}\right. $
式中: ${\xi }_{i}\left( k\right)$ 为第 $i$ 个特征在 $k$ 时刻的灰色关联系数。
以单体电池 No.11 为例, 所提取的 12 个特征与 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 之间的关联度见 表 3 。通常,关联度值越接近 1, 说明关联程度越高。可以看到, 大多数特征均与动力电池 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 间存在显著相关性。其中,在与 LLI 有较强关联的 ${Pi}$${Vi}$ 特征中, ${Vi}$ 特征的平均相关系数要高于 ${Pi}$ ,并且 ${Vi}$ 特征在循环后期并没有出现类似 ${P2}$${P3}$ 的平台期,能更加准确地表征 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 的演化趋势; 在与内阻变化有较强关联的 $\mathrm{{dU}}i$${Ki}$ 特征中, dU3 和 ${K3}$ 的相关性系数均明显高于同类的其他特征。基于以上结果, 同时考虑到锂电池的衰退过程是多种衰退模式共同作用的结果, 初步构建特征矩阵 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$ ,如式 (6) 所示。此外,本文同步构建了包含全部特征的特征矩阵 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\mathrm{{All}}}$ 以验证所筛选特征的有效性。
$ {\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }} = {\left\lbrack V1, V2, V3,\mathrm{\;{dU}}3, K3\right\rbrack }^{\mathrm{T}}, \\ {\mathbf{x}}_{\mathrm{{All}}} = \left\lbrack \begin{array}{l} {P1},{P2},{P3},{V1},{V2},{V3},\mathrm{{dU}}1, \\ \mathrm{{dU}}2,\mathrm{{dU}}3,{K1},{K2},{K3} \end{array}\right\rbrack 。 $
需要指出, 提取的特征和退化机制间的对应关系并非一定是一对一的, 它们之间的关系可能是多对多的。然而, 要全面考虑它们是困难的, 研究应更注重数据特征背后的主导退化机制, 这也有助于更合理地对特征进行分类。
本研究旨在实现快速充电应用场景下的动力电池 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 评估,因此,需要一种有效的机器学习方法。神经网络通常包括输入层、若干隐藏层和输出层。隐藏层的数量和节点数可以在特定情况下配置。相比之下, RBF网络通常由一个带有非线性激活函数的隐藏层和一个线性输出层构建。这种更加直接的结构使它们具有最佳逼近性质, 并且训练过程更加高效, 进而在电池健康评估中展现出令人满意的性能。RBF 网络结构如 图 6 所示。
输入节点包含选定的特征 $x$ ,而每个循环的 $\operatorname{SOH}\left( Y\right)$ 与输出节点相关联。输出节点收集来自 $M$ 个隐藏节点的非线性输出,每个隐藏节点由因子 ${w}_{j}$ 和偏置 ${w}_{0}$ 加权。此外,每个隐藏节点包含一个基本函数 $\phi$ ,它提供依赖于输入数据和原型向量之间距离的非线性激活,下文将其称为基本函数中心 ${x}_{\mathrm{c}}$图 6 中 RBF 网络的输出函数计算如式 7 所示。
$ Y = \mathop{\sum }\limits_{{j = 1}}^{M}{w}_{j}{\varphi }_{j}\begin{Vmatrix}{x - {x}_{\mathrm{c}}}\end{Vmatrix} + {w}_{0}。 $
本文选择式 (8) 所示的高斯函数, 因此式 (7)可以推导为:
$ {\varphi }_{j}\begin{Vmatrix}{x - {x}_{\mathrm{c}}}\end{Vmatrix} = \exp \left( \frac{-{\begin{Vmatrix}x - {x}_{\mathrm{c}}\end{Vmatrix}}^{2}}{2{\sigma }_{j}^{2}}\right) 。 $
$ Y = \mathop{\sum }\limits_{{j = 1}}^{M}{w}_{j}\exp \left( \frac{-{\begin{Vmatrix}x - {x}_{\mathrm{c}}\end{Vmatrix}}^{2}}{2{\sigma }_{j}^{2}}\right) + {w}_{0}\text{。} $
式中: $\sigma$ 为高斯函数的标准差,表示 RBF 核的宽度。
在模型的训练过程中, 需要迭代优化连接隐藏层和输出层的中心值 ${x}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 、偏置 ${w}_{0}$ 和权重 ${w}_{j}$ 。在本研究中, 采用梯度下降法来解决拟合问题, 并通过试错法设定学习率为 0.01 。此外, 隐藏神经元的数量 $M$ 通常由需要学习的关系的复杂性来确定。考虑到神经网络的泛化能力和效率, 隐藏神经元的数量在试错过程中经验性地设定为 100 。本文采用了最大绝对误差 (Maximum Absolute Error, MaxAE)、平均绝对误差(Mean Absolute Error, MAE)和均方根误差 (Root Mean Squared Error, RMSE) 来量化所构建特征矩阵在 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计中的表现。此外,为消除电池个体差异对估计结果的影响, 针对 2.2 节中所构建的两种特征矩阵, $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计过程将分别重复 4 次,即每一次将一个电池用于测试,其余电池将被用于模型训练。
在本节中, 首先定量分析了所构建的特征矩阵在电池 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计中的性能。然后,进一步验证所选数据特征在可变充电协议下的稳健性。
基于 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\mathrm{{All}}}$$\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计结果如 图 7 所示,单体电池 No.11 和 No.21 的估计精度更高,其 MaxAE 均低于 ${2.30}\%$ 。与此同时,单体电池 $\mathrm{{No}}{.0}$$\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计误差最大, RMSE 和 MAE 分别达到 2.00% 和 ${1.84}\%$ 。相比之下,基于 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$ 的所有单体电池的 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计结果更加精确地跟随真实 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 的演化轨迹,如 图 8 所示。具体而言,基于 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$ 进行的 SOH 估计案例中, 平均 MaxAE、RMSE 以及 MAE 分别达到了 3.41%、1.04% 和 0.84%。尽管 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$ 仅由 5 个特征构成,但其 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计性能明显优于 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\mathrm{{All}}}$ ,其中, MaxAE 和 RMSE 两项指标的提升分别超过了 17.00% 和 13.00%。两个估计案例的详细数据结果见 表 4 。此外, 在本节中进一步引入了高斯过程回归 (Gaussian Process Regression, GPR) 和随机森林回归(Random Forest Regression, RFR)算法,分别用于构建 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计模型,以验证所构建的特征矩阵在 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计中的普适性,具体结果见 表 5 。尽管不同估计示例之间存在一定的精度差异, 但均能满足目前工业应用的需求, 这也进一步印证了锂电池衰退是多种衰退模式的耦合作用结果。另外,基于不同 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计模型 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{All }}$ 的结果对比可知,本文所构建的数据特征 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$ 在多步快速充电场景下的 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计中具备显著的有效性和普适性, 其各项指标均优于 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\mathrm{{All}}}$ 。究其原因,并非输入数据的维度越高, 估算效果就越好。相反, 将不强相关的特征纳入输入数据可能会对 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 的估计产生负面影响。与此同时, 筛选有效的特征不仅可以提升 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 预测精度,还有助于降低电池管理系统的存储和计算负载。
章节 3.1 已经验证了在特定的多步快速充电协议下所构建的数据特征的可行性。然而, 在实际应用中, 每个充电步骤的电流将随着电网实时负载状态和BMS的充电保护策略而动态变化。因此, 在可变快速充电条件下验证所构建数据特征的鲁棒性对于后续的实际应用非常重要。具体而言, 本节以 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$ 为数据特征,分别基于单体电池 No. 1 和 No. 3 的循环测试数据进行 SOH 估计模型的训练与测试。 训练数据集的大小分别设置为 20%、40% 和 60%, 结果如 图 9 所示, 并将估计结果的 MaxAE、MAE 和 RMSE 总结在 表 6 中。从 图 9 可以观察到, 两个案例中的 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计值均准确地捕捉了真实值的衰退路径。从量化指标来看,两个估计案例的 MaxAE、MAE 和 RMSE 均小于 3.00%、0.40% 和 0.50%。此外, 可以观察到, 在两个估计案例中, 训练数据集的规模与估计精度间并没有呈现显著的正相关关系, 即在训练数据集的大小不超过 40% 时,不同充电策略下的 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计精度均达到了最优值。这也进一步表明, 本研究中所构建的数据特征和 $\mathrm{{SOH}}$ 估计模型在面对可变的快速充电协议时具有出色的稳健性和可靠性, 即使在较小的训练数据规模下也能取得令人满意的估计结果。
本文基于部分快速充电电压曲线, 提取了 12 个特征, 并根据相关性分析和衰退机制关联将这些特征进行分类与筛选。采用RBFNN构建SOH估计模型, 利用 MaxAE、MAE 和 RMSE 等指标来评估所构建数据特征的性能。验证结果表明, 所构建数据特征在电池间衰退路径存在显著差异情况下依然具有良好的泛化能力, 在所有性能指标上均表现出色,其 MaxAE、MAE 和 RMSE 分别为 3.41%、 ${0.84}\%$${1.04}\%$ 。此外,所构建的数据特征 ${\mathbf{x}}_{\text{Fused }}$ 即使在不同的快速充电协议以及较小训练数据规模下,均取得了令人满意的估计结果。考虑到常用锂离子电池中相近的衰退机制 [ 29 ] 、电流切换所带来电压变化在多步快充工况中的普遍存在, 以及电流切换点特征的优秀泛化能力 [ 21 ] ,所采用的数据特征也适用于其他的锂离子电池体系(如三元锂离子电池)和多步快速充电场景, 为在快速充电应用中选择和构建最佳数据特征提供了可靠的理论支撑。
  • 2022年陕西国防工业职业技术学院校本科研课题:基于西安市工况的混合动力汽车能量管理策略研究(Gfy22-54)
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.12
  • 接收时间:2024-02-20
  • 首发时间:2025-07-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-02-20
  • 修回日期:2024-04-13
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2022年陕西国防工业职业技术学院校本科研课题:基于西安市工况的混合动力汽车能量管理策略研究(Gfy22-54)
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    1 陕西国防工业职业技术学院 汽车工程学院 西安 710300
    2 长安大学 汽车学院 西安 710064
    3 中国汽车技术研究中心有限公司 天津 300300
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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