Article(id=1153797765462221327, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153797763918713083, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.02, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1709654400000, receivedDateStr=2024-03-06, revisedDate=1712332800000, revisedDateStr=2024-04-06, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753016423811, onlineDateStr=2025-07-20, pubDate=null, pubDateStr=null, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753016423811, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753016423811, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753016423811, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1153797763918713083, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, year='2024', volume='14', issue='6', pageStart='921', pageEnd='1090', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=0, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1753016423444, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757481666824, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172526352126325142, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153797763918713083, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172526352130519447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153797763918713083, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=934, endPage=946, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1153797765894234642, articleId=1153797765462221327, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, language=EN, title=Research Progress on Impact Simulation of Lightweight Alloy Wheels, columnId=1153756964791247631, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, columnName=Review and Prospect, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Lightweight alloy wheels reduce vehicle weight, enhance fuel efficiency, and improve power performance, braking efficiency, and suspension system responsiveness. Through simulated impact testing of lightweight alloy wheels, engineers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of their performance under various road conditions, and conduct corresponding design optimizations to enhance safety and durability. This paper systematically reviews the current state of research on 13degree and 90degree impact simulations of wheels, both domestically and internationally. From the perspectives of simulation efficiency, accuracy, and convergence, it discusses the influence of tire models, tire pressure models, and contact properties on the 90degree impact simulations. The paper also introduces the application of automated simulation and deep learning technologies in wheel impact simulation research. The combination of these technologies help achieve standardization, normalization, automation, and intelligence in impact simulations.

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轻合金车轮有助于实现车辆的轻量化,提高燃油经济性,提升车辆的动力性能、制动性能以及悬架系统的响应速度。借助于轻合金车轮冲击仿真,工程师可以更全面地了解轻合金车轮在各种路况下的性能,并进行相应的设计优化以提高其安全性和耐久性。根据车轮受到冲击载荷方向不同,系统介绍了国内外车轮13°和90°冲击仿真研究现状。从仿真效率、精度和收敛性角度,阐述了轮胎模型、胎压模型和接触属性对车轮90°冲击仿真的影响。介绍了自动化仿真与深度学习技术在车轮冲击仿真研究中的应用,二者的结合有助于实现冲击仿真的标准化、规范化、自动化和智能化。

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张广冬(1983-),男,江苏盐城人,副教授,主要研究方向为数字化设计和计算机辅助工程。Tel: 13951558783 E-mail:
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陶士柯(1995-),男,江苏连云港人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为计算机辅助工程。Tel: 17826237257 E-mail:

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陶士柯(1995-),男,江苏连云港人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为计算机辅助工程。Tel: 17826237257 E-mail:

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Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 2021,64(4):2725-2747., articleTitle=Integrating Deep Learning into CAD/CAE System: Generative Design and Evaluation of 3D Conceptual Wheel, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1153802018721353783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153797765462221327, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=66, issue=1, pageStart=1, pageEnd=20, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[58], rfOrder=93, authorNames=SHIN S, JIN A H, YOO S, journalName=Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, refType=null, unstructuredReference=SHIN S, JIN A H, YOO S, et al. Wheel Impact Test by Deep Learning: Prediction of Location and Magnitude of Maximum Stress[J]. 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轻合金车轮冲击仿真研究进展
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陶士柯 1 , 张广冬 1 , 鲁建军 2 , 周羊羊 2 , 周临震 1
汽车工程学报 | 综述与展望 2024,14(6): 934-946
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汽车工程学报 | 综述与展望 2024, 14(6): 934-946
轻合金车轮冲击仿真研究进展
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陶士柯1 , 张广冬1 , 鲁建军2, 周羊羊2, 周临震1
作者信息
  • 1 盐城工学院 机械工程学院 盐城 224051
  • 2 保定市立中车轮制造有限公司 河北省高强韧轻量化车轮技术创新中心 保定 071000
  • 陶士柯(1995-),男,江苏连云港人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为计算机辅助工程。Tel: 17826237257 E-mail:

通讯作者:


张广冬(1983-),男,江苏盐城人,副教授,主要研究方向为数字化设计和计算机辅助工程。Tel: 13951558783 E-mail:
Research Progress on Impact Simulation of Lightweight Alloy Wheels
Shike TAO1 , Guangdong ZHANG1 , Jianjun LU2, Yangyang ZHOU2, Linzhen ZHOU1
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Mechanical Engineering Yancheng Institute of Technology Yancheng 224051 China
  • 2 Hebei High Strength and Toughness Lightweight Wheel Technology Innovation Center Baoding Lizhong Wheel Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Baoding 071000 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.02
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轻合金车轮有助于实现车辆的轻量化,提高燃油经济性,提升车辆的动力性能、制动性能以及悬架系统的响应速度。借助于轻合金车轮冲击仿真,工程师可以更全面地了解轻合金车轮在各种路况下的性能,并进行相应的设计优化以提高其安全性和耐久性。根据车轮受到冲击载荷方向不同,系统介绍了国内外车轮13°和90°冲击仿真研究现状。从仿真效率、精度和收敛性角度,阐述了轮胎模型、胎压模型和接触属性对车轮90°冲击仿真的影响。介绍了自动化仿真与深度学习技术在车轮冲击仿真研究中的应用,二者的结合有助于实现冲击仿真的标准化、规范化、自动化和智能化。

车轮  /  冲击  /  轮胎  /  自动化仿真  /  深度学习

Lightweight alloy wheels reduce vehicle weight, enhance fuel efficiency, and improve power performance, braking efficiency, and suspension system responsiveness. Through simulated impact testing of lightweight alloy wheels, engineers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of their performance under various road conditions, and conduct corresponding design optimizations to enhance safety and durability. This paper systematically reviews the current state of research on 13degree and 90degree impact simulations of wheels, both domestically and internationally. From the perspectives of simulation efficiency, accuracy, and convergence, it discusses the influence of tire models, tire pressure models, and contact properties on the 90degree impact simulations. The paper also introduces the application of automated simulation and deep learning technologies in wheel impact simulation research. The combination of these technologies help achieve standardization, normalization, automation, and intelligence in impact simulations.

wheel  /  impact  /  tire  /  automation simulation  /  deep-learning
陶士柯, 张广冬, 鲁建军, 周羊羊, 周临震. 轻合金车轮冲击仿真研究进展. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (6) : 934 -946 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.02
Shike TAO, Guangdong ZHANG, Jianjun LU, Yangyang ZHOU, Linzhen ZHOU. Research Progress on Impact Simulation of Lightweight Alloy Wheels[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (6) : 934 -946 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.02
车轮作为汽车的关键零部件和重要外观件, 其性能直接影响行车的安全性、经济性和舒适性 [ 1 ] 。 在节能减排和新能源汽车快速发展的背景下, 轻量化设计成为汽车车轮领域的研究热点之一。车轮轻量化有利于降低材料成本, 实现节能减排, 缓解新能源汽车的里程焦虑。车轮轻量化的主要途径包括:
1)轻质铝合金材料的广泛应用 [ 2 ]
2)新型轻量化材料的研发和应用, 如玻璃纤维 [ 3 ] 、镁合金 [ 4 ] 、碳纤维 [ 5 ] ,制造成本较高 [ 6 - 7 ]
3)轻合金组装式车轮,如镁铝合金组装式车轮 [ 8 ] 、多连接方式(如铆接、胶接)轻合金组装式车轮 [ 9 ]
4)基于仿生学的车轮结构设计 [ 10 ]
车轮轻量化给车轮设计带来全新的挑战, 需要在满足动态弯曲疲劳、动态径向疲劳、冲击性能等安全性能要求的前提下实现车轮减重目标。其中, 良好的冲击性能尤为重要, 保证车轮具有足够的结构强度, 能承受来自不同道路条件下的冲击力。车轮冲击试验用于评估轻合金车轮的冲击性能, 属于破坏性试验。如果车轮未通过冲击试验, 则需要反复优化车轮设计直至满足冲击性能要求, 从而导致开发周期长、成本高。
目前研发人员广泛采用计算机仿真来代替传统的性能试验, 结合优化设计方法来寻求最佳的车轮轻量化设计方案。该方法能在产品开发阶段同步评估车轮的安全性能, 快速优化车轮的结构设计, 有利于缩短车轮产品的开发周期和降低开发成本。
本文介绍了车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真研究现状, 阐述了自动化仿真和深度学习在车轮冲击仿真中的应用, 最后展望了冲击仿真的发展趋势。
根据国家标准 GB/T 15704-2012《道路车辆轻合金车轮冲击试验方法》 [ 11 ] ,车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验主要用于评定全部或部分用轻合金制造的车轮轴向 (横向)撞击路缘的性能,如 图 1 所示。
试验时, 将车轮安装到试验机上, 使冲击载荷施加到车轮轮缘,车轮的轴线应与铅直方向成 ${13}^{ \circ }$ $\pm {1}^{ \circ }$ 角,轮缘最高点正对冲锤,如 图 2 所示。试验结束后, 如果出现以下任一情况, 则认为车轮冲击试验失效:
1)可见裂纹穿透车轮中心部分的截面;
2)车轮中心部分与轮辋分离;
3)在 $1\mathrm{\;{min}}$ 内,轮胎气压全部泄漏。
车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验包括 2 种典型工况,即冲锤正对轮辐冲击和冲锤正对气门孔窗口冲击。当冲锤正对轮辐冲击时, 轮辐强度不足时会由于瞬时冲击产生开裂现象;当冲锤正对气门孔窗口冲击时,由于气门孔的存在导致气门孔窗口部位强度不足, 车轮在较高的冲击能量下易出现外耳缘脱落或轮辐开裂等现象。
车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击最常见的失效形式为轮辐开裂和外耳缘脱落, 如 图 3 所示。通过优化轮辐 (如根部厚度、顶部圆角等)或增加轮辋厚度可改善车轮冲击性能 [ 8 ] ,通过优化应力集中区域的圆角 [ 12 ] 能有效改善车轮的局部力学性能。
车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真是典型的动力学问题,通常采用动力学显式求解器来求解。根据是否包含轮胎, 车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击有限元模型分为有轮胎和无轮胎 2 类, 如 图 4 所示。由于轮胎模型具有较强的非线性, 包含轮胎的有限元模型通常需要耗费较多的计算资源。
无轮胎模型 ( 图 4 a) 从总冲击能量中排除了轮胎吸收的能量 [ 13 ] ,从而可以忽略轮胎模型的影响。 无轮胎模型降低了模型的复杂性, 提高显式动力学分析效率约 60%,但存在结果精度不足的问题 [ 14 ]
为进一步提高不含轮胎的车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击有限元模型的计算效率, 可以采用静力学法 (指定受力点 [ 15 ] 或划分受力面 [ 16 ] ,如 图 4b所示)、显式动力学的质量缩放 [ 17 ] 方法、隐式动力学法 [ 18 ] 。指定受力点或划分受力面的方法将冲击动力学问题转化为静力学问题, 显著提高了计算效率, 但与实际试验工况存在较大差异,且划分受力面的方法依赖于工程师对经验常数的取值。采用质量缩放方法可以显著提高显式动力学分析过程中的稳定时间增量, 进而缩短总的计算时间, 然而未考虑质量缩放引起的系统质量增加对结构响应的影响。隐式动力学法可以显著提高计算效率, 但当模型变形量较大时, 存在计算收敛性的问题。
考虑到轮胎的空心结构, 可以采用壳单元、各向同性线弹性材料建立轮胎模型,如 图 4c所示。 CHANG 等 [ 19 ] 建立了包含壳单元轮胎的车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击有限元模型, 采用总塑性功来研究车轮的失效问题, 结果表明, 基于总塑性功的损伤模型可以作为判定准则来有效地预测铝合金车轮的断裂失效。试验表明, 在较高的冲击能量下, 轮辐更容易断裂, 在仿真中考虑车轮的损伤更符合实际的冲击情况。
为使冲击模型更符合实际, MOHAMMED 等 [ 20 ] 建立了包含复合材料轮胎的车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击有限元模型,如 图 4d所示,轮胎模型包括胎面、胎侧、 气密层、带束层、胎体帘线、钢丝圈等。复合材料轮胎模型充分考虑了轮胎对冲击过程的影响, 但由于轮胎模型复杂度高, 因此仿真效率较低, 收敛性较差。
OTARAWANNA 等 [ 21 ] 对车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击的带轮胎和不带轮胎的 2 种仿真模型进行了研究。结果表明, 在进行带轮胎的分析时, 车轮关键部位的应力比不带轮胎分析时低 $5\mathrm{{MPa}}$ 。车轮关键部位的应力通常约为70 MPa[15], 5 MPa的应力差异相对较小, 几乎可以忽略不计,从而可以认为不带轮胎的 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真没有损失较多的仿真精度。
基于有限元法的车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真能有效评估车轮的冲击性能,得到了国内外学者的广泛关注 [ 22 ] 。13 ${}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真重点关注车轮的力学响应,如应力、应变等, 在车轮未失效的条件下, 通常利用应变片测量对应部位的应变来验证仿真结果 [ 23 ] 。 研究人员采用忽略轮胎模型、采用线弹性材料与壳单元建立轮胎模型等方法来建立车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击有限元模型, 以减少轮胎的非线性对仿真效率及收敛性的影响。由于车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击可以不带轮胎进行分析而不损失过多的计算精度, 同时有助于提高仿真效率,因此不带轮胎的车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真模型被普遍采用。
目前车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真已经广泛应用于车轮研发。静力学分析的计算效率较高,计算资源需求较少, 收敛速度快, 主要应用于设计环节; 动力学分析的精度较高,收敛速度慢,主要应用于验证环节。
根据行业标准 QC/T 991-2015《乘用车轻合金车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验方法》 [ 24 ] ,车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验用于评定车轮受到垂直于轴线方向的冲击载荷时, 车轮的强度和安全性能, 主要模拟车轮冲击路面凸起物或凹坑而导致的车轮失效的情形。
由于现实中路面状况复杂多变, 经常出现以下路况: 路面存在石块、凹坑或设置不合理的减速带等, 如 图 5 所示 (前轮冲击凹坑, 后轮冲击减速带)。当汽车以一定的速度通过上述路面时, 车轮受到瞬时冲击而极易失效,存在行车安全隐患,因此,有必要进行 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验来评估车轮的冲击性能。车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验共有 2 种方法,可选其一进行试验。
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验方法 I,如 图 6 所示。该试验方法也被称为车轮径向冲击试验 [ 25 ] 。试验时,将车轮和轮胎总成安装到试验机上, 保证车轮在试验机上的固定装置在尺寸上应与车辆上使用的固定装置相当;调整车轮轴向位置, 使轮胎断面中心线对准锤头中心线, 然后锁定轴向调整机构; 调整车轮圆周方向的位置, 使冲击部位处在锤头正下方。
该试验方法涉及冲击能量的选择问题, 冲击能量通过下式计算:
$ E = K \times {F}_{\mathrm{r}}\text{。} $
式中: $E$ 为冲击能量,单位 $\mathrm{J};K$ 为系数,单位 $\mathrm{J}/\mathrm{{kg}}$ , 通常有 ${K}_{1} = {1.15}$${K}_{2} = {4.3}$ 两种取值; ${F}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 为车轮或车辆制造厂规定的车轮最大静载荷,单位 $\mathrm{{kg}}$
根据计算出的能量, 查表、选择并调整冲锤质量,计算冲锤下落高度。
车轮经过冲击后, 应满足以下 2 个要求:
1)${E}_{1} = {1.15} \times {F}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 时,车轮没有出现裂纹,内轮缘变形量应小于或等于 ${2.5}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$
2)${E}_{2} = {4.3} \times {F}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 时,轮缘被冲击部位允许有裂纹或开裂, 在轮辋槽处沿圆周方向最大允许 25% 范围的开裂。
${E}_{1}$ 主要用于研究车轮的刚度, ${E}_{2}$ 主要用于研究车轮的开裂 [ 26 ]
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验方法II,如 图 7 所示。试验时, 将车轮和轮胎总成安装到试验机上, 使车轮在试验机上的固定装置在尺寸上应与车辆上使用的固定装置相当;调整车轮轴向位置,使轮胎断面中心线对准锤头冲击面边缘;调整车轮圆周方向的位置, 使冲击部位处在冲锤正下方。
与方法 $\mathrm{I}$ 选择冲击能量的方法不同,该方法涉及冲锤下落高度的选择问题, 冲锤下落高度通过式 (2)计算。
$ H = K \times {F}_{\mathrm{r}}\text{。} $
式中: $H$ 为冲锤下落高度; ${F}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 为车轮或车辆制造厂规定的车轮最大静载荷,单位 $\mathrm{{kg}};K$ 为系数,单位 $\mathrm{{mm}}/\mathrm{{kg}}$ ,通常有 ${K}_{1} = {0.05}$${K}_{2} = {0.28}$ 两种取值。
车轮经过冲击后, 应满足以下 2 个要求:
1)${H}_{1} = {0.05} \times {F}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 时,车轮没有出现裂纹,内轮缘变形量应小于或等于 ${2.5}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$
2)${H}_{2} = {0.28} \times {F}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 时,轮缘被冲击部位允许有裂纹或开裂, 在轮辋槽处沿圆周方向最大允许 25% 范围的开裂。
根据车辆制造厂要求,车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验的冲击方位通常为 0 ° 方位(气门孔窗口)与 180° 方位, 如 图 8 所示。 ${0}^{ \circ }$ 方位是最常见的冲击方位,也是车轮结构最薄弱的方位。此外, 根据车辆制造厂的要求,还会冲击 ${180}^{ \circ }$ 方位 (通常正对轮辐),以最大限度地降低行车风险。车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验的失效部位通常为内轮缘或气门孔附近的轮辋槽。内轮缘缺少轮辐的支撑, 强度较低, 在较大的冲击载荷下易发生显著的变形, 如 图 9 所示。气门孔附近的轮辋槽材料缺失, 强度相对较低, 较大的冲击载荷易导致轮辋槽开裂。开裂从气门孔附近开始,随后在轮辋上沿周向扩展, 如 图 10 所示。在设计时, 可通过改善冷却工艺 [ 27 ] 、加大轮辋槽底夹角或增加轮辋壁厚 [ 28 ] 的方式来提高车轮结构强度,通过优化轮辐尺寸与截面形状以实现轻量化设计 [ 29 ]
近年来, 随着垂直于轴线方向的冲击载荷对车轮影响的认识逐步深入, ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真的研究也得到了国内外学者的广泛关注。车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真研究主要集中在:轮胎模型、胎压模型和接触属性。 与 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击相比,车轮和轮胎在 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验过程中发生更大的变形, 如 图 11 所示。轮胎剧烈的变形导致胎压产生较大的波动, 影响冲击过程中轮胎的刚度 [ 30 ] ,从而影响载荷的传递; 接触属性影响各部件之间的接触状态, 如试验结束后胎圈是否与内轮缘分离,如 图 12 所示。 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真的有限元模型主要包括:冲锤、轮胎和车轮。在冲击仿真中, 冲锤的刚度远远大于其他部件, 因此通常假设冲锤为具有一定质量和速度的刚体。冲锤的刚体建模方式 [ 31 ] 包括: 解析刚体、离散刚体和施加刚体约束的变形体 [ 32 ] 。在冲击过程中,车轮发生弹性和塑性变形, 因此, 车轮材料通常设置为弹塑性材料 [ 33 ] 。轮胎模型结构复杂,材料组成多样,根据研究的需要, 对轮胎模型进行了不同的简化处理。
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真的关注点与 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击相同,都为车轮的力学响应。但是在 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中,轮胎模型也是研究人员重点关注的对象。车轮 13°冲击位置为胎侧与外轮缘, 冲击载荷由二者共同承担, 而 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验中冲锤仅冲击轮胎,冲击载荷全部由轮胎传递至轮辋, 轮胎模型的准确性影响载荷传递效率,从而影响仿真结果。轮胎在冲击时发生大变形, 表现出极强的非线性, 导致仿真效率低, 收敛性差,特别是在轮胎侧壁完全折叠的高冲击能量的情况下 [ 34 ] ,如 图 13 所示。
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中,轮胎建模的难点在于轮胎结构、材料组成的复杂性和材料的非线性 [ 35 ] 。 轮胎具有非常复杂的结构, 以子午线轮胎为例, 如 图 14 所示, 主要由橡胶及橡胶-帘线复合材料构成,内含钢丝圈、带束层、胎体帘线等,且带束层设计参数复杂多变 [ 36 ] 。此外,轮胎材料组成复杂 [ 37 ] ,主要成分包括橡胶、炭黑、硫化剂、补强化合物等 [ 38 ] 。轮胎橡胶是典型的超弹性材料,在受力后发生大变形,具有极强的几何非线性 [ 39 - 40 ]
由于轮胎结构和材料组成的复杂性, 目前普遍采用简化轮胎模型进行冲击仿真。简化轮胎模型考虑了轮胎的主要结构,如钢丝圈、帘线等,忽略气密层、三角胶等次要结构。
李世德 [ 25 ] 将轮胎模型简化为单一的橡胶与钢丝圈, 采用两参数 Mooney-Rivlin 模型来模拟轮胎橡胶的材料属性。该方法将轮胎简化为橡胶与钢丝圈 2 个部分, 如 图 15 所示, 橡胶采用各向同性超弹性材料建模, 钢丝圈采用各向同性线弹性材料建模, 忽略了轮胎中具有各向异性属性的帘线材料。 由于不考虑帘线的补强作用, 因此需依靠仿真经验调整 Mooney-Rivlin 材料参数, 对仿真工程师的经验要求较高。ZHU Maotao 等 [ 42 ] 通过试验测定轮胎径向刚度, 根据轮胎刚度计算轮胎的材料参数, 简化了轮胎模型。
SATOSHI 等 [ 43 ] 建立了基于Neo-Hookean 超弹性材料的轮胎模型, 将全部橡胶材料简化为单一的橡胶实体, 并在 图 15 的基础上增加帘线 (包括带束层与胎体帘线), 如 图 16 所示。在帘线内建立与轮胎轴线成一定角度的加强纤维,考虑了帘线各向异性对轮胎模型的影响。简化轮胎模型基于轮胎的实际结构与研究问题的需要, 注重提高仿真效率, 实用性较高。
为了获得更精确的冲击仿真结果, 研究人员考虑轮胎内部结构,提出了复合材料轮胎模型 [ 44 ] 来评估车轮冲击性能, 如 图 17 所示。 图 17图 16 的基础上增加了胎面胶、三角胶等结构,比简化轮胎模型更接近轮胎的实际结构, 通常计算精度更高,
但模型复杂度高, 仿真效率较低, 收敛性较差。
此外, 为兼顾计算效率与精度, PREVIATI 等[18, 34] 通过试验与仿真的方式简化了轮胎模型。 通过测量轮胎外形, 建立了具有真实几何轮廓的轮胎模型; 通过对标轮胎的径向刚度、频率响应, 调整轮胎模型的材料参数; 考虑到车轮和轮胎总成的对称结构,使用 “对称约束” 建立车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击有限元模型。该方法通过试验与仿真的方式确保了轮胎的准确性, 兼顾了仿真效率与精度, 为简化轮胎模型提供了参考方法, 但 “对称约束” 的方式不适用于车轮和轮胎总成结构非对称的情形。
现有研究表明: 采用简化轮胎模型和复合材料轮胎模型的车轮冲击仿真都能预测车轮的失效 [ 45 ] 。 简化轮胎模型的计算效率较高, 计算资源需求较少; 复合材料轮胎模型的分析精度较高, 但仿真效率较低,收敛性存在不足。
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验中的轮胎充气压力为车辆制造厂规定值。由于气体的可压缩性,在 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验过程中, 冲锤冲击轮胎, 轮胎与轮辋组成的空腔容积会发生变化, 进而引起胎压的变化, 传递的载荷也随之变化。胎压模型直接影响着载荷的传递, 是冲击仿真的重要内容之一。
现有的研究将胎压设置为恒定的压力载荷并施加于轮胎与轮辋组成的空腔内表面, 在冲击过程中, 压力的大小保持不变, 且力的方向始终垂直于空腔内表面,如 图 18 所示。该方法无需考虑冲击试验过程中的胎压变化,降低了模型的复杂性,但与实际试验时胎压的变化情况不符。
尹冀 [ 46 ] 在轮胎和轮辋之间定义封闭气囊,模拟车轮冲击过程中的胎压变化关系。该方法采用实体建模的方式建立气囊模型, 为模拟胎压变化关系提供了参考方法。王登峰等 [ 8 ] 在车轮冲击仿真中采用LS-DYNA 的 Airbag 技术, 冲击结束后, 发现胎压降低,但未给出胎压降低的具体数值。喻义远 [ 47 ] 在摩托车车轮冲击仿真中考虑了胎压变化, 结果表明, 在一个冲击仿真过程中, 胎压增加了 9.2%。与恒定胎压相比,非恒定胎压更符合实际的冲击情况, 但也增加了有限元模型的复杂性。胎压模型类似于流体与腔道的相互作用模型, 有研究人员基于流体腔 [ 48 ] 的方法模拟了此相互作用过程。 随着仿真技术的发展, ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中的胎压随空腔容积的变化关系将被更真实地模拟, 从而有助于提升仿真精度。
在车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中,不仅冲锤与轮胎、胎圈与轮缘、气密层与轮辋会发生接触, 而且轮胎内表面也会发生接触 (自接触), 如 图 19 所示。
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中的接触属性主要为摩擦接触, 目前通常采用一个恒定的摩擦因数或绑定约束。PREVIATL等 [ 34 ] 将摩擦因数统一设置为0.5 GAO Qian 等 [ 44 ] 将胎圈与轮缘之间的相互关系设置为绑定约束。在冲击仿真领域, 接触对仿真结果的影响的报道相对较少, 而在非车轮冲击领域, 众多学者对胎圈-轮缘之间的接触属性及其对仿真结果的影响进行了研究 [ 49 - 51 ]
接触属性影响胎圈与轮缘的接触状态, 通常采用摩擦接触,而摩擦因数与滑移率有关 [ 47 ] ,变化情况比较复杂,目前多采用恒定的摩擦因数。接触属性对车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真结果的影响仍待进一步研究。
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真的关注点与 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击相同,均为车轮的力学响应。车轮 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验中,冲击位置为胎侧与外轮缘, 轮胎冲击变形小, 胎压变化小,极少出现胎圈与轮缘分离现象。在 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中, 可以忽略或量化轮胎吸能系数, 从而建立无轮胎的 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真模型,计算效率高,计算精度损失较少。
车轮 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击试验中,冲击位置为轮胎上侧, 冲锤与车轮不直接接触, 冲击时轮胎发生大变形, 胎压波动较大, 在冲击载荷的作用下胎圈与轮缘容易发生分离。在 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中,轮胎模型的准确性直接影响载荷的传递, 因此, 必须考虑轮胎非线性模型、胎压变化、车轮和轮胎接触属性对冲击仿真的影响。
车轮冲击仿真通常遵循标准化、规范化的分析流程。借助仿真软件提供的接口, 通过二次开发将分析流程固化,从而实现自动化仿真并出具报告。
2007 年,中信戴卡股份有限公司已开始研发车轮仿真流程自动化系统 [ 52 ] ,使不具备有限元分析基础的设计师通过简单的操作, 即可进行车轮冲击仿真。2008 年,王晨至 [ 53 ] 开发出具有人机交互界面的铝合金车轮冲击试验自动化仿真程序, 用户只需导入输入文件和车轮几何模型,即可自动进行有限元分析。2023 年,童哲铭等 [ 54 ] 提出车轮-轮胎一体化冲击动力学仿真方法, 用户只要连接云服务平台, 然后上传或在线导入车轮模型和仿真参数, 即可按步骤进行仿真计算,大大降低了仿真难度。自动化仿真技术的应用减少了大量重复性的前后处理工作, 实现了冲击仿真的自动化, 极大地提高产品的开发效率。
车轮新产品的开发往往需要反复迭代优化才能获得最佳的设计 [ 55 ] ,自动化仿真技术虽然极大地提升了仿真效率, 但是仍需要较高的计算成本。随着人工智能技术的发展, 研究者将深度学习方法应用于车轮产品开发, 通过深度学习模型实时预测产品性能, 以提高产品开发效率, 从而进一步缩短产品开发周期。
2019 年, OH 等 [ 56 ] 提出一种基于深度学习的 2D 车轮生成设计方法。2021 年, YOO 等 [ 57 ] 将 2D 车轮生成方法扩展到 3D 车轮设计。2023 年, SHIN 等 [ 58 ] 提出三维 ${13}^{ \circ }$ 车轮冲击深度学习模型,整个研究过程分成 4 个阶段, 如 图 20 所示。深度学习方法使用车轮的 2D 图像数据、3D 体素数据和冲击载荷作为输入, 以预测应力分布, 输出最大应力的大小及其坐标(x, y, z)。输入数据通过 $3\mathrm{D}$ 卷积变分自编码器(cVAE)和 2D 卷积自编码器(cAE)被压缩进入一个潜在空间。使用全连接层来预测车轮冲击性能, 输出最大应力及其坐标, 并使用解码器来预测应力分布。
深度学习模型采用多模态自编码器架构, 使用各种类型的数据作为输入和输出, 以提高预测的准确性, 并通过实际生活中使用的车轮进行迁移学习,验证了模型的预测性能。在实际预测时, 由于轮辋中心面至内轮缘部位的轮辋下半部分应力较低,因此, 将轮辋上半部分 (包括轮辐) 的体素数据、二维图像数据、冲击载荷作为输入(忽略轮辋下半部分), 从而缩小数据集的规模, 并提高训练效率。
研究表明 [ 58 ] ,采用深度学习方法预测车轮的冲击性能仅需 $1\mathrm{{ms}}$ ,分析效率远超现有的有限元方法, 有利于进一步缩短车轮产品的开发周期。然而, 深度学习方法目前依然存在一些问题, 如训练集样本数量不够、最大应力值的预测精度仍有待提高。随着深度学习技术和自动化仿真技术的进步, 通过相关企业长期的数据积累和模型训练, 车轮冲击仿真将朝着智能化方向发展, 推动车轮行业的技术进步。
轻合金车轮冲击仿真主要用于评估轻合金车轮在不同路况和使用条件下所受到的冲击力和应力分布。根据车轮受到非垂直或垂直于轴向的冲击载荷,分为 ${13}^{ \circ }$${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真。随着计算机技术和人工智能的发展,冲击仿真逐步向标准化、规范化、 自动化和智能化方向发展。
1)轻合金车轮冲击仿真对于改善车辆性能、 提高安全性和延长零部件寿命都具有重要意义, 可以帮助设计师更好地理解和优化轮毂和轮辋的设计。13°冲击仿真技术趋于成熟,90°冲击仿真仍在持续发展。在 ${90}^{ \circ }$ 冲击仿真中,轮胎模型、胎压模型和接触属性对仿真效率、精度和准确性有很大的影响, 对优化仿真方法具有重要意义, 也驱动着冲击仿真技术不断发展。
2)当前,自动化仿真和深度学习技术已被逐渐应用于车轮冲击仿真和实时预测车轮冲击性能, 二者具有广阔的市场应用前景。自动化仿真技术有助于实现车轮冲击仿真的规范化、标准化和自动化, 同时可以为深度学习技术提供数据集; 深度学习技术通过大量数据的训练, 有助于实现冲击仿真以及车轮设计的智能化。
  • 保定市科技计划项目(2394G003)
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2024年第14卷第6期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.06.02
  • 接收时间:2024-03-06
  • 首发时间:2025-07-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-06
  • 修回日期:2024-04-06
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    1 盐城工学院 机械工程学院 盐城 224051
    2 保定市立中车轮制造有限公司 河北省高强韧轻量化车轮技术创新中心 保定 071000

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张广冬(1983-),男,江苏盐城人,副教授,主要研究方向为数字化设计和计算机辅助工程。Tel: 13951558783 E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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