Article(id=1153797765499965696, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153797763918713083, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.2095-1469.2024.06.03, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1690646400000, receivedDateStr=2023-07-30, revisedDate=1695657600000, revisedDateStr=2023-09-26, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753016423821, onlineDateStr=2025-07-20, pubDate=null, pubDateStr=null, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753016423821, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753016423821, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753016423821, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1153797763918713083, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, year='2024', volume='14', issue='6', pageStart='921', pageEnd='1090', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=0, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1753016423444, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757481666824, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172526352126325142, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153797763918713083, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172526352130519447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153797763918713083, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=947, endPage=958, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1153797765973922050, articleId=1153797765499965696, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, language=EN, title=Trajectory Planning Based on an Improved Three-Element Obstacle Avoidance Model, columnId=1153797765281861886, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, columnName=Inteligent & Connected Technologies Section/Editor in Chief: GAO Zhenhai, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

A geometric obstacle avoidance model is proposed for traffic environments with dynamic obstacles, which can describe the relationship between vehicle and obstacle movements. By decomposing the spatial distance between the vehicle and the obstacle into two directional components and incorporating their relative speed, three key elements are obtained. Based on these elements, an improved obstacle avoidance model is developed. Using the Model Predictive Control (MPC) principle, the discrete vehicle kinematics model is employed as the predictive model. The objective function and constraints are constructed by adopting the Frenet coordinate system and considering factors such as road boundaries, the vehicle's mechanical structure, driving safety and comfort. Finally, a nonlinear programming problem is established and solved. In this paper, the SF5 is used as the experimental vehicle, with hardware and sensors installed to build an autonomous driving platform. A trajectory planning algorithm was deployed on a ROS and Matlab/Simulinkbased software platform for realworld vehicle testing. The results show that this method not only ensures smooth obstacle avoidance, but also produces a reasonable and comfortable driving path.

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针对有动态障碍物干扰的交通环境,提出一种能描述车辆自身与障碍物运动关系的几何避障模型。通过将自车与障碍物空间距离分解为两个方向的距离,并结合自车与障碍物的相对速度得到三元素,建立基于三元素的改进避障模型。以模型预测控制原理(MPC)为基础,将离散化的车辆运动学模型作为预测模型,结合Frenet坐标系综合考虑道路边界、车辆自身机械结构、车辆行驶安全与舒适性等因素构建目标函数以及约束,最终建立非线性规划问题并求解。以金康赛力斯SF5作为试验车辆,加装硬件及传感器,搭建自动驾驶软件平台。在ROS+Matlab/Simulink软件平台上,部署轨迹规划算法进行实车试验。结果表明,该方法不仅能顺利避开障碍物,且可获得合理、舒适的行驶轨迹。

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叶跃隆(1997-),男,四川德阳人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶。Tel: 18148124170 E-mail:
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刘长君(1997-),男,四川富顺人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶。Tel: 18123089338 E-mail:

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刘长君(1997-),男,四川富顺人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶。Tel: 18123089338 E-mail:

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名称 品牌 型号 数量
工控机 Intel Nuc11 1
激光雷达 速腾聚创 RS-LiDAR-32 2
摄像头 Point Grey CM3-U3-13Y3C 1
毫米波雷达 Continental ASR-430 3
GNSS Asensing Ins570D 1
CAN 创新科技 CANalyst-II 1
), ArticleFig(id=1153802025277051021, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153797765499965696, language=CN, label=表 1, caption=试验设备, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
名称 品牌 型号 数量
工控机 Intel Nuc11 1
激光雷达 速腾聚创 RS-LiDAR-32 2
摄像头 Point Grey CM3-U3-13Y3C 1
毫米波雷达 Continental ASR-430 3
GNSS Asensing Ins570D 1
CAN 创新科技 CANalyst-II 1
), ArticleFig(id=1153802025331576974, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153797765499965696, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数
预测步长 ${N}_{\mathrm{p}}$ 10
控制步长 ${N}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 6
采样时间 ${T}_{\mathrm{s}}/\mathrm{s}$ 0.1
), ArticleFig(id=1153802025386102927, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153797765499965696, language=CN, label=表 2, caption=试验参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数
预测步长 ${N}_{\mathrm{p}}$ 10
控制步长 ${N}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 6
采样时间 ${T}_{\mathrm{s}}/\mathrm{s}$ 0.1
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基于改进三元素避障模型的轨迹规划研究
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刘长君 1 , 叶跃隆 2 , 袁春 1
汽车工程学报 | 智能网联技术专栏/主编:高镇海 2024,14(6): 947-958
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汽车工程学报 | 智能网联技术专栏/主编:高镇海 2024, 14(6): 947-958
基于改进三元素避障模型的轨迹规划研究
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刘长君1 , 叶跃隆2 , 袁春1
作者信息
  • 1 重庆理工大学 汽车零部件先进制造技术教育部重点实验室 重庆 400054
  • 2 重庆理工大学 教育部机械检测工程中心 重庆 400054
  • 刘长君(1997-),男,四川富顺人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶。Tel: 18123089338 E-mail:

通讯作者:


叶跃隆(1997-),男,四川德阳人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶。Tel: 18148124170 E-mail:
Trajectory Planning Based on an Improved Three-Element Obstacle Avoidance Model
Changjun LIU1 , Yuelong YE2 , Chun YUAN1
Affiliations
  • 1 Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology of Auto Parts, Ministry of Education Chongqing University of Technology Chongqing 400054 China
  • 2 Engineering Center of Mechanical Testing, Ministry of Education Chongqing University of Technology Chongqing 400054 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1469.2024.06.03
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针对有动态障碍物干扰的交通环境,提出一种能描述车辆自身与障碍物运动关系的几何避障模型。通过将自车与障碍物空间距离分解为两个方向的距离,并结合自车与障碍物的相对速度得到三元素,建立基于三元素的改进避障模型。以模型预测控制原理(MPC)为基础,将离散化的车辆运动学模型作为预测模型,结合Frenet坐标系综合考虑道路边界、车辆自身机械结构、车辆行驶安全与舒适性等因素构建目标函数以及约束,最终建立非线性规划问题并求解。以金康赛力斯SF5作为试验车辆,加装硬件及传感器,搭建自动驾驶软件平台。在ROS+Matlab/Simulink软件平台上,部署轨迹规划算法进行实车试验。结果表明,该方法不仅能顺利避开障碍物,且可获得合理、舒适的行驶轨迹。

自动驾驶  /  模型预测控制  /  轨迹规划  /  联合仿真  /  实车试验

A geometric obstacle avoidance model is proposed for traffic environments with dynamic obstacles, which can describe the relationship between vehicle and obstacle movements. By decomposing the spatial distance between the vehicle and the obstacle into two directional components and incorporating their relative speed, three key elements are obtained. Based on these elements, an improved obstacle avoidance model is developed. Using the Model Predictive Control (MPC) principle, the discrete vehicle kinematics model is employed as the predictive model. The objective function and constraints are constructed by adopting the Frenet coordinate system and considering factors such as road boundaries, the vehicle's mechanical structure, driving safety and comfort. Finally, a nonlinear programming problem is established and solved. In this paper, the SF5 is used as the experimental vehicle, with hardware and sensors installed to build an autonomous driving platform. A trajectory planning algorithm was deployed on a ROS and Matlab/Simulinkbased software platform for realworld vehicle testing. The results show that this method not only ensures smooth obstacle avoidance, but also produces a reasonable and comfortable driving path.

autonomous driving  /  model predictive control  /  trajectory planning  /  co-simulation  /  real car experiment
刘长君, 叶跃隆, 袁春. 基于改进三元素避障模型的轨迹规划研究. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (6) : 947 -958 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1469.2024.06.03
Changjun LIU, Yuelong YE, Chun YUAN. Trajectory Planning Based on an Improved Three-Element Obstacle Avoidance Model[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (6) : 947 -958 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1469.2024.06.03
自动驾驶技术因能减少交通事故、提高车辆通行效率,而得到大力发展。轨迹规划作为自动驾驶技术的重要组成部分,与规划算法密切相关。自动驾驶的轨迹规划算法通常可分为两种方式, 第一种是解耦为 “路径+速度” 的方法, 先规划出无碰撞的安全路径, 再在路径上加上速度曲线。该方法可降低计算维度, 减少计算耗时, 满足实时性, 但解耦后的轨迹难以保证为最优解。另一种则是横纵向耦合的规划方法, 该方法可保证结果为最优解, 但整个算法计算难度大, 耗时长。目前常见的轨迹规划算法主要有图搜索法、随机采样法、曲线插值法、数值优化法等几种方法。图搜索法中最常见的是 Dijkstra 算法和 A*算法。Dijkstra 算法 [ 1 ] 是一种广度优先的全局搜索算法, 用于解决最短路径的规划问题。其虽能保证结果最优, 但是随着图面积的增大, 整个算法的计算量也会激增, 因而众多学者在此基础上进行算法改进。HART 等 [ 2 ] 在 20 世纪 60 年代提出 A*算法,在 Dijkstra 算法中加入启发式函数来引导搜索过程, 大大加快了搜索速度。 STENTZ [ 3 ] ${\mathrm{A}}^{ * }$ 算法的基础上进行改进,利用上次搜索的结果为起点, 提高了搜索效率。斯坦福大学将车辆的运动学加入到 A* 算法里,构成 hybird A[4],使最后轨迹平滑可执行。此外,还有 Field D*[5]、Theta*[6]和 Anytime D*(AD*)[7]等。随机采样法中,快速扩展随机 [ 8 ] (Rapidly-Exploring Random Tree, RRT)是最具代表性的一种算法。RRT 多用于结构化道路中的路径规划, 以当前点向前进行随机采样,连接可采样点构造路径 [ 9 ] 。但与 ${\mathrm{A}}^{ * }$ 相同,规划结果多为冲击性较大的路径 [ 10 ] , JEON 等 [ 11 ] 在此基础上提出了RRT*算法进行改进。 KUFFNER 等 [ 12 ] 提出了一种双向的 RRT 算法,在起点和终点各设置一个搜索树, 从两端相向搜索, 大大缩短了搜索时间。RONG Jikun 等 [ 13 ] 在 RRT*的基础上加入了参考路线, 来加强在结构化道路的规划能力。曲线插值法中, 直线与圆弧是最简单的曲线插值法, 现实生活中的所有路径点都可以通过直线与圆弧进行拟合表示 [ 14 ] ,张家旭等 [ 15 ] 使用圆弧与直线的方法应用于平行车位泊车中。该方法原理简单, 但在圆弧与直线的交点曲率通常不连续。 样条曲线也是一种常用的曲线插值法 [ 16 ] 。多项式曲线是轨迹规划中解耦规划非常重要的一种算法 [ 17 ] 。在横向规划中,一次多项式曲线能通过轨迹导数为一阶, 来保证位置连续; 三次多项式曲线能保证轨迹的导数都为二阶, 以保证航向连续; 五次多项式曲线能保证轨迹的导数为三阶, 来保证曲率连续 [ 18 - 20 ] 。CHU等 [ 21 ] 在横向上使用三次多项式来生成路径,再通过目标函数来进行选择。 SCHNELLE 等 [ 22 ] 也将三次多项式用在车辆结构化道路上的自动换道中。
针对有动态障碍物干扰环境, FAN Haoyang 等 [ 23 ] 、KONAR 等 [ 24 ] 为降低整个规划问题的求解难度, 使用质点的车辆模型, 虽能很好地进行求解, 但是忽略了车辆的外形, 导致低于碰撞的检测不够具体。LAI Dongcheng 等 [ 25 ] 提出了一种非线性有限时间速度障碍避障(Nonlinear Finite-Time Velocity Obstacle, NLFVO) 方法, 该方法考虑了障碍物速度、碰撞时间和运动学约束的变化。但是移动障碍物运动的不确定性导致其运动状态随时间而改变,所以计算的障碍物最小碰撞时间不准确。 YU Haiyang 等 [ 26 ] 采用改进的 Theta*与 B 样条曲线来生成轨迹, 在 Frenet 框架中对道路进行了简化, 先规划出避障轨迹再进行速度规划。该方法虽然满足实时性要求, 但规划的轨迹难以达到最优。 PAUCA 等 [ 27 ] 为了避开移动的障碍物,设计了 MPC 控制器分别对车辆横纵向进行控制。LI Bai 等 [ 28 ] 提出了一种在笛卡尔坐标系下的迭代计算框架来处理复杂约束的方法。虽然规避了一些 Frenet 坐标系的限制, 但是在处理道路约束时存在困难。 而本文所提出的方法可以将道路约束进行线性化, 提高轨迹问题的实时性。
此外, 传统的路径规划问题, 增加了时间维度的轨迹规划,计算难度大,通常将轨迹解耦为路径+速度的规划方法, 虽降低了求解的负担, 却导致求解结果不完备也非最优。考虑到以上问题, 本研究拟采用路径与速度同步规划的思路, 推导出一种能处理动态障碍物的轨迹规划方法, 并基于速度障碍法进行改进。推导出基于几何的单点三元素避障模型, 结合模型预测原理和离散运动学模型, 构建目标函数, 引入运动学模型等约束, 形成最优问题并求解, 最后通过仿真及实车试验进行算法验证。
意大利学者 Paolo Fiorini [ 29 ] 在 1998 年提出了一种 速 度 障 碍 法 (Velocity Obstacle Algorithms, VO), 用来处理移动机器人的动态障碍物避障问题。速度障碍法因其计算量小、实时性高且能处理多个带约束的动态障碍物的避障问题, 而被广泛用于无人机、水上无人船舶以及自动驾驶的规划算法中。
该方法原理是通过传感器得到移动机器人自身及周围环境中障碍物的位姿和速度信息, 连接移动机器人与障碍物并将自车外形膨胀到障碍物上, 以此形成一个碰撞区域, 通过移动机器人与障碍物的相对速度是否处于碰撞区域内来判断自车与障碍物是否会碰撞。该过程可以看作是将障碍物的速度转移到移动机器人上, 这样可将移动的障碍物当成静态障碍物处理, 整个规划问题就从复杂的动态避障问题转变为较简单的静态避障问题。
以单个障碍物为主, ${p}_{\mathrm{A}}$ 为机器人自身, ${p}_{\mathrm{B}}$ 为靠近自车的障碍物; ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{A}}$ 为移动机器人的速度; ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{B}}$ 为障碍物的速度; ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 为两者的相对速度,表示自车的速度减去障碍物的速度, 如式 (1) 所示。
$ {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{{AB}}} = {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{A}} - {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{B}} \circ $
对自车与障碍物的外形轮廓进行处理, 如 图 1 所示, 以一个圆形来表示, 以此来减少计算量, 在算法中将自车当成一个质点, 将其外形叠加到障碍物上, ${p}_{\mathrm{C}}$ 表示叠加外形后的障碍物。
${r}_{\mathrm{A}}$ 表示自车的外形半径, ${r}_{\mathrm{B}}$ 表示障碍物的外形半径, ${r}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 表示叠加到障碍物上的外形半径。
$ {r}_{\mathrm{C}} = {r}_{\mathrm{A}} + {r}_{\mathrm{B}} \circ $
从质点 $\mathrm{A}$ 引出两条射线 ${l}_{\mathrm{A}}\text{、}{l}_{\mathrm{B}}$ 切于障碍圆的两侧, CHAKRAVARTHY 等 [ 30 ] 称之为碰撞锥 (Collision Cone)。当自车与障碍物的相对速度矢量 ${V}_{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 在碰撞锥区域内时,则表明在未来的一段时间内车辆与障碍物有碰撞的风险,如式 (3) 所示。
$ \lambda \left( {{p}_{\mathrm{A}},{\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{{AB}}}}\right) \cap {p}_{\mathrm{C}} \neq \varnothing 。 $
式中: $\lambda \left( {{p}_{\mathrm{A}},{\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{{AB}}}}\right)$ 指以质心为原点,沿着相对速度 ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 方向的射线。
此时碰撞锥里可能会与障碍物碰撞的相对速度矢量组成了一个相对碰撞区域(Relative Collision Cone, RCC), RCC可用式(4)表达。
$ {R}_{\mathrm{{CC}}} = \left\{ {{\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{{AB}}} \mid \lambda \left( {{p}_{\mathrm{A}},{\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{{AB}}}}\right) \cap {p}_{\mathrm{C}} \neq \varnothing }\right\} 。 $
当相对速度矢量在相对碰撞区内时, 通过变换车辆的速度矢量, 使相对速度的矢量处于相对碰撞区域外, 以此来解决动态障碍物避障的问题。
在考虑多动态障碍物避障时,绝对碰撞区 (Absolute Collision Cone, ACC) 对于碰撞区域的描述更简单, 如 图 2 所示。
$\mathrm{{RCC}}$ 沿着障碍物的速度 ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{B}}$ 方向移动 $\begin{Vmatrix}{\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{B}}\end{Vmatrix}$ 的距离可得到 $\mathrm{{ACC}}$ ,观察自车的速度矢量 ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{A}}$ 的末端。 若位于 ACC 内, 则表明有与障碍物碰撞的风险; 若处于 $\mathrm{{ACC}}$ 外,则表明障碍物不会对当前的轨迹产生威胁。
基于速度障碍法的启发,袁春等 [ 31 ] 在此基础上进行改进, 将自身车辆和障碍物之间的距离考虑到算法里, 作为权重函数在有限栅格点内寻找到一条避障轨迹。本文对其进行改进, 在动态障碍物的情况下,提出一种改进三元素轨迹规划方法。
以单个动态障碍物为例, 在实际条件下将自车与障碍物之间的距离作为车辆安全行驶的一个判断条件, 对于自车与障碍物之间的距离详细分析, 如 图 3 所示。
在世界坐标系 ${XOY}$ 中, ${X}_{\mathrm{h}}\left( {x, y}\right)$ 为自车质心点的位置坐标; ${X}_{\mathrm{o}}\left( {{x}_{\mathrm{o}},{y}_{\mathrm{o}}}\right)$ 为一动态障碍物的位置坐标; $\overrightarrow{v}/{\overrightarrow{v}}_{0}$ 分别为自车与障碍物的速度; $\varphi /{\varphi }_{0}$ 分别为车辆与障碍物的航向角。将自车的速度叠加到动态障碍物上,得到两者的相对速度 ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 。连接自车与动态障碍物的质心点, 并沿着相对速度的方向延长连线,两者之间的夹角用 $\beta$ 表示。 ${p}_{\mathrm{{col}}}$ 为自车在合速度 ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 延长线方向的最近点,称为碰撞点。 $w$ 为自车质心到 ${p}_{\mathrm{{col}}}$ 的距离, $l$ 为障碍车质心与 ${p}_{\mathrm{{col}}}$ 的距离。
通过上述方法, 将自车的速度叠加到动态障碍上, 研究的问题转变为静态自车与动态障碍物之间的关系上。将车辆与障碍物之间的距离分解为 $w$$l$ 两个方向上的距离, 通过改变自车速度矢量的大小与方向, 继而改变相对速度矢量的大小与方向, 最终达到避障目的。本文将 $w\text{、}l\text{、}{\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 三个表征碰撞威胁度的变量称为三元素。
在速度分量上分析,对于相对速度 ${\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}} =$ $\left( {{v}_{\mathrm{c}x},{v}_{\mathrm{c}y}}\right)$ ,其具体公式为:
$ {v}_{\mathrm{c}x} = \left| \overrightarrow{v}\right| \cos \left( {\varphi - \pi }\right) + \left| {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{o}}\right| \cos {\varphi }_{\mathrm{o}}。 $
$ {v}_{\mathrm{c}y} = \left| \overrightarrow{v}\right| \sin \left( {\varphi - \pi }\right) + \left| {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{o}}\right| \sin {\varphi }_{\mathrm{o}}。 $
$ \left| {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}}\right| = \sqrt{{v}_{\mathrm{c}x}^{2} + {v}_{\mathrm{c}y}^{2}}\text{ 。 } $
自车质心与障碍物质心的欧式距离可表示为:
$ \left| {{X}_{\mathrm{o}}{X}_{\mathrm{h}}}\right| = \sqrt{{\left( x - {x}_{\mathrm{o}}\right) }^{2} + {\left( y - {y}_{\mathrm{o}}\right) }^{2}}\text{ 。 } $
由式 (5) $\sim$ (8)联合可得:
$ \beta = \arccos \left( \frac{\overrightarrow{{X}_{\mathrm{o}}{X}_{\mathrm{h}}} \cdot {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}}}{\left| \overrightarrow{{X}_{\mathrm{o}}{X}_{\mathrm{h}}}\right| \left| {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}}\right| }\right) 。 $
式中: $\overrightarrow{{X}_{\mathrm{o}}{X}_{\mathrm{h}}} = \left( {\left( {x - {x}_{\mathrm{o}}}\right) ,\left( {y - {y}_{\mathrm{o}}}\right) }\right)$
根据式 (8) $\sim \left( 9\right)$ 可得出三元素变量中 $w\text{、}l$ 为:
$ w = \left| \overrightarrow{{X}_{\mathrm{o}}{X}_{\mathrm{h}}}\right| \sin \beta , l = \left| \overrightarrow{{X}_{\mathrm{o}}{X}_{\mathrm{h}}}\right| \cos \beta $
得到三元素变量, 对 图 3 进行详细分析。整个避障算法的思路是将自车保持静止, 观测动态障碍物相对于自车的距离与移动方向上的速度大小, 从而进行避障函数的构建。结合现实生活, 为保证自车的安全,在 $w$ 方向与 $l$ 方向都应保持一定距离,在一定速度下, $w$ 方向与 $l$ 方向的安全距离关系如 图 4 所示,假设某工况下的车辆绝对安全距离为 $6\mathrm{\;m}$ , 则图中红色阴影区域表示自车有可能发生安全隐患的距离。
单独考虑距离的安全在动态障碍物的避障中是不够充分的, 在躲避动态障碍物时, 障碍物的速度是一个不可忽视的因素。在本文中,在 $l$ 方向上的相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$$l$ 决定了障碍物到达碰撞点的时间。 因而,将 $l$ 方向上的安全因素更改为速度和距离的函数,将 $\left| {\overrightarrow{v}}_{\mathrm{c}}\right|$ 简化为 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ ,设碰撞时间为 $9\mathrm{\;s}$ ,则距离 $w$$l/{v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 的关系如 图 5 所示。如果某时刻的 $w$$l/{v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 在阴影区内, 则动态障碍物与自车有发生碰撞的可能性。相反,则表明自车相对安全,暂无安全隐患。
根据上述内容, 本文提出基于三元素的动态避障数学模型为:
$ f\left( {w, l,{v}_{\mathrm{c}}}\right) = c\frac{l}{{v}_{\mathrm{c}}} + d - w。 $
式中: $c, d$ 为常数,可根据不同情况调整其具体参数。对式 (11) 进行具体分析,设 $f\left( {w, l,{v}_{\mathrm{c}}}\right) = 0$ , 当 $l/{v}_{\mathrm{c}} \rightarrow 0$ 时,表征车辆在 $l$ 方向上极易与障碍物发生碰撞。若 $d = 0$ ,即 $w \rightarrow 0$ ,表明此时车辆在 $w$ 方向上的安全距离非常小, 障碍物对于自车的威胁非常大。因此,参数 $d$ 的取值范围为 $\left( {0, + \infty }\right)$ 。随着 $l/{v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 的减小,表示车辆在 $l$ 方向上的碰撞时间缩短, 车辆发生碰撞的风险也随之增加,则时间因素 $l/{v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 与避障函数 $f\left( {w, l,{v}_{\mathrm{c}}}\right)$ 应为相反关系,为了增大避障函数的安全性,可得出 $c < 0$
式(11)表示在避障模型里,相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 和距离 $l$ 之间的影响较大,但距离 $w$ 和相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 之间缺乏相应的联系。然而,在实际情况下,当 $l \rightarrow 0$$w$ 取得一定值时,合成的相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 的值越大,自车的安全隐患也就越高。因此,在 $l \rightarrow 0$ 时,距离 $w$ 应与相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 也存在正相关关系,距离 $w$ 应随着相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 的增加而增加,以此来降低发生碰撞的风险,在此基础上,对原避障模型式(11)进行改进, 改进后的避障数学模型如式(12)所示。
$ {f}_{\mathrm{{imp}}}\left( {w, l,{v}_{\mathrm{c}}}\right) = c\frac{l + \left( {{\kappa w} + \gamma }\right) }{{v}_{\mathrm{c}}} + d - w。 $
式中: $\kappa /\gamma$ 为固定值的系数。
式(12)加了 ${\kappa w} + \gamma$ 这一项,表征相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 对距离 $w$ 的影响,也避免了当 $l \rightarrow 0$ 时,该式中分子为 0,导致相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 失去对避障模型的影响。
为了验证该避障模型的正确合理性,确定 $\kappa ,\gamma$ 的系数。这里选择一工况进行详细分析,当 ${f}_{\mathrm{{imp}}}\left( {w, l,{v}_{\mathrm{c}}}\right) = 0$$l \rightarrow 0$ 时,可得:
$ w = \frac{d{v}_{\mathrm{c}} + {cl} + {cy}}{{v}_{\mathrm{c}} - {c\kappa }}。 $
式 (13) 中,因 $l \rightarrow 0$ ,可约去该项,得到:
$ w = \frac{c\left( {{d\kappa } + \gamma }\right) }{{v}_{\mathrm{c}} - {c\kappa }} + {d}_{ \circ } $
由上文描述可知, $w$${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 两个元素呈递增关系,并由上文推导可知,常数 $c < 0, d > 0$ 。在式 (14)中,为了保证该式的存在有意义,需满足下列关系式:
$ \kappa > 0, \\ {v}_{\mathrm{c}} - {c\kappa } \neq 0, \\ {d\kappa } + \gamma > 0\text{。} $
$w$$l$ 的关系图像是在二、四象限的反比例函数, 如 图 6 所示。
此时 $w$${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 的单调性一致,解决了式 (11) 中距离 $w$ 对相对速度 ${v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 联系不敏感的问题。
$c, d,\kappa ,\gamma$ 的具体系数大小可由实际情况来调整, 确定好其值后, 自车的避障安全区域也确定好了, 可通过判断避障模型值的大小来确定自车是否安全。当值为正数时,即:
$ {f}_{\text{imp }}\left( {w, l,{v}_{\mathrm{c}}}\right) > 0\text{。} $
此时自车的安全隐患较高,需要调整自车状态, 来避免发生碰撞。
本节基于 MPC 原理, 建立离散运动学模型并引入约束,讨论车辆在道路行驶时,设计相应的权重函数来保证车辆能达到安全、舒适、可控等效果。最后设计目标函数, 构成非线性优化问题并进行求解。
本文采用简化的运动学模型, 状态量由车辆的坐标位置、航向角以及速度构成, 控制量优化为横向运动上的横摆角速度以及纵向运动上的纵向加速度。对运动学模型进行离散化,如式(17)所示。
$ {\chi }_{\mathrm{{kin}}}\left( {t + 1}\right) = {\mathbf{F}}_{\mathrm{{kin}}}\left( {{\chi }_{\mathrm{{kin}}}\left( t\right) }\right) + {\mathbf{G}}_{\mathrm{{kin}}}q\left( t\right) 。 $
式中: ${\mathbf{F}}_{\mathrm{{kin}}}\left( {{\chi }_{\mathrm{{kin}}}\left( t\right) }\right)$ 为状态矩阵,表达式为:
$ {\mathbf{F}}_{\text{kin }}\left( {{\chi }_{\text{kin }}\left( t\right) }\right) = \left\lbrack \begin{matrix} x\left( t\right) + \cos \left( {\varphi \left( t\right) }\right) \times v\left( t\right) \times {\Delta t} \\ y\left( t\right) + \sin \left( {\varphi \left( t\right) }\right) \times v\left( t\right) \times {\Delta t} \\ \varphi \left( t\right) \\ v\left( t\right) \end{matrix}\right\rbrack \circ $
${\mathbf{G}}_{\text{kin }}$ 为控制矩阵,表达式为:
$ {\mathbf{G}}_{\text{kin }} = \left\lbrack \begin{matrix} 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \\ {\Delta t} & 0 \\ 0 & {\Delta t} \end{matrix}\right\rbrack 。 $
将其联合, 得到改进后的车辆运动学模型:
$ \left\lbrack \begin{matrix} x\left( {t + 1}\right) \\ y\left( {t + 1}\right) \\ \varphi \left( {t + 1}\right) \\ v\left( {t + 1}\right) \end{matrix}\right\rbrack = \left\lbrack \begin{matrix} x\left( t\right) + \cos \left( {\varphi \left( t\right) }\right) \times v\left( t\right) \times {\Delta t} \\ y\left( t\right) + \sin \left( {\varphi \left( t\right) }\right) \times v\left( t\right) \times {\Delta t} \\ \varphi \left( t\right) + \omega \left( t\right) \times {\Delta t} \\ v\left( t\right) + a\left( t\right) \times {\Delta t} \end{matrix}\right\rbrack \circ $
式中: ${\left\lbrack x\left( t\right) y\left( t\right) \varphi \left( t\right) v\left( t\right) \right\rbrack }^{\mathrm{T}}$ 为模型的状态量; ${\left\lbrack \omega \left( t\right) a\left( t\right) \right\rbrack }^{\mathrm{T}}$ 为控制量。
为了在 $N$ 个障碍物中,得到一条最优避障轨迹, 需设计一个权重函数来判断:
$ {f}_{\text{obstacle }}\left( {t + k}\right) = \\ \mathop{\sum }\limits_{{i = 1}}^{N}\left\lbrack {{k}_{1}{\left( {w}_{i} - {w}_{m}\right) }^{2} + {k}_{2}{\left( {l}_{i} - {l}_{m}\right) }^{2} + {k}_{3}{\left( {v}_{\mathrm{c}}^{i} - {v}_{\mathrm{c}}^{m}\right) }^{2}}\right\rbrack $
式中: ${w}_{m} = \frac{\mathop{\sum }\limits_{{i = 1}}^{N}{w}_{i}}{N},{l}_{m} = \frac{\mathop{\sum }\limits_{{i = 1}}^{N}{l}_{i}}{N},{v}_{\mathrm{c}}^{m} = \frac{\mathop{\sum }\limits_{{i = 1}}^{N}{v}_{\mathrm{c}}^{i}}{N}$
为多个动态障碍物的三元素平均值; ${k}_{1}/{k}_{2}/{k}_{3}$ 分别为三元素 $w/l/{v}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 的权重系数。具体的权重值可根据不同工况进行调整, 权重值越大表示避障时对于该元素的考虑越重视。
为了使车辆能在预测时域内更快地达到期望的路径位置, 设计了路径最短的权重函数:
$ {f}_{\text{path }}\left( {t + k}\right) = {k}_{4} \times {\left\lbrack {X}_{\text{path }}\left( t + k + 1\right) - {X}_{\text{path }}\left( t + k\right) \right\rbrack }^{\mathrm{T}} \\ \times \left\lbrack {{X}_{\text{path }}\left( {t + k + 1}\right) - {X}_{\text{path }}\left( {t + k}\right) }\right\rbrack $
式中: ${k}_{4}$ 为最短路径的权重系数; ${X}_{\text{path }}\left( t\right)$ 为当前车辆的位置; ${X}_{\text{path }}\left( {t + {N}_{p}}\right)$ 为参考目标点。
对于横向偏移量的代价函数, 本文的设计为:
$ {f}_{\text{offsst }}\left( {t + k}\right) = {k}_{5} \times {\left( d\left( t + k\right) \right) }^{2}\text{。} $
式中: ${k}_{5}$ 为偏移量的权重系数值; $d$ 为 Frenet 坐标系中自车与参考线的横向距离。
在通过路径曲率较大的弯道时, 过大的速度会使车辆发生侧翻,影响乘员的安全。需适配道路曲率和车辆速度引入权重函数, 来保证车辆行驶的安全性, 具体如式(24)所示。
$ {f}_{\text{speed }}\left( {t + k}\right) = {k}_{6} \times \frac{v\left( {t + k}\right) }{{R}_{\text{road }}\left( {t + k}\right) }。 $
式中: ${R}_{\text{road }}\left( {t + k}\right)$$t + k$ 时刻参考路径的道路半径,其值越小表示当前时刻的道路弯道越 “急”; ${k}_{6}$ 为速度的权重函数。
加入横摆角速度变化率的权重函数, 来实现平顺的控制效果:
$ {f}_{\text{yaw_rate }}\left( {t + k}\right) = {k}_{7} \times {\left( \omega \left( t + k\right) - \omega \left( t + k - 1\right) \right) }^{2}。 $
式中: ${k}_{7}$ 为横摆角速度变化率的权重系数; $w\left( {t + k}\right)$$w\left( {t + k - 1}\right)$ 分别为当前时刻与上一时刻的横摆角速度。
纵向上的加速度也是一控制变量, 为了使控制变量输出得平滑, 对于加速度的变化率的权重函数设计为:
$ {f}_{\text{acceleration }}\left( {t + k}\right) = {k}_{8} \times {\left( a\left( t + k\right) - a\left( t + k - 1\right) \right) }^{2}。 $
式中: ${k}_{8}$ 为加速度变化率的权重系数。
综上所建的权重函数, 整合得到规划问题的目标函数。
结合车辆运动学模型、权重函数、约束条件, 构成了非线性规划问题:
$ \min \mathop{\sum }\limits_{{k = 1}}^{{N}_{\mathrm{p}}}\left\lbrack {{f}_{\text{obstacle }}\left( {t + k}\right) + {f}_{\text{path }}\left( {t + k}\right) + {f}_{\text{offest }}\left( {t + k}\right) }\right. \\ \left. {+{f}_{\text{speed }}\left( {t + k}\right) + {f}_{\text{yaw_rate }}\left( {t + k}\right) + {f}_{\text{acceleration }}\left( {t + k}\right) }\right\rbrack $
。(27)
$ \text{ s.t. }\left\lbrack \begin{array}{l} x\left( {t + k + 1}\right) \\ y\left( {t + k + 1}\right) \\ \varphi \left( {t + k + 1}\right) \\ v\left( {t + k + 1}\right) \end{array}\right\rbrack = \\ \left\lbrack \begin{matrix} x\left( {t + k}\right) + \cos \left( {\varphi \left( {t + k}\right) }\right) \times v\left( {t + k}\right) - {\Delta t} \\ y\left( {t + k}\right) + \sin \left( {\varphi \left( {t + k}\right) }\right) - v\left( {t + k}\right) - {\Delta t} \\ \varphi \left( {t + k}\right) + \omega \left( {t + k}\right) - {\Delta t} \\ v\left( {t + k}\right) + a\left( {t + k}\right) - {\Delta t} \end{matrix}\right\rbrack \circ \\ {q}_{\mathrm{{kin}}}\left( {t + k}\right) = {q}_{\mathrm{{kin}}}\left( {t + {N}_{\mathrm{u}} - 1}\right) , k = {N}_{\mathrm{c}},\cdots ,{N}_{\mathrm{p}}\text{。} $
$ 0\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s} < v\left( t\right) < {10}\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s}\text{。} $
$ - 1\mathrm{\;m}/{\mathrm{s}}^{2} < a\left( {t + k}\right) < 1\mathrm{\;m}/{\mathrm{s}}^{2}\text{。} $
$ {d}_{\min } + \frac{{w}_{l}}{2} < d\left( {t + k}\right) < {d}_{\max } - \frac{{w}_{l}}{2}。 $
$ \left\{ {\begin{array}{ll} \varpi > 0, & 0 \leq {\beta }_{i\left( j\right) } \leq \frac{\pi }{2} \\ \varpi < 0, & \frac{\pi }{2} < {\beta }_{i\left( j\right) } \leq \pi \end{array}。}\right. $
$ - {0.56}\mathrm{{rad}}/\mathrm{s} < \omega \left( {t + k}\right) < {0.56}\mathrm{{rad}}/\mathrm{s}\text{。} $
三元素变量式(7)、式(10)。
避障模型约束式(16)。
根据式 (27) $\sim$ (34) 可分析得到,经过离散化后的车辆运动学模型 (28), 通过模型预测控制原理 (Model Predictive Control, MPC), 预测未来自车状态;根据式 (33) 夹角判断条件,筛除对于自车没有碰撞威胁的障碍物,选取好障碍物。根据式 (7) 和式 (10) 判断, 得到相对应三元素参数, 再通过式 (16)判断当前对自车有安全隐患的障碍物做避障处理; 不等式约束式 (30) $\sim \left( {32}\right)$ 和式 (34) 用于对车辆自身结构、车辆安全行驶以及道路几何性进行约束, 最终通过式(27)进行最优化的计算。
式(27)~(34)为带约束的多参数非线性最优化问题, 本文使用 Yalmip 工具箱调用 IPOPT 求解器计算。
为了验证上述轨迹规划方法的正确性与合理性, 使用Matlab 搭建了仿真环境, 采用具有大曲率转角的 Uturn 路线, 考验整体规划算法的表现。整个环境布置如下:在起始位置(0,0)处,设置自动驾驶智能车,车辆以 $2\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s}$ 的初始速度沿着参考路线向终点运动, 此外, 设置一动态障碍物, 车长设为 $5\mathrm{\;m}$ ,以 $6\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s}$ 的速度从终点向起点运动。 图 7 为自车与障碍车的轨迹留存图, 整个运动过程为自车沿着期望路径行驶, 遇到障碍车后, 进行避障动作, 待离开危险区域后又重新回到参考路线上, 完成后续的轨迹跟随,整体的运动轨迹比较光滑、 平缓。
为便于观察车辆的各个状态值是否在约束范围内, 输出轨迹规划仿真的试验数据。 图 8 展现了车辆的前轮转角变化, 根据实车数据, 设置的前轮极限转角为 $\pm {15}^{ \circ }$ ,角度急剧变化处,表明此时车辆正在避障。 图 8~9虽然能在路径上表示整个避障过程, 但是单从路径规划上无法充分考虑动态障碍物的规划,可能存在速度规划中存在碰撞的现象。但如 图 10 所示,将自车与障碍车的 ST 图表示出来, 可以看到自车与障碍车没有交集,即表明在速度上的规划可行。 图 11 表示了车辆的加速度变化, 整体的变化比较合理,在约束范围以内。 图 12 记录了车辆的纵向速度变化。 图 13 为程序单步耗时, 算法的最高耗时为 ${28.8}\mathrm{\;{ms}}$ ,平均耗时为 ${19.6}\mathrm{\;{ms}}$ , 初步证明本文提出的算法能满足车辆的实时性要求。
自动驾驶系统的试验平台布置如 图 14 所示, 从模块作用上依次往下可分为感知模块、决策模块、规划模块、控制模块以及执行模块, 另设置人机交互的接口用来监督车辆状态。
要完成自动驾驶试验, 首先要搭建实车硬件平台, 本文中自动驾驶的硬件主要由底盘、激光雷达、毫米波雷达、摄像头、GNSS 以及工控机等组成, 见 表 1 。通过这些硬件设备对车辆自身状态以及周围环境检测,试验平台的实车如 图 15 所示。
通过上文所搭建的自动驾驶平台进行实车避障试验, 如 图 16 所示。试验场景设置在一车流量较小的开放道路上,整体采集路线为 $2\mathrm{\;{km}}$ ,考虑到试验为开放道路, 为确保安全, 只设置在其中一截直线道路,进行避障试验,如 图 17 ~18 所示。障碍物设置为单个动态障碍物。试验车从(0,0)处出发, 沿直线调头后进行避障试验。试验过程中的参数见 表 2
对于避障部分数据进行分析。车辆调头后以 ${6.5}\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s}$ 的初始速度开始加速移动,此时在车前 ${60}\mathrm{\;m}$ 处设置一障碍车,以 ${3.5}\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s}$ 的速度低速行驶。为便于分析观察, 将避障部分路径局部放大并调转得到 图 19 ,自车先是加速到预先设置的速度极限 ${9.2}\mathrm{\;m}/\mathrm{s}$ 后,保持该速度接近障碍物。通过激光雷达检测到障碍车,此时通过算法不断规划出后续的轨迹,并进行跟踪。速度上的规划可见 $\mathrm{{ST}}$ 图,如 图 20 所示, 整个过程中, 自车与障碍车无交集, 两者的最近距离为 ${12.3}\mathrm{\;m}$ ,表明整体避障区间充足。 图 21图 23 分别表示车辆方向盘转角与速度的变化,在第 ${10}\mathrm{\;s}$ 时进行了避障操作, 此时方向盘左打, 进入旁边车道, 且速度开始降低, 为了保证乘坐的舒适性, 对于加减速度在控制层进行了限制(车辆的加速度变化如 图 24 所示)。在 ${20}\mathrm{\;s}$ 后超过障碍车,开始右转方向盘,回到期望道路上。在 ${26}\mathrm{\;s}$ 后,又开始加速到极限速度, 完成后续的轨迹跟踪。 图 22 为车辆的航向角变化, 可以看到整体曲线比较平缓, 无突变等现象, 证明了该算法有一定的可行性。为保证安全以及试验的合理性, 在实车试验过程中, 限制了方向盘的变化率、加速度变化率等,车辆状态不存在剧烈变化的情况。
本文针对动态障碍物干扰下的交通场景, 研究了动态交通环境下的轨迹规划算法, 提出了一种能描述车辆自身与障碍物之间距离及速度关系的三元素避障改进模型。结合模型预测控制的原理,将车辆的运动学模型离散化, 并结合避障函数、安全舒适性指标以及相关约束, 构建了车辆轨迹规划的非线性规划问题并求解。仿真证明算法单步平均耗时为 ${19.6}\mathrm{\;{ms}}$ ,初步满足了实时性要求。搭建试验平台,进行实车试验。在 Simulink 软件上进行规划程序编写,并进行测试。最后,在试验车上加装传感器等硬件设备, 搭建自动驾驶平台, 建立了 ROS+ Matlab/Simulink 的混合软件平台,并在试验平台上进行轨迹规划及跟踪试验,验证了算法的可行性。
本文考虑了算法的复杂性和耗时, 采用简单的车辆模型验证了算法在实际应用中的可能性, 后续还需要更换车辆动力学模型进一步优化算法。针对多障碍物的场景, 本文提出的算法能否满足以及怎么满足轨迹规划安全舒适的要求是后期需深入研究的课题。
  • 重庆市技术创新与应用发展专项重点项目:L4级自动驾驶技术研发(cstc2019jscx-mbdx0052)
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2024年第14卷第6期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-1469.2024.06.03
  • 接收时间:2023-07-30
  • 首发时间:2025-07-20
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  • 收稿日期:2023-07-30
  • 修回日期:2023-09-26
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重庆市技术创新与应用发展专项重点项目:L4级自动驾驶技术研发(cstc2019jscx-mbdx0052)
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    1 重庆理工大学 汽车零部件先进制造技术教育部重点实验室 重庆 400054
    2 重庆理工大学 教育部机械检测工程中心 重庆 400054

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叶跃隆(1997-),男,四川德阳人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶。Tel: 18148124170 E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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