Article(id=1153982905580774260, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153982905148760948, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.02.02, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1678118400000, receivedDateStr=2023-03-07, revisedDate=1682265600000, revisedDateStr=2023-04-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753060564655, onlineDateStr=2025-07-21, pubDate=null, pubDateStr=null, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753060564655, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753060564655, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753060564655, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1153982905148760948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, year='2024', volume='14', issue='2', pageStart='155', pageEnd='320', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=0, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1753060564553, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757481557522, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172525893714063985, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153982905148760948, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172525893714063986, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153982905148760948, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=168, endPage=180, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1153982905987621750, articleId=1153982905580774260, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, language=EN, title=Trajectory Tracking Control Algorithm for Unmanned Mining Transportation Vehicles, columnId=1153756967253299320, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, columnName=Intelligent & Connected Technologies Section/Editor in Chief: GAO Zhenhai, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The operating environment for unmanned mining transport vehicles is challenging, characterized by unstructured roads such as highcurvature bends and slopes, which demand high requirements for unmanned transportation control. To improve the adaptability of traditional control algorithms like PID and to increase the accuracy of both lateral and longitudinal control in unmanned driving trajectory tracking, this study proposes a combined approach. It involves a multipoint preview lateral control method integrating pure pursuit with PID, and a longitudinal control method considering fuzzy control table parameter fitting. This approach is developed to reduce the number of control parameters while improving the algorithm's effectiveness. Initially, a basic controller is designed using the traditional control algorithm. And then the lateral and longitudinal control algorithms are developed based on the advantages of the basic algorithm. Finally, the performance of these algorithms is verified through hardwareintheloop simulation and onvehicle deployment testing. The experimental results show that compared with the Stanley method, the lateral control algorithm significantly improves vehicle path tracking accuracy. In terms of longitudinal control, the speed tracking error is less than 1 km/h, ensuring the smoothness and comfort of the vehicle's driving performance.

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矿用无人运输车辆作业环境恶劣,存在大曲率弯道、坡道等非结构化道路明显特征,对无人化运输控制要求高。为改善PID等传统控制算法适应性问题,提高无人驾驶轨迹跟踪的车辆横纵向控制精度,提出一种纯跟踪与PID结合的多点预瞄横向控制、考虑模糊控制表参数拟合的纵向控制方法,减少控制参数的同时提高算法效果。根据传统控制算法设计基础控制器,结合基础算法优势进行横向与纵向控制算法设计,通过硬件在环仿真和实车测试验证算法的性能。试验结果表明,横向控制算法与斯坦利算法相比,车辆路径跟踪精度有明显改善,纵向控制方面,速度跟随误差<1 km/h,保证了车辆驾驶时的平稳性与舒适性。

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周彬(1987-),男,山东潍坊人,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为无人驾驶车载多传感器融合感知、车辆行驶状态辨识和车辆智能控制。Tel: 18500240536 E-mail:
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张博(2000-),男,北京顺义人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶车辆智能决策控制。Tel: 15910943132 E-mail:

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张博(2000-),男,北京顺义人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶车辆智能决策控制。Tel: 15910943132 E-mail:

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张博(2000-),男,北京顺义人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶车辆智能决策控制。Tel: 15910943132 E-mail:

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车速/ (km/h) 0 3 5 10 15 20 26
开度/% 0.060 0.105 0.150 0.200 0.265 0.330 0.445
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车速/ (km/h) 0 3 5 10 15 20 26
开度/% 0.060 0.105 0.150 0.200 0.265 0.330 0.445
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参数
整车质量/kg 25000
质心到前轴距离/mm 1750
质心到后轴距离/mm 2750
静态质心高度/mm 4 240
汽车绕 $z$$/\left( {\mathrm{{kg}} \cdot {\mathrm{m}}^{2}}\right)$ 120 000
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参数
整车质量/kg 25000
质心到前轴距离/mm 1750
质心到后轴距离/mm 2750
静态质心高度/mm 4 240
汽车绕 $z$$/\left( {\mathrm{{kg}} \cdot {\mathrm{m}}^{2}}\right)$ 120 000
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矿用无人运输车辆轨迹跟踪控制算法研究
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张博 1 , 周彬 1 , 夏启 1 , 丁能根 1 , 杜宇飞 2 , 董陆军 2 , 张伟 2
汽车工程学报 | 智能网联技术专栏/主编:高镇海 2024,14(2): 168-180
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汽车工程学报 | 智能网联技术专栏/主编:高镇海 2024, 14(2): 168-180
矿用无人运输车辆轨迹跟踪控制算法研究
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张博1 , 周彬1 , 夏启1, 丁能根1, 杜宇飞2, 董陆军2, 张伟2
作者信息
  • 1 北京航空航天大学 交通科学与工程学院 特种车辆无人运输技术工业和信息化部重点实验室 北京 100191
  • 2 内蒙古电投能源股份有限公司 呼和浩特 010090
  • 张博(2000-),男,北京顺义人,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为自动驾驶车辆智能决策控制。Tel: 15910943132 E-mail:

通讯作者:


周彬(1987-),男,山东潍坊人,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为无人驾驶车载多传感器融合感知、车辆行驶状态辨识和车辆智能控制。Tel: 18500240536 E-mail:
Trajectory Tracking Control Algorithm for Unmanned Mining Transportation Vehicles
Bo ZHANG1 , Bin ZHOU1 , Qi XIA1, Nenggen DING1, Yufei DU2, Lujun DONG2, Wei ZHANG2
Affiliations
  • 1 Key Laboratory of Autonomous Transportation Technology for Special Vehicles, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, School of Transportation Science and Engineering Beihang University Beijing 100191 China
  • 2 Inner Mongolia Diantou Energy Co., Ltd. Hohhot 010090 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.02.02
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矿用无人运输车辆作业环境恶劣,存在大曲率弯道、坡道等非结构化道路明显特征,对无人化运输控制要求高。为改善PID等传统控制算法适应性问题,提高无人驾驶轨迹跟踪的车辆横纵向控制精度,提出一种纯跟踪与PID结合的多点预瞄横向控制、考虑模糊控制表参数拟合的纵向控制方法,减少控制参数的同时提高算法效果。根据传统控制算法设计基础控制器,结合基础算法优势进行横向与纵向控制算法设计,通过硬件在环仿真和实车测试验证算法的性能。试验结果表明,横向控制算法与斯坦利算法相比,车辆路径跟踪精度有明显改善,纵向控制方面,速度跟随误差<1 km/h,保证了车辆驾驶时的平稳性与舒适性。

无人驾驶  /  轨迹跟踪控制  /  大型矿车  /  非结构化道路

The operating environment for unmanned mining transport vehicles is challenging, characterized by unstructured roads such as highcurvature bends and slopes, which demand high requirements for unmanned transportation control. To improve the adaptability of traditional control algorithms like PID and to increase the accuracy of both lateral and longitudinal control in unmanned driving trajectory tracking, this study proposes a combined approach. It involves a multipoint preview lateral control method integrating pure pursuit with PID, and a longitudinal control method considering fuzzy control table parameter fitting. This approach is developed to reduce the number of control parameters while improving the algorithm's effectiveness. Initially, a basic controller is designed using the traditional control algorithm. And then the lateral and longitudinal control algorithms are developed based on the advantages of the basic algorithm. Finally, the performance of these algorithms is verified through hardwareintheloop simulation and onvehicle deployment testing. The experimental results show that compared with the Stanley method, the lateral control algorithm significantly improves vehicle path tracking accuracy. In terms of longitudinal control, the speed tracking error is less than 1 km/h, ensuring the smoothness and comfort of the vehicle's driving performance.

autonomous driving  /  heavy mining cards  /  unstructured roads  /  trajectory tracking  /  control algorithms
张博, 周彬, 夏启, 丁能根, 杜宇飞, 董陆军, 张伟. 矿用无人运输车辆轨迹跟踪控制算法研究. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (2) : 168 -180 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.02.02
Bo ZHANG, Bin ZHOU, Qi XIA, Nenggen DING, Yufei DU, Lujun DONG, Wei ZHANG. Trajectory Tracking Control Algorithm for Unmanned Mining Transportation Vehicles[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (2) : 168 -180 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.02.02
露天开采是目前全球矿山开采的主要方式, 其中非结构化道路的行驶工况更加普遍, 由于矿山工作环境非常恶劣, 且需要全天候运行, 所以对矿用车辆无人驾驶的稳定性要求更加严格 [ 1 ] 。行驶控制是智能车辆研究领域中的核心问题之一, 智能车辆的横纵向控制显然更为重要,因为横向控制直接影响了跟踪性能, 纵向控制直接影响了行驶稳定性, 是保证无人驾驶车辆安全性、舒适性和经济性的基础 [ 2 ]
至今, 应用较多的路径跟踪控制方法有经典的 PID 控制、预瞄控制、最优控制、基于机器学习等。PID控制 [ 3 ] 不需要建立精确的物理模型,广泛应用于工程领域, 但在车辆运动控制过程中存在多变量系统和时变系统, 使用 PID 控制效果难以得到保证。针对上述问题, 2009 年, MARINO 等 [ 4 ] 提出使用嵌套 PID 的方法用于车辆路径跟踪, 即使在一些极端工况下也能有效地使车辆稳定行驶。谭宝成等 [ 5 ] 提出误差带内外分状况的控制策略,这种优化的增量式算法相较于传统 PID 算法, 进一步提升了跟踪控制效果。贾传伟 [ 6 ] 利用智能 PID 的方法, 将传统 PID 和智能控制结合, 在保证稳定性和操作性的前提下, 进一步提高了控制器的自适应能力。田明鑫 [ 7 ] 在针对井下铲运机的自动驾驶控制系统中, 利用模糊 PID 控制策略实现了无人驾驶控制。CHEN Shuping 等 [ 8 ] 提出了一种基于模型预测控制和 PID 相结合的路径跟踪方法, 对轨迹和速度的跟踪性能良好。张家旭等 [ 9 ] 在针对车辆高速跟踪控制问题上, 提出了一种基于伪谱法的最优控制策略。梁栋 [ 10 ] 为解决强非线性、强耦合的无人驾驶控制问题, 基于模型预测控制算法, 设计了车辆横纵向控制系统。FAROOQ 等 [ 11 ] 基于模糊控制的路径跟踪控制器, 辅助机器人的轨迹跟踪。对机器人进行了测试, 结果证明了所设计的控制器的有效性。研究还发现, 机器学习中的大脑情感学习回路模型与驾驶员行为高度相似, 近年来也用于建立驾驶员预瞄模型。顾筠等 [ 12 ] 、隋振等 [ 13 ] 采用机器学习中的大脑情感学习回路模型中输出理想的方向偏转角, 在仿真中进一步提高了车辆纵向加速度跟随精度。但是, 由于机器学习、神经网络还在理论研究阶段, 所以还未进行工程化部署。预瞄控制是基于驾驶员预瞄模型提出的车辆在行驶过程中的用于跟踪控制的主要方法之一, 单点预瞄控制在针对车速较高或者大曲率的工况下, 车辆的跟踪控制效果很差,同济大学的赵治国等 [ 14 ] 在基于单点预瞄模型和粒子群多目标优化算法的基础上提出了一种预瞄距离自适应的跟踪控制算法。李爽等 [ 15 ] 为解决路径跟踪控制的计算效率与适应性, 在基于预瞄最优曲率模型的基础上, 提出了一种依据车辆实际行驶路程获取预瞄点测量位移的弧长预瞄方法。
综上所述, 现有的算法大多是基于单点预瞄控制算法, 且没有考虑矿区道路特性, 无法全面反映跟踪情况, 在道路曲率变化大的情况下跟踪效果一般, 会出现画龙、大曲率转向误差等, 无法应用于矿区场景下。本文从基础控制器设计、横纵向算法设计、纵向控制参数拟合三方面对车辆轨迹跟踪控制进行了设计分析, 利用硬件在环仿真系统 (HIL) 对非结构化道路条件下的车辆跟踪控制效果作对比,并应用于矿区场景下的实车上进行验证。
车辆在运动时, 描述车辆运动的坐标系通常有两个, 一个是惯性坐标系, 一个是车身坐标系。其中, 惯性坐标系为惯性导航系统使用的坐标系, 而车体坐标系主要用于描述车辆的相对运动。在本文中使用惯性坐标系 ${XOY}$ 来描述车辆的运动情况,假设车辆在任意时刻做直线运动, 并且忽略悬架的作用, 简化为单轨模型, 得到车辆的转向运动模型, 如 图 1 所示。
根据此运动模型可以得到前轮转向角与后轴将遵循的曲率之间的关系:
$ \tan \left( \delta \right) = \frac{l}{R}\text{。} $
式中: $\delta$ 为前轮转角; $l$ 为车辆长度; $R$ 为车辆的转向半径。
根据 图 1 所示的模型, 建立车辆的运动学模型如下:
$ {\dot{X}}_{\mathrm{r}} = {v}_{\mathrm{r}}\cos \varphi $
$ {\dot{Y}}_{\mathrm{r}} = {v}_{\mathrm{r}}\sin \varphi $
$ \dot{\varphi } = \frac{{v}_{\mathrm{r}}\tan {\delta }_{\mathrm{f}}}{l}\text{。} $
$ R = \frac{{v}_{\mathrm{r}}}{w}\text{ 。 } $
式中: ${v}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 为车辆的速度; $\varphi$ 为车辆的横摆角,即车体坐标系 $x$ 轴与惯性坐标系 $X$ 轴之间的夹角,逆时针为正,顺时针为负。
因此, 车辆运动学模型为:
$ \left\lbrack \begin{matrix} {\dot{X}}_{\mathrm{r}} \\ {\dot{Y}}_{\mathrm{r}} \\ \dot{\varphi } \end{matrix}\right\rbrack = \left\lbrack \begin{matrix} \cos \varphi \\ \sin \varphi \\ \tan \frac{\delta }{l} \end{matrix}\right\rbrack {v}_{\mathrm{r}} \circ $
式中: $\left( {{X}_{\mathrm{r}},{Y}_{\mathrm{r}}}\right)$ 为车辆的前轴在惯性坐标系的坐标。
基于车辆运动学模型, 考虑到车辆行驶跟踪轨迹过程时的误差,需要建立误差跟踪模型,跟踪误差模型是无人驾驶车辆路径跟踪控制常用的车辆运动模型, 如 图 2 所示。车辆沿车道中心线行驶, 为方便分析, 将笛卡尔坐标系, 转换为 frenet 坐标系, 选取车辆相对于道路的位置和方向误差的状态变量,搭建道路误差模型。考虑车辆在半径为常数 $R$ 的车道上以恒定纵向车速 ${v}_{x}$ 行驶,此外,假设半径 $R$ 很大,使小角度的假设成立,定义 ${e}_{1}$ 为车辆质心与道路中心线的距离,即横向误差; ${e}_{2}$ 为车辆相对于道路的车辆方位角误差,即航向误差 [ 16 - 17 ]
首先在笛卡尔坐标系下,参考点 $\left( {{x}_{\mathrm{{des}}},{y}_{\mathrm{{des}}}}\right)$ 与实际点(x, y)在 $X\text{、}Y$ 轴方向的误差为:
$ {d}_{x} = x - {x}_{\text{des }} \circ $
$ {d}_{y} = y - {y}_{\text{des }} \circ $
式中: ${d}_{x}$ 为实际点与参考点横坐标之差; ${d}_{y}$ 为实际点与参考点纵坐标之差。
为了能更方便地反映横向误差等控制参数, 选择在 frenet 坐标下计算横纵向误差, 由式 (9) 计算横向偏差。
$ {e}_{1} = {d}_{y} \times \cos \left( {\theta }_{\mathrm{{des}}}\right) - {d}_{x} \times \sin \left( {\theta }_{\mathrm{{des}}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${\theta }_{\mathrm{{des}}}$ 为车身参考点相对系统 $X$ 轴的航向角。
定义车辆理论的航向角偏差 ${e}_{2}$ 为:
$ {e}_{2} = \theta - {\theta }_{\text{des }}\text{。} $
式中: $\theta$ 为车身真实点相对系统 $X$ 轴的航向角。
定义速度误差 ${\dot{e}}_{1}$ ,如果速度 ${v}_{x}$ 一直为常数, 则为:
$ {\dot{e}}_{1} = \dot{y} + {v}_{x}\left( {\theta - {\theta }_{\mathrm{{des}}}}\right) 。 $
如果速度随着时间的变化而变化,可对式 (11)进行积分, 可整理得到:
$ {\dot{e}}_{1} = \dot{y} + \int {v}_{x}{e}_{2}\mathrm{\;d}t $
控制器是控制系统的核心部分, 横向基础控制器采用纯跟踪控制器嵌套PID控制器来进行控制, 通过获取规划模块的路径信息, 正反馈给控制模块的横向控制器, 通过计算得到方向盘指令、方向盘转角信息和方向盘速率。
纯跟踪算法是一种经典的用于路径跟踪的控制算法, 该方法的原理是基于当前车辆后轮中心位置, 向参考路径上按给定预瞄距离自行匹配一个预瞄点, 通过预瞄距离、转弯半径等几何参数之间的几何关系来确定前轮转角 [ 18 - 19 ] ,如 图 3 所示。
图 3 中, $\mathrm{C}$ 是下一个要追踪的路点,它位于规划模块中已经规划好的全局路径上。根据 图 3 的几何关系可以推得前轮转角为:
$ \delta \left( t\right) = \arctan \left( \frac{{2L}\sin \left( {\alpha \left( t\right) }\right) }{{l}_{\mathrm{d}}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${l}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 为车辆当前位置 (即后轴位置) 到目标点的距离 (前视距离); $\alpha$ 为当前点与预瞄点的方位角偏差; $R$ 为转弯半径。
由此可知, 纯跟踪的本质是一个线性控制器, 跟踪效果由 ${l}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 控制,定义 ${l}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 为关于速度的一次多项式:
$ {l}_{\mathrm{d}} = {k}_{v}v + {l}_{\mathrm{d}0}\text{。} $
式中: ${k}_{v}$ 为比例系数; ${l}_{\mathrm{d}0}$ 为初始预瞄距离。
PID控制器早在 20 世纪 30 年代就被提出, 它具有原理简单、鲁棒性强和适用面广等诸多优点, 技术成熟, 应用最为广泛。PID 控制原理大致如 图 4 所示。
表达式为:
$ u\left( t\right) = {K}_{\mathrm{p}}\left\lbrack {e\left( t\right) + \frac{1}{{T}_{i}}{\int }_{o}^{t}E\left( t\right) \mathrm{d}t + {T}_{\mathrm{d}}\frac{\mathrm{d}e\left( t\right) }{\mathrm{d}t}}\right\rbrack 。 $
式中: $y\left( t\right)$ 为系统的输出量; $x\left( t\right)$ 为系统的给定值; $e\left( t\right)$ 为控制的输入量,即偏差为 $x\left( t\right) - y\left( t\right)$ ; $u\left( t\right)$ 为控制的输出量; ${K}_{\mathrm{p}}$ 为比例系数; ${T}_{i}$ 为积分时间常数; ${T}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 为微分时间常数。
在横向控制器中, $e\left( t\right)$ 为式 (9) $\sim \left( {10}\right)$ 所求出来的横向偏差 ${e}_{1}$ 和航向角偏差 ${e}_{2}, y\left( t\right)$ 为横向偏差补偿量, 以此来控制车辆的横向位移, 保证车辆正常行驶。
预瞄跟踪模型是近几年提出的跟踪模型, 它通过输入道路路径, 在车辆前方设置预瞄点, 模拟驾驶员开车视线情况, 分析预瞄点与车辆当前点的相对状态, 结合车辆当前的航向角, 从而输出方向盘转角, 实现横向控制, 如 图 5 所示。
远近预瞄点代表着两个预瞄距离不同的预瞄点, 也就是预瞄时间较长与较短的两个点。而较长的预瞄时间可以使驾驶的稳定性提高,减少画龙几率, 但是这也会使车辆与期望路径的偏差过大; 较短的预瞄时间可以提高车辆的跟踪性能, 但是会导致方向盘的转动更加剧烈,使车辆有画龙的风险。 因此, 选择近点或远点都无法有效解决问题。多点预瞄可以有效改善大曲率下转弯时横向偏差过大, 控制系统会结合近点、中点, 预计远视点的期望曲率, 来反馈控制方向盘转角, 使车辆能及时地回到期望路径上。多点预瞄引入近、中、远 3 个预瞄点, 分别计算跟踪误差。计算式为:
$ {L}_{\mathrm{d}i} = {L}_{\mathrm{d}\text{_base }} + v \times {t}_{i} \circ $
式中: ${L}_{\mathrm{d}i}$ 为预瞄距离, $i = 0,1,2$ 分别代表近点、 中点、远点; ${L}_{\mathrm{d}\text{_base }}$ 为预瞄基础值; $v$ 为当时车辆实际车速; ${t}_{i}$ 为预瞄时间。
本文采用预瞄 PID 和纯跟踪为基础控制, 然后预瞄方式由单点预瞄改为多点预瞄, 以基于经纬度计算的方位角偏差作为主要控制量, 避免路径航向角误差带来的扰动, 同时与斯坦利算法思路一样, 加入当前横向偏差补偿量。此外, 考虑到外界扰动问题带来的不确定因素, 主要控制量为经纬度与当前航向计算, 相对准确, 基于此, 将纯跟踪视作方位偏差的模糊 $\mathrm{P}$ 控制器,并加入微分项与积分项, 根据实际结果进行相关参数调整。
经典多点预瞄理论中, 选取的是全局坐标系, 考虑到现控制算法未进行全局坐标定义, 而是直接使用的东北天坐标系下的经纬度, 直接使用原坐标系计算误差比较麻烦。因此, 考虑将预瞄距离范围内的点实时转换为车体坐标系, 基于此进行后续计算,如 图 6 所示。
图中对于新控制算法, 继续用简化的纯跟踪输出的前轮转角当作模糊 $\mathrm{P}$ 控制器,并且加入微分项与积分项, 分别计算近点、中点、远点的前轮转角后, 进行加权平均, 得到最后要输出的前轮转角, 同时为了提高弯道的转向性能, 加入了当前横向偏差的补偿项。因此, 多点预瞄公式为:
$ {\delta }_{i} = {k}_{\mathrm{p}} \times \arctan \frac{{2L}\sin {\alpha }_{i}}{{l}_{{\mathrm{d}}_{i}}} + {k}_{\mathrm{d}} \times \Delta {\alpha }_{i}/T + {k}_{i} \times \sum {\alpha }_{i} \times \\ T, i = 0,1,2\text{。} \\ \delta = {p}_{0} \times {\delta }_{0} + {p}_{1} \times {\delta }_{1} + {p}_{2} \times {\delta }_{2} + {k}_{l} \times d $
式中: $i = 0,1,2$ 分别代表近点、中点 (原预瞄点)、远点; ${k}_{\mathrm{p}}$${k}_{\mathrm{d}}$${k}_{\mathrm{i}}$${k}_{\mathrm{l}}$ 为对应的比例参数; ${p}_{0}$${p}_{1}$${p}_{2}$ 分别为 3 个前轮转角占总前轮转角的权重 (具体数值根据实际工程决定)。
纵向控制设计参考传统纵向控制算法, 考虑不同车型标定表的思路, 通过纵向公式与标定表对参数进行拟合; 速度规划部分以横向误差与速度误差作为输入, 输出期望车速, 提高车辆在大曲率弯道的适应性。下面将具体阐述这两部分内容。
纵向控制主要为速度控制, 通过控制制动器、 油门、挡位等实现对车速的控制, 对于自动挡车辆来说, 控制对象是制动器和油门。与横向控制不同, 纵向的核心控制器输出的控制量即为车辆最终执行的控制量。
纵向控制采用模糊控制器, 它是模仿人的一种控制。在对被控对象进行控制的过程中, 纵向控制以期望车速为跟踪目标, 相较于不同车型横向运动学模型基本一致。纵向控制不同车型响应特性差异较大, 无法用统一的模型来表述。因此, 纵向控制对于不同车型的精准控制往往依赖标定表或模糊表。
考虑到在实际情况中, 误差一加速度-开度中间存在不确定因素会损失精度, 本文直接设计误差- 开度的标定表。一方面可减少中间环节提高精度, 另一方面也便于后续进行公式拟合。为达到较好的跟踪效果, 将标定表分为基础表与误差条件表, 两者共同作用输出最终的控制量, 具体如 图 7 所示。
其次, 对于纵向控制, 采取前馈控制的策略, 前馈控制器是一种补偿控制, 其特点就是必须能得到被控对象的精确模型或者近似模型才能起到较好的控制效果。可以提高系统的响应速率, 但是需要比较准确地知道被控对象模型和系统特性。
前馈控制基础项是与速度相关的基础控制量, 提供车辆在平路匀速行驶时的基本控制量; 前馈控制另一项为坡度补偿项, 消除上下坡时重力势能造成的影响。
通过纵向公式与标定表对参数进行拟合, 速度规划部分以横向误差与速度误差作为输入, 输出期望车速, 提高车辆在大曲率弯道的适应性。
纵向控制中, 只要已知期望车速、当前车速等相关参数, 纵向控制误差便可根据对应公式计算, 因此, 关键是参数表的拟合, 本文中参数分为基础表与调节表。
为进行基础表的参数采集, 需要对车辆的纵向动力学特性进行测试, 采集参数时要求在平直道路上,让驾驶员分别以3、5、10、15、20、26 km/ 速度行驶, 记录对应的油门开度, 同时记录油门死区, 完成速度特性表制作。在此基础上, 考虑坡道信息,利用环境条件,尽量选取不同坡度,进行上述速度测试。补充坡度信息, 得到速度-坡度基础参数表, 图 8 为实车采集效果。
调节表参数是在跟踪控制过程中对误差的修正, 由于车辆在不同速度下其纵向响应特性不同, 所以对于不同速度区间与速度误差, 需要有对应的标定参数。在进行调节表参数采集时, 选取平直路面, 分别让驾驶员按照 0-10-15-20-15-10-0 (km/h) 与 0-5-15-25-30-15-0 (km/h) 两种不同速度梯形曲线, 对车辆进行测试, 记录测试过程中的速度误差, 并根据速度误差与采集周期计算速度误差变化率, 采集此刻对应的踏板开度, 得到速度误差、速度误差变化率参数表。 图9 为实车采集效果。
有了参数标定表便可基于表格进行纵向速度控制, 控制过程中输入为速度误差、速度误差变化率、期望车速, 输出对应的踏板开度。其具体计算式为:
$ {a}_{\left\lbrack -1,1\right\rbrack } = {a}_{\text{base }} + {a}_{\text{delt }} \circ $
式中: ${a}_{\text{base }}$ 为基础值计算的踏板开度; ${a}_{\text{delt }}$ 为调节值计算的踏板开度。
以基础量标定表为例, 若在实际中期望车速为 ${v}_{\mathrm{d}}$ ,坡度反馈值为 ${i}_{\mathrm{d}}$ ; 先找到期望车速所在区间为 ${v}_{0} - {v}_{1}$ ,坡度所在区间为 ${i}_{0} - {i}_{1}$ 。设期望速度为 ${v}_{0}$ 坡度为 ${i}_{0}$ 对应的开度为 ${a}_{00}$ ,期望车速为 ${v}_{1}$ 坡度为 ${i}_{0}$ 对应的开度为 ${a}_{01}$ ,同样设置坡度为 ${i}_{1}$ 下对应两个车速下的开度为 ${a}_{10}\text{、}{a}_{11}$ ,则最终计算的 ${a}_{\text{base }}$ 为:
$ \left\{ \begin{array}{l} {a}_{0} = {a}_{00} + \frac{{v}_{\mathrm{d}} - {v}_{0}}{{v}_{1} - {v}_{0}}\left( {{a}_{01} - {a}_{00}}\right) \\ {a}_{1} = {a}_{00} + \frac{{v}_{\mathrm{d}} - {v}_{0}}{{v}_{1} - {v}_{0}}\left( {{a}_{11} - {a}_{10}}\right) \end{array}\right. \\ \Rightarrow {a}_{\text{base }} = {a}_{0} + \frac{{i}_{\mathrm{d}} - {i}_{0}}{{i}_{1} - {i}_{0}}\left( {{a}_{1} - {a}_{0}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${a}_{0}\text{、}{a}_{1}$ 为中间量,分别表示速度为 ${v}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 坡度为 ${i}_{0}$ 时的计算值、速度为 ${v}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 坡度为 ${i}_{1}$ 时的计算值。通过式 (20) 以及基础表、参数表, 便可实现车辆的纵向控制。
将纵向控制分为前馈控制、PD控制、带遗忘因子的积分控制三部分。前馈控制基础项为与速度相关的基础控制量, 提供车辆在平路匀速行驶时的基本控制量;前馈控制另一项为坡度补偿项,消除上下坡时重力势能造成的影响。反馈控制部分为 PID控制, 其中比例控制与微分控制通过计算速度误差、速度误差变化量进行对应输出, 积分项为带遗忘因子的速度误差累积并乘以对应的积分系数, 最终的公式为:
$ {u}_{\text{total }} = {u}_{v} + {u}_{i} + {u}_{\mathrm{{pd}}} + {u}_{l},\;{u}_{\text{total }} \in \left\lbrack {-1,1}\right\rbrack 。 $
其中, 速度基础项
$ {u}_{v} = {k}_{\mathrm{a}}{u}_{\mathrm{a}}^{2} + {k}_{\mathrm{b}}{u}_{\mathrm{a}} + {k}_{\mathrm{c}} \circ $
式中: ${k}_{\mathrm{a}},{k}_{\mathrm{b}},{k}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 为多项式拟合系数。
其中, 坡度基础项
$ {u}_{\mathrm{i}} = {k}_{\mathrm{s}}{i}_{ \circ } $
式中: ${k}_{\mathrm{s}}$ 为坡度补偿系数。
其中, 误差控制项
$ {u}_{\mathrm{{pd}}} = {k}_{\mathrm{p}}{e}_{v} + {k}_{\mathrm{d}}\Delta {e}_{v} \circ $
式中: ${k}_{\mathrm{p}},{k}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 为比例系数与积分系数。
其中, 累计误差消除项
$ {u}_{\mathrm{I}} = {k}_{\mathrm{I}} \times {I}_{ev} = {k}_{\mathrm{I}} \times \left( {{0.95} \times {I}_{{ev}, k - 1} + {e}_{v, k}}\right) 。 $
式中: ${k}_{\mathrm{I}}$ 为积分项系数。
通过上述推导公式, 便可将原标定表拆解, 利用对应公式拟合参数。包括基础项多项式参数 ${k}_{\mathrm{a}},{k}_{\mathrm{b}},{k}_{\mathrm{c}}$ 、坡度补偿项参数 ${k}_{\mathrm{s}}$ 、比例微分项参数 ${k}_{\mathrm{p}}$ , ${k}_{\mathrm{d}}$ 以及根据经验得到的积分项参数。
对于原基础量标定表, 将其拆分为速度基础量与坡度补偿量。其中速度补偿量即坡度为 0 时对应不同速度的控制参数, 以 图 8 中的标定表为例, 见 表 1
如果车速为 0 、坡度为 0 ,则其开度也应该为 0,因此,第 1 个点选取坐标原点;以式(21)对速度基础项进行拟合, 表 1 为原始数值, 图 10 为拟合结果, 参数均有对应值。
确定速度基础项 ${u}_{v}$ 的参数后,便可确定二维表中坡度为 0 时的对应散点,坡度基础项 ${u}_{\mathrm{i}}$ 为比例控制, 以坡度为 0 的散点为基础, 确定坡度比例控制参数, 同样以 图 8 中的标定表, 确定坡度项系数为 1.1。 图 11 为公式拟合后的基础项参数表。
对于原有调节量 (速度误差一速度误差变化率) 参数表,可理解为 $\mathrm{{PD}}$ 控制系数表,为确定 $\mathrm{{PD}}$ 系数, 参照基础表拟合思路, 先确定速度误差变化率为 0 条件下速度误差与开度的关系, 从而确定比例项系数。基于此, 将速度误差变化率 0.03 拟合后, 对应不同车速的点在二维表中进行确定, 再根据原有二维表数据, 进行微分项参数拟合, 以 图 12 调节量标定表为例, 图 12 为公式拟合后的调节项参数表。
为验证本文所述的跟踪控制算法的有效性, 使用Matlab/Simulink 与 PreScan 进行联合仿真, 融入外接驾驶器设备, 根据实车使用的 GPS, 激光雷达、毫米波雷达、视觉传感器、执行控制机构等设备的通信协议与通信方式进行仿真模拟, 搭建数据模拟、数据解析、通信传输模块, 通过串口通信、 UDP通信、CAN通信实现仿真平台与矿用无人驾驶车辆实车的车载计算单元的信息交互, 形成闭环控制。如 图 13 所示。
PreScan 的作用是快捷搭建的无人车测试平台。 在这个平台搭建好之后, 可以通过 Matlab 进行控制模块的构建及仿真。PreScan 的优点在于, 提供了很多种传感器供选择, 提供很多可视化的行人模型和车辆模型, 可控制天气环境可视化。而且因为主要控制模块都是基于 Matlab/Simulink 进行仿真的, 所以可以直接利用很多 Matlab/Simlink 的功能, 从而对车辆的控制进行设置。
Matlab/Simulink 与 PreScan 进行联合仿真时需要正确设置输入和输出, 经过设置后, 输入设置为发动机接气温开度、各个前轮转角,输出参数为 $x$ 轴车辆坐标、 $y$ 轴车辆坐标、车辆航向角、 $x$ 轴车辆横向速度、 $y$ 轴车辆横向速度、 $z$ 轴车辆横摆率 [ 20 ]
为考验车辆的通过能力, 本文以内蒙古通辽市某露天矿场场景为基础, 搭建了简化的试验道路场景, 既考验了车辆在非结构化道路的通过能力, 还为后续实车测试提供了有力的数据支持。
需要首先在 PreScan 中建立仿真地图, 如 图 14 所示。由图可知, 该测试场地有直线的路段、直角转弯、连续弯道和转弯半径较大的复杂路况, 满足了测试算法时所需要的各种场景的需求, 能更好地检验算法的效果。
其次, 建立试验车的物理模型, 物理模型中包括试验车轴距质量等的各种参数, PreScan 车身模型参数设置界面如 图 15 所示。在车身模型界面中, 可以设置车辆的车身高度、前后轴距、质心位置以及车辆在不同方向的转动惯量等。
用 Simlink 对目标函数进行求解。基于 Simlink 将求解出来的最优控制量输入到 PreScan 的物理模型中。并且在 ROS 里实时对比车辆的横向偏差、航向角等各种控制指标量, 最后输出 log 日志, 分析矿卡的横向控制能力。
为验证该算法在较复杂的道路上的控制精度, 设置了 ${15}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ 的期望速度,道路曲率情况如 图 16 所示。横向对比之前的斯坦利控制算法, 纵向对比空载和满载的速度跟踪效果, 满载控制结果如 图 17 ~18 所示。空载控制结果如 图 19 ~20 所示。
由测试结果可知, 满载情况下, 横向偏差控制在 $\pm {0.2}\mathrm{\;m}$ 以内。空载情况下,横向偏差控制在 $\pm {0.2}\mathrm{\;m}$ 以内; 空载和满载对比发现, 满载由于质量较大, 控制效果比空载情况下差一些, 但是总体也能控制在 $\pm {0.2}\mathrm{\;m}$ 以内。通过 图 16图 18 与斯坦利算法的对比可知,多点预瞄算法的最大横向偏差为 ${0.15}\mathrm{\;m}$ , 平均横向偏差 ${0.1}\mathrm{\;m}$ ,而斯坦利算法最大横向偏差为 ${0.25}\mathrm{\;m}$ ,平均偏差为 ${0.15}\mathrm{\;m}$ 。由 图 16图 18 可知,新纵向算法载车速 $8\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}\text{、}{10}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}\text{、}{13.5}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ 纵向速度跟随误差 $< {0.5}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ ,且不存在明显的超调现象,速度跟随也比较平顺。
因此, 从纵向控制与横向控制测试结果来看, 算法的 HIL 测试验证达到预期, 本文设计的算法比斯坦利算法更好。从两种算法各自的横向误差分析, 也可以从侧面证明上述观点。基于该分析结果可在矿区开展实际调试, 验证其在不同道路环境与不同车型响应特性下的控制稳定性。
为了进一步验证仿真测试的正确性, 在国内某矿区搭建了实车测试平台, 如 图 20 所示。测试场景中大曲率弯道少,存在重载下坡情况,在实车上进行了测试。实车测试时所需要的硬件需求为一辆改装的智能矿卡。此智能矿卡搭载了激光雷达、毫米波雷达、双目摄像头、单目摄像头、Mobileye 和惯导IMU等。
矿山与城市道路相比,矿山环境封闭,道路及通行规则自成体系, 不存在公开道路的交通法规问题,且车辆路线相对固定,车速大多在 ${30}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ 以下。露天矿运输矿卡体积和载重较大, 行驶中具有较高的惯性, 所以对无人驾驶控制提出了更高的要求, 此外, 矿卡的路线相对单一, 场景封闭, 有利于实现无人驾驶实车的测试与应用。此次采用的测试车辆车速 $> {30}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ ,并且 “车型大”,特别是惯导装在车顶,车身存在晃动造成测量误差。
本次测试选用同一条线路同一台矿卡进行测试, 在横向控制算法中着重对横向偏差进行对分析, 在纵向控制中着重分析速度偏差的大小。测试数据如 图 22 ~23 所示。
新版算法的控制最大偏差处在 $- {0.2} \sim {0.2}\mathrm{\;m}$ 之间, 进行最大车速 ${28}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ 测试,真实车速 $> {30}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ ;横向偏差方面,最大偏差为 ${0.23}\mathrm{\;m}$ 、平均偏差 ${0.1168}\mathrm{\;m}$ , 而斯坦利算法最大横向偏差达到 ${0.41}\mathrm{\;m}$ ,平均横向偏差达到 ${0.19}\mathrm{\;m}$ 。由此可知,新算法对比斯坦利算法, 有更好的表现, 其横向误差保持在较小的水平,且变化平稳。在纵向控制方面,纵向算法在车速8、10、 ${15}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ 时的纵向速度跟随误差 $< 1\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ , 速度跟踪效果较平稳,在实际车速 $> {30}\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ 时,速度跟随误差 $< 1\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ ,有较好的表现。
本文针对环境恶劣、大曲率弯道、坡道和具有高度非线性、非结构化道路的矿用无人驾驶车辆横纵向控制精度问题, 提出了一种纯跟踪与 PID 结合的多点预瞄横向控制方法和考虑模糊控制参数拟合的纵向控制方法。进一步提高车辆横向偏差的精度和纵向控制速度跟随稳定性。经试验验证, 得出以下结论。
1)在纯跟踪算法中加入多点预瞄的算法策略在极限的道路工况下有良好的适应性, 在存在明显车身晃动情况下最大横向偏差 $< {0.3}\mathrm{\;m}$ ,平均偏差 <0.12 m。较斯坦利算法有更高的横向控制精度。 纵向控制方面, 在大矿卡纵向响应延时的条件下, 速度跟随误差 $< 1\mathrm{\;{km}}/\mathrm{h}$ ,保证了车辆驾驶时的平稳性与舒适性。
2)此算法针对矿用运输车辆的横纵向控制精度, 有良好的表现, 保证了车辆的行驶稳定性, 可以实现特定区域的车辆控制, 算法具有一定的商用价值。
本文算法成功应用在某露天矿区宽体车上, 并且能达到运输需求, 未来还将继续提升一些特殊工况下的控制精度, 提升速度的同时也要考虑车辆侧倾问题 [ 21 ] 。此外,未来还将优化控制模型,对算法中的一些控制参数进行优化, 达到自适应调节参数的效果, 优化控制过程。
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2022YFB4703702)
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2024年第14卷第2期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.02.02
  • 接收时间:2023-03-07
  • 首发时间:2025-07-21
补充材料
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出版历史
  • 收稿日期:2023-03-07
  • 修回日期:2023-04-24
基金
国家重点研发计划项目(2022YFB4703702)
作者信息
    1 北京航空航天大学 交通科学与工程学院 特种车辆无人运输技术工业和信息化部重点实验室 北京 100191
    2 内蒙古电投能源股份有限公司 呼和浩特 010090

通讯作者:


周彬(1987-),男,山东潍坊人,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为无人驾驶车载多传感器融合感知、车辆行驶状态辨识和车辆智能控制。Tel: 18500240536 E-mail:
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https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/qcgcxb/CN/10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.02.02
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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