Article(id=1153813376611373454, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153813374610690435, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.01, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1711814400000, receivedDateStr=2024-03-31, revisedDate=1712419200000, revisedDateStr=2024-04-07, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753020145800, onlineDateStr=2025-07-20, pubDate=null, pubDateStr=null, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753020145800, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753020145800, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753020145800, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1153813374610690435, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, year='2024', volume='14', issue='4', pageStart='553', pageEnd='744', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=0, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1753020145323, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757481646291, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172526266059206864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153813374610690435, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172526266059206865, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, issueId=1153813374610690435, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=553, endPage=565, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1153813377072746895, articleId=1153813376611373454, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, language=EN, title=Prospects and Applications of Low-Platinum PEMFCs for Vehicles, columnId=1153813376129028490, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, columnName=Review and Rrospect, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

As the core product of the hydrogen energy industry, proton exchange membrane fuel cells are characterized by high energy conversion efficiency, zero emissions and no pollution. They are one of the most promising power sources in the automotive field. However, the high cost limits the largescale application and promotion of PEMFCs for vehicles. The development of lowplatinum PEMFCs for vehicles is an important technical route to improve cost competitiveness. However, the serious mass transfer and lifespan issues faced in the lowplatinum process urgently need to be solved. This paper summarizes the research progress of lowplatinum membrane electrode assembly technology and the shortcomings of existing technologies. It also looks forward to the future development trends, providing reference value for the advancement of lowplatinum membrane electrode technology for vehicle PEMFCs.

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质子交换膜燃料电池作为氢能产业应用的核心产品,具有能量转换效率高、零排放、无污染等特点,是车用领域的重要动力来源之一。然而,高昂的成本限制了车用质子交换膜燃料电池的大规模应用及推广。低铂化膜电极技术的开发是提高其价格竞争力的重要手段,但低铂化过程中面临的严重传质和寿命问题急需解决。总结了低铂化膜电极技术的研究进展及现有技术的不足,并展望了未来的发展趋势,可为车用质子交换膜燃料电池的低铂化膜电极技术开发提供参考。

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林瑞(1973-),女,浙江瑞安人,博士,教授,主要研究方向为车用新能源材料及氢能燃料电池技术、储能材料开发与应用、碳中和技术开发及应用。Tel:021-65983837 E-mail:
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蔡鑫(1992-),男,江苏常州人,博士,主要研究方向为氢能及燃料电池关键材料。Tel:021-65983837 E-mail:

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蔡鑫(1992-),男,江苏常州人,博士,主要研究方向为氢能及燃料电池关键材料。Tel:021-65983837 E-mail:

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蔡鑫(1992-),男,江苏常州人,博士,主要研究方向为氢能及燃料电池关键材料。Tel:021-65983837 E-mail:

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关键问题 主要手段 关键技术方向 作用 难点
局域传质 载体改性 表面特性 实现 Ionomer 均匀分布 特性与分布对应关系不清晰
孔结构 减小 Ionomer 毒化区域 增加传质通道 内外可控担载难度大 均一性受限, 难以规模化
有序化 高效的传输路径 高催化剂利用率 难以大规模制造
界面设计 Ionomer/催化剂界面 缩短传质路径, 降低传质阻抗 形成连接网络, 避免催化剂团聚 控制 Ionomer 分布情况
结构调控 孔结构 改善气体/液体传输通道 结构难以维持, 易坍塌失效
亲疏水 改善气体/液体传输通道 减少活性位点, 降低效率
运行寿命 催化剂设计 介孔碳载体 减少毒化区域 提升活性面积 内外可控担载难度大 均一性受限, 难以规模化
表面团簇修饰 抑制金属溶解 机理不明晰 成本高
核壳结构 抑制金属溶解 提升Pt利用率 降低成本 制备成本高、流程复杂 均一性受限,难以规模化
催化层开发 浆料及催化层结构 减薄 Ionomer,提高传质能力 减少团聚,提高均一性 浆料组分作用难以明晰 催化层结构难以可控设计
膜电极制备 喷涂法 增加接触, 减小阻抗 催化层结构均匀 质子膜溶胀 浆料不稳定 损耗率高
转印法 避免质子膜溶胀 适合大面积批量化制备 基底要求高 制备流程繁琐、耗时 膜电极结构高温易变形
狭缝涂布 生产成本低、生产高效 对浆料配方、涂敷/组装工艺要求高,难度大
), ArticleFig(id=1153824267566309883, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153813376611373454, language=CN, label=表 1, caption=车用燃料电池低铂化膜电极优化方法对比, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
关键问题 主要手段 关键技术方向 作用 难点
局域传质 载体改性 表面特性 实现 Ionomer 均匀分布 特性与分布对应关系不清晰
孔结构 减小 Ionomer 毒化区域 增加传质通道 内外可控担载难度大 均一性受限, 难以规模化
有序化 高效的传输路径 高催化剂利用率 难以大规模制造
界面设计 Ionomer/催化剂界面 缩短传质路径, 降低传质阻抗 形成连接网络, 避免催化剂团聚 控制 Ionomer 分布情况
结构调控 孔结构 改善气体/液体传输通道 结构难以维持, 易坍塌失效
亲疏水 改善气体/液体传输通道 减少活性位点, 降低效率
运行寿命 催化剂设计 介孔碳载体 减少毒化区域 提升活性面积 内外可控担载难度大 均一性受限, 难以规模化
表面团簇修饰 抑制金属溶解 机理不明晰 成本高
核壳结构 抑制金属溶解 提升Pt利用率 降低成本 制备成本高、流程复杂 均一性受限,难以规模化
催化层开发 浆料及催化层结构 减薄 Ionomer,提高传质能力 减少团聚,提高均一性 浆料组分作用难以明晰 催化层结构难以可控设计
膜电极制备 喷涂法 增加接触, 减小阻抗 催化层结构均匀 质子膜溶胀 浆料不稳定 损耗率高
转印法 避免质子膜溶胀 适合大面积批量化制备 基底要求高 制备流程繁琐、耗时 膜电极结构高温易变形
狭缝涂布 生产成本低、生产高效 对浆料配方、涂敷/组装工艺要求高,难度大
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车用质子交换膜燃料电池低铂化展望及应用
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蔡鑫 , 林瑞
汽车工程学报 | 综述与展望 2024,14(4): 553-565
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汽车工程学报 | 综述与展望 2024, 14(4): 553-565
车用质子交换膜燃料电池低铂化展望及应用
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蔡鑫 , 林瑞
作者信息
  • 同济大学 汽车学院 上海 201804
  • 蔡鑫(1992-),男,江苏常州人,博士,主要研究方向为氢能及燃料电池关键材料。Tel:021-65983837 E-mail:

通讯作者:


林瑞(1973-),女,浙江瑞安人,博士,教授,主要研究方向为车用新能源材料及氢能燃料电池技术、储能材料开发与应用、碳中和技术开发及应用。Tel:021-65983837 E-mail:
Prospects and Applications of Low-Platinum PEMFCs for Vehicles
Xin CAI , Rui LIN
Affiliations
  • School of Automotive Studies Tongji University Shanghai 201804 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.01
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质子交换膜燃料电池作为氢能产业应用的核心产品,具有能量转换效率高、零排放、无污染等特点,是车用领域的重要动力来源之一。然而,高昂的成本限制了车用质子交换膜燃料电池的大规模应用及推广。低铂化膜电极技术的开发是提高其价格竞争力的重要手段,但低铂化过程中面临的严重传质和寿命问题急需解决。总结了低铂化膜电极技术的研究进展及现有技术的不足,并展望了未来的发展趋势,可为车用质子交换膜燃料电池的低铂化膜电极技术开发提供参考。

质子交换膜燃料电池  /  膜电极  /  低铂化  /  传质损失  /  耐久性

As the core product of the hydrogen energy industry, proton exchange membrane fuel cells are characterized by high energy conversion efficiency, zero emissions and no pollution. They are one of the most promising power sources in the automotive field. However, the high cost limits the largescale application and promotion of PEMFCs for vehicles. The development of lowplatinum PEMFCs for vehicles is an important technical route to improve cost competitiveness. However, the serious mass transfer and lifespan issues faced in the lowplatinum process urgently need to be solved. This paper summarizes the research progress of lowplatinum membrane electrode assembly technology and the shortcomings of existing technologies. It also looks forward to the future development trends, providing reference value for the advancement of lowplatinum membrane electrode technology for vehicle PEMFCs.

proton exchange membrane fuel cell  /  membrane electrode assembly  /  low Pt-loading  /  mass transfer loss  /  durability
蔡鑫, 林瑞. 车用质子交换膜燃料电池低铂化展望及应用. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (4) : 553 -565 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.01
Xin CAI, Rui LIN. Prospects and Applications of Low-Platinum PEMFCs for Vehicles[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (4) : 553 -565 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.01
氢能作为一种高效、清洁的能源, 在全球大力发展新型清洁能源的大趋势下,世界各国对氢能技术都非常关注。据预计,我国在 2020~2025 年间氢能产业产值将达到万亿元级别, 2026 ~ 2035年将形成比较完备的氢能产业技术创新体系,助力 “碳达峰、碳中和”目标的实现。相关调查认为, 我国将在 10 年内成为世界最大的氢能市场 [ 1 ] 。作为氢能源的重要运用之一, 燃料电池汽车被美国《时代》周刊列为 21 世纪 10 大高新科技之首 [ 2 ] 。其中, 质子交换膜燃料电池 (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell, PEMFC) 具有零排放、高功率密度、低操作温度、快速响应等优点, 被认为是最适用于交通领域的燃料电池 [ 3 - 5 ]
但是, 车用 PEMFC 的成本和寿命一直是制约其发展的关键技术问题。车用 PEMFC 的其他关键部件如双极板、质子交换膜和气体扩散层等, 成本都将在批量化生产后大幅降低。然而,铂(Pt)基催化剂的成本一直居高不下, 甚至占到电堆成本的 40%。美国能源部(DOE)制定的燃料电池汽车铂金属用量目标认为额定功率需要达到 ${0.125}\mathrm{\;{kW}}/\mathrm{g}$ , 才具备足够的技术竞争力,以实现规模化应用 [ 6 ] 。 美国通用汽车公司根据当前燃油汽车铂的使用量 $\left( { < 5\mathrm{\;g}}\right)$ ,认为燃料电池汽车未来铂的使用量需进一步降低到 ${0.0625}\mathrm{\;g}/\mathrm{{kW}}$ ,相当于一辆 ${90}\mathrm{\;{kW}}$ 的中型轿车铂的目标用量需在 $6\mathrm{\;g}$ 左右,才有成本优势 [ 7 ] 。美国战略分析公司根据 DOE 标准对燃料电池电堆做了成本核算(以年产量为 50 万套为计算标准), 发现电堆成本并非与铂用量呈线性关系, 燃料电池膜电极中阴极铂载量在 ${0.1}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 时电堆成本趋向最低 [ 8 ] 。因此,低铂化膜电极是必须要解决的关键技术问题之一。
按照当前的膜电极制备技术,阳极 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 载量低至 ${0.025}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ ,也不会对电池性能造成显著影响, 因此,低铂化的研究重点主要在膜电极阴极[9-10]。 当阴极 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 载量从 ${0.40}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 降低到 ${0.20}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 时, 燃料电池的电压损失主要由纯动力学损失引起, 衰减为 ${10} \sim {20}{\mathrm{{mV}}}$[11]。但是,当 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 载量进一步降低至 ${0.1}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 时,在高功率下单个活性位点的氧、 质子和水通量骤增,过大的局域氧传质阻力会限制催化剂性能, 催化层内的传质问题将取代氧还原反应中的缓慢动力学过程, 成为提高膜电极性能的首要问题 [ 12 ] 。此外,在低铂化过程中,阴极 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 载量的降低会明显加速催化剂的降解, 造成传质阻力增加,导致更高的性能损失 [ 13 ]
因此, 本文将重点关注车用 PEMFC 的膜电极阴极催化层, 分析其在低铂化过程中面临的传质问题和耐久性问题, 进行研究进展的总结。在此基础上, 分析现有技术的不足, 对未来的发展趋势进行展望, 为车用 PEMFC 低铂化的后续研究提供参考。
催化层中的氧传质阻力包括体相传质阻力和局域传质阻力。在低铂化和高电流密度条件下, 传质阻力将加重氧还原反应的传质极化,给电池性能带来严重不利影响。其中, 局域传质阻力尤为严重,是影响低铂化膜电极发展的重大挑战之一 [ 14 ] ( 图 1 )。
武汉理工大学潘牧课题组 [ 15 ] 、美国 3M 公司 [ 16 ] 等团队的研究结果表明,催化层中 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 载量降低至 ${0.1}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 以下时,低铂膜电极在高电流密度下会出现严重的传质问题,导致性能大幅下降。日本Nissan研究中心的研究表明, 高电压损失主要与氧气的局部传输阻力(RLOC)有关, 且该阻力与 Pt的表面积成反比关系 [ 17 ] 。SHEN Shuiyun 等 [ 18 ] 提出了一个吸附控制的溶解-扩散模型, 解释了催化层中的局域氧传输行为。该模型认为, 氧气渗透离聚物 (Ionomer) 可分为 3 个阶段: 氧气从气相吸附到 Ionomer;氧气在 Ionomer 内部扩散;氧气从 Ionomer 吸附到 Pt 颗粒表面。当阴极 Pt 载量由 ${0.1}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 降到 ${0.05}\mathrm{{mg}}/{\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$ 时,氧气在 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 表面的 RLOC 将增加 1 倍, 使高电流密度下的电压急剧下降。
目前, 降低局域传质阻力、构筑良好三相界面的思路主要集中在催化剂载体改性、离聚物/催化剂界面设计、催化层特征调控 3 个方面。
为降低三相界面中的局部氧传质阻力, 国内外知名研究团体提出了大量可供参考的载体优化方案 ( 图 2 )。宝马集团的 ORFANIDI 等 [ 19 ] 通过在多孔碳载体上掺杂 $\mathrm{N}$ 基官能团,制备得到新型催化剂并应用于 PEMFC。研究结果表明, 由于 Ionomer 侧链上的磺酸根与 $\mathrm{N}$ 基官能团之间的库伦相互作用,保证了 Ionomer 在催化层中高度均匀分布, 有效缓解了高电流密度下局部氧传输阻力, 提高了低铂膜电极的输出功率。加州大学的 ZHAO Zipeng 等 [ 20 ] 采用类似思路,调控 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 基催化剂碳载体表面 $\mathrm{O}$ 含量,制备得到的低铂膜电极性能和耐久性均超越了 DOE 目标。这归因于碳载体与 Ionomer 之间的良好相互作用, 导致 Ionomer 在催化层中的分布更加均匀, 构建了一个亲疏水平衡的理想微环境, 有利于质子和氧分子的传输以及液态水的排出。
目前的商业催化剂载体多以无定形碳为主, 会形成杂乱无序的曲折孔隙网络结构, 造成气液传输阻力的增加。同时, 较低的石墨化程度也会造成载体的流失, 使催化层结构坍塌造成性能骤降。随着膜电极 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 载量的降低,介孔碳材料因其成本低廉、 比表面积大、孔隙率高、电子/质子传输速度快、 耐腐蚀等特性将成为下一代研究的重点。已有大量研究进行了碳微球粒径、孔径等结构特征的可控调节和碳载体的功能化、石墨有序化设计。其中, 丰田第 2 代 Mirai 阴极催化层使用介孔碳 Pt-Co 合金催化剂, 实现了催化剂纳米颗粒在介孔碳内外的可控担载 ( 图 3 )。当Ionomer覆盖催化剂时, 上述介孔碳结构可以有效防止孔隙内部的催化剂颗粒被覆盖, 有效避免了电化学活性面积的降低。此外, 丰田还对载体的介孔表面进行了亲水化处理, 使氢离子更容易到达载体内部催化剂颗粒表面, 实现了性能的大幅提升。但是, 除丰田外, 其他研究机构对介孔碳材料几何结构参数和化学成分参数的优化研究并不多见。介孔碳的介孔大小和分布、比表面积和微晶尺寸仍需进行优化, 以进一步抑制催化剂颗粒与 Ionomer 的接触和运行过程中的水淹问题。
有序化膜电极的开发也是目前低铂膜电极研究的热点之一。通过良好的传输孔道结构方案, 设计具有取向的纳米结构的电极, 可以提供超高利用率的活性位点暴露,并显著改善传质性能。 MIDDELMAN 等 [ 21 ] 首先提出了理想电极结构的概念, 在理想电极结构中, 所有的电子导体、质子导体和气孔都沿着相应的传输方向定向。3 M公司制备的NSTF电极由定向的短(长度小于 ${1\mu }\mathrm{m}$ )晶须状有机体阵列组成,通过真空溅射技术沉积 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$$\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 基合金催化剂,形成了催化剂薄膜 [ 22 ] 。NSTF电极具有有序的载体结构和超薄的铂层厚度, 改善了氧传输过程,增大了 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 活性位点的暴露程度,同时加强催化剂纳米结构质子传输效应, 实现了膜电极性能的大幅提升。此外, 高度有序垂直排列的碳纳米管阵列和离聚体质子导体的阵列, 也具有高效的传输路径和高催化剂利用率的优点。这些定向领域的铂利用率预计接近 100%,可将 Pt 负载量降低至常规负载水平的 20%。未来的有序结构催化层需进一步改进, 以设计具有高活性面积的气体、液体、电子和质子的无干扰短程传输路径。虽然目前的有序阵列催化层结构仍难以实现大规模制造, 但是由于其优越的传质能力和高催化剂利用率,在超低铂膜电极的应用中仍然具有很大的潜力。
相比于催化剂载体改性,调控催化层中催化剂与 Ionomer的相互作用界面可视为一条更加直接的研究路径。通用公司CAULK等 [ 23 ] 的模拟计算结果显示, 氧气在 Ionomer 薄膜表面的传输阻力 $\left( {6 \sim {12}\mathrm{\;s}/\mathrm{m}}\right)$ 是其在固相质子交换膜内部传输阻力 $\left( {1 \sim 2\mathrm{\;s}/\mathrm{m}}\right)$$3 \sim$ 10 倍。这表明针对氧的传输行为研究必须与 Ionomer-Pt的界面关联起来。一些报道指出, Ionomer 相比固相质子交换膜具有更低的吸水率, Ionomer 与基底层(Pt、C、Ni等)的相互作用将会控制 Ionomer 纳米结构的重组 [ 24 - 26 ] 。PAGE 等 [ 27 ] 的研究表明,当 Ionomer 的厚度降低到 ${20}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$ 以下时将会失去 “亲疏水相分离” 的性质, 同时其 “弹性系数” 呈现出一个数量级的增长。这些变化归因于 Ionomer的 “限制效应”, Ionomer 内的高分子和水域不能随意调整自己的方向 (自由度降低) [ 28 ] 。美国卡耐基梅隆大学 LIU Hang 等 [ 29 ] 的研究结果表明, Ionomer 与 Pt 表面的相互作用是氧传输阻抗增加的重要因素。阴极催化层中RLOC增加原因可归结为 2 点: 催化层中 Ionomer 薄膜厚度低于 ${10}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$ 时, 由于限制效应引起的 Ionomer 相分离和弹性系数增大增加了氧气和水的传输阻力;Ionomer侧链上的磺酸基团与 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 表面极强的吸附作用,降低了 Ionomer 的自由度, 破坏了氧气透过 Ionomer 往 Pt 表面扩散的路径,提高了局部氧传输阻力。
为降低三相微环境中的局部氧传质阻力, 国内外研究机构在试验方面提出了很多的研究方案 ( 图 4 ) [ 30 ] 。为产生良好的电化学性能, Ionomer应均匀分散在电极中, 并与其他催化剂组分和膜保持稳定的界面 [ 31 ]
KIM 等 [ 32 ] 以二丙二醇(DPG)和水的混合物作为 Ionomer 的分散介质, 在催化层中实现了 Ionomer 可控分布。研究发现, 在浆料中尺寸接近 Pt/C团聚体的 Ionomer 聚集体可以形成高度连接网络, 有效避免催化剂团聚, 从而提升膜电极性能。 SUN Yiyan 等 [ 33 ] 选择同时使用 Nafion 纳米纤维和 Nafion 溶液制备混合 Ionomer, 提出具有分层质子传输路径的催化层。与常规催化层结构相比, 这种含有混合 Ionomer 的催化层具备更薄的 Ionomer 层, 可以暴露更多的催化活性位点。可见, 调控燃料电池催化层中的 Ionomer 分布, 并控制 Ionomer 对催化剂的覆盖情况, 可以改善膜电极的结构。
Ionomer 侧链上的磺酸基/醚基与催化剂表面的强相互作用是导致催化剂表面传质通道受阻的主要原因。当Ionomer侧链较短、醚基较少时,可以有效地降低侧链柔韧性, 增加骨架张力, 缓解催化剂的衰减。同时, 一些新型的 Ionomer 也已被开发, 丰田已经报道了一款具有环状结构主链基质的新型 Ionomer, 该产品通过抑制催化剂表面 Ionomer 的排列密度,使局部传质阻力降低了 40%~50%。
基于上述分析,可以发现随着膜电极中 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 载量的降低,局部氧传质阻力骤增的问题是限制 PEMFC性能的关键因素。因此, 正确理解三相反应微环境中氧传输动力学行为, 寻找降低局部氧传质限制的方法, 开发具有环状短侧链或其他类似结构的 Ionomer, 可以加快低铂膜电极的发展速度, 有望实现降低 PEMFC 成本的同时保证高性能输出。
针对低铂催化层结构设计, 目前的研究方向是采用高孔隙率和可控的多孔结构设计。催化层浆料中的溶剂、离聚物种类和比例的变化以及浆料的分散工艺等会直接影响催化层中亲疏水网络和三相界面结构, 进而影响气体、质子和电子的迁移速率, 实现膜电极性能的提升。为了构建良好的三相催化反应界面, 提高电池性能, 相关学者对催化层的物性结构展开了一系列的设计和优化。
OHTA 等 [ 34 ] 在催化层中添加了疏水剂 PTFE, 改善了气体的传输通道, 并降低了反应气体的扩散阻力。但浆料采用乙酸乙酯溶剂使 Nafion 形成了较大的胶体颗粒, 阻碍了质子导电相与催化剂的接触, 降低了催化剂的利用率。为改善催化层的亲疏水性能, QIU Yanling 等 [ 35 ] 提出制备双层催化层结构, 靠近质子交换膜侧添加 Nafion (亲水催化层), 靠近气体扩散层(GDL)侧添加 PTFE(疏水催化层), 可有效提高催化剂利用率。也有研究表明, 浆料中添加造孔剂能增加催化层的传输孔道, 有利于反应气扩散和液态水的排出, 但这会加速催化层的衰减,使膜电极的寿命缩短 [ 36 ] 。LIN Rui 等 [ 37 ] 通过 PTFE 的梯度化设计, 同时提升了膜电极宽幅湿度适应性和性能。
催化层孔隙结构的调节也对燃料电池的传质能力影响很大。MORGAN 等 [ 38 ] 的模拟结果表明,针对微孔层, 缩小靠近催化层一侧的孔径, 可有效提高两者的接触, 而增大靠近气体扩散层侧的微孔层孔径, 则有利于液态水的及时排出, 提高膜电极的稳定性。ZHAN Zhigang等 [ 39 ] 的研究发现,在维持整体孔隙率不变的前提下, 气体扩散层到质子交换膜方向上催化层孔隙率缩小的梯度化程度越大, 排水性能越好。目前, 膜电极的制备方法主要为气体扩散电极法(GDE)和膜电极法(CCM),这两种方法制备所得的膜电极中催化剂颗粒、Nafion 及孔隙结构基本是随机无序分布的。这大幅降低了催化剂颗粒的利用率,增加了工况下燃料电池的传质阻力 [ 40 ]
催化层孔结构与亲疏水的调控目前已有很多研究, 也有效提升了膜电极的性能。较大的孔隙结构虽然有利于低铂化过程中的传质, 但是催化层结构的易于坍塌会造成性能的急剧衰减。同时, 过量的疏水剂还会造成催化剂颗粒的覆盖, 不利于水和电子的传递。因此, 如何平衡性能与寿命的参数设计是未来急需解决的问题之一。
基于美国能源部 (DOE) 制定的关于 PEMFC 活性和耐久性的具体目标, 急需开发高耐久性和高活性膜电极。燃料电池实际运行过程中膜电极内部会出现大量化学和物理降解, 性能衰退问题依然是阻碍 $\mathrm{{PEMFC}}$ 商业化的重大挑战之一。大量研究表明, 影响膜电极寿命的主要因素包括 PEM 变薄甚至穿孔 [ 41 - 43 ] 、催化层活性降低 [ 44 - 45 ] 、气体扩散层老化 [ 46 ] 等。在膜电极低铂化过程中,由于合金催化剂已经成为了最合适的应用对象, 阴极催化层成为了最关键的一环, 直接决定了膜电极的寿命。阴极催化层中常见的衰退行为包括催化剂电化学活性降低、气液两相流的传输阻力增大和 Ionomer 质子导电能力下降等 [ 47 - 49 ] ( 图5 )。催化剂活性降低主要是由于 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 的溶解、迁移、聚集、流失和碳载腐蚀等造成的 ECSA 减小 [ 50 - 51 ] 。传质阻力增大主要是由催化层孔隙结构坍塌、水热管理失去控制等导致的气液传输受阻所致 [ 52 - 53 ] 。质子导电能力下降主要是因为催化层内部 Ionomer 退化、流失、团聚等 [ 54 - 55 ] 。目前,大部分的膜电极制备技术都基于商业 $\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 在非活性碳载体上。为适应新型低铂化催化层, 需要综合考虑合金催化剂及载体的溶解失效、催化层结构的调控以及膜电极的大面积制备技术难点。
为了实现膜电极的低铂化设计, 合金催化剂的开发与应用是重要途径之一。大量研究结果证明, $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 合金催化剂可表现出约 $\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂 2 倍的质量活性,且 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 合金催化剂也越来越多地集成到了商用车应用中。丰田 Mirai一代在 2008 年便使用 Pt-Co/C 进行了模型的构建, 虽然膜电极的电流密度达到了之前的 2.4 倍, 但同时也引入了金属离子对 Ionomer 和 PEM 的毒化问题 [ 56 - 57 ] 。众多研究均证明了 Pt-M/ C(M=Co、Ni、Mn等)催化剂中阳离子的溶解和污染是影响燃料电池耐久性的关键因素之一 ( 图 6 )。
第 2 代 Mirai 采用介孔碳作为载体, 有效阻止了催化剂中约 ${80}\%$$\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 颗粒与 Ionomer 的直接接触, 使 $\mathrm{{Pt}} - \mathrm{{Co}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂的催化活性再次提高了 ${50}\%$ ,每千瓦功率所需的催化剂载量降低了 58% [ 59 - 60 ] 。虽然合金催化剂在加速耐久性测试中通常表现出比 $\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂更高的本征稳定性, 但这种稳定性的微观作用机制目前仍难以确定 [ 61 ] 。WANG Xiaoping 等 [ 62 ] 发现在 ${0.9}\mathrm{\;V}$ 以下时, Pt-Co/C催化剂中Pt的溶解度要低于 $\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ ,合金催化剂稳定性更佳,但在 ${0.9} \sim$ ${1.2}\mathrm{\;V}$ 时, $\mathrm{{Pt}} - \mathrm{{Co}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂中 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 的溶解度要高于 $\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 。 这是因为 $\mathrm{{Co}}$ 在高电位下会发生明显溶解,造成催化剂的疏松结构,加速 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 的溶解。 $\mathrm{{XU}}$ Qingmin 等 [ 63 ] 发现 $\mathrm{{Pt}} - \mathrm{{Co}}/\mathrm{C}$ 虽然具有优异的活性和耐久性, 但随着 $\mathrm{{Co}}$ 溶解量的增加和催化剂表面的粗糙化, $\mathrm{{Pt}} - \mathrm{{Co}}/\mathrm{C}$ 最终会表现出与 $\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 相似的活性和衰减趋势。在其他 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 基合金中也观察到了很多类似的现象 [ 64 - 65 ]
为抑制合金催化剂中金属的溶解, 一些研究从表面修饰及特殊结构的调控方面进行了催化剂的微观结构设计。ADZIC 等 [ 66 ] 提出了一种采用 Au团簇修饰的方法来降低催化剂溶解性。这种团簇修饰可以增加 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 的氧化电位并使 $\mathrm{{Au}}$ 原子迁移到缺陷位置,显著增强催化剂在 ${0.6} \sim {1.1}\mathrm{\;V}$ 范围内的循环稳定性, 然而暂时并未在膜电极中得到长时间运行的验证。一些研究则通过结合理论与试验探索了 $\mathrm{{Au}}$$\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 表面的修饰作用。GATALO 等 [ 67 ] 通过 $\mathrm{{Cu}}$$\mathrm{{Au}}$ 之间的耦合反应将微量 $\mathrm{{Au}}$ 掺杂到了 ${\mathrm{{PtCu}}}_{3}/\mathrm{C}$ 表面,在外部形成了 $\mathrm{{Pt}} - \mathrm{{Au}}$ 壳,有效抑制了 $\mathrm{{Cu}}$ 的溶解。STAMENKOVI 等 [ 68 ] 的研究表明,在玻碳电极上构建的 $\mathrm{{Au}}$ 基底可以促进 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ (111) 结构的形成,并大幅提升 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 的抗溶解性能,这一原理在 ${\mathrm{{Pt}}}_{3}\mathrm{{Au}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂上也得到了证实。然而,当在多晶 $\mathrm{{Au}}$ 基底上沉积单层 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 时,却观察到了 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 溶解性大幅提升的相反趋势。这表明 $\mathrm{{Au}}$$\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 溶解性的影响与 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 壳的特性和局部 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 电子结构的变化均有关联, 目前仍没有统一定论。此外, 为了减少金属溶解, 核壳催化剂也是研究的重要方向之一 [ 69 ] 。STRASSER 等 [ 70 ] 通过电化学法制备了具有数个 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 原子层厚度外壳的 $\mathrm{{Cu}}@\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 催化剂,测试结果表明,外壳上 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 的晶格间距要小于 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 单质,这主要是内核 $\mathrm{{Cu}}$$\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 产生了晶格收缩的作用, 在提升了催化剂活性的同时也有效限制了 $\mathrm{{Cu}}$ 的溶解。由于内核的 $\mathrm{{Cu}}$ 与最外层的 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 距离较远,配位作用可忽略不计。在早期的核壳结构催化剂研究中,通常使用 $\mathrm{{Cu}}$ 作为核,直到发现 $\mathrm{{Cu}}$ 在燃料电池实际运行过程中极易流失, 造成性能的大幅衰减 [ 71 ] ,研究才逐渐转向具有更好稳定性的 Pt-Ni 和 Pt-Co 体系。STRASSER 等还通过不同温度及气体氛围条件下的热处理,结合 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$$\mathrm{{Ni}}$ 的原子比的调控,得到了多层 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 原子壳的 $\mathrm{{Ni}}@\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂。这种核壳结构催化剂的催化活性达到了商用 $\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂的 6 倍,这主要是因为核壳结构使纳米颗粒表面的 Pt-Pt 距离缩短,提高了催化剂纳米颗粒的表面活性。CAI Xin 等 [ 72 ] 通过酸处理和热处理的耦合应用,实现了 $\mathrm{{Pt}} - \mathrm{{Co}}@\mathrm{{Pt}}/\mathrm{C}$ 催化剂的简单高效制备, 并在膜电极中实现了初步应用, 最高功率密度提升了 10% ( 图 7 )。
STAMENKOVIC 等 [ 73 ] 在研究中强调了脱合金催化剂中 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 层厚度对活性的影响,外层的 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 壳越厚,内核对最外层 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 的晶格影响越小,催化剂活性越低。GAN Lin 等 [ 74 ] 却认为,位于催化剂颗粒近外层的非贵金属含量会对催化剂的活性产生巨大影响。目前, 仍无法用单一的结构特征来解释合金原始比例对其脱合金样品活性的影响规律, 其本质还有待进一步系统研究。除 $\mathrm{{PtNi}}$ 的原始比例外,脱合金方式和操作条件也对最终催化剂的结构、活性和稳定性有重要影响 [ 75 ] 。同时,目前大部分核壳结构的制备方法还无法大规模进行, 面临着制备成本高、结构不均一等问题,制备工艺的开发和优化仍然十分关键。
针对低铂化膜电极, 由于催化层厚度大幅降低, 对催化层的均一性要求更加严格, 浆料的开发也成为了低铂化研究的重点。催化层浆料中溶剂作为催化剂和 Ionomer 的分散介质, 会改变 Ionomer 的分散方式和团聚体尺寸, 溶剂干燥挥发过程又会影响催化层的形貌结构、孔隙结构和三相反应微环境。因此, 分散溶剂的优选作为催化层浆料研究的重要分支得到了广泛关注。GUO Yuqing 等 [ 76 ] 研究了不同介电常数分散溶剂和 Ionomer 含量对催化层浆料流变性和催化层结构的影响, 结果表明, 溶剂介电常数或 Ionomer 含量的增加, 会使浆料中催化剂粒子的 Zeta 电位增大, 催化剂团聚尺寸减小。 KIM 等 [ 77 ] 对比了 3 种分散溶剂 IPA/水、NMP、甘油制备的催化层结构与膜电极性能和耐久性之间的关系。SEM测试结果发现, 以 IPA/水作为分散溶剂的催化层表面出现了大量的裂纹, 而用 NMP 和甘油作为分散溶剂的催化层表面却十分光滑, 并且使用甘油分散溶剂制备的膜电极耐久性得到了极大提升。
此外, 在不添加 Ionomer 时, 由于范德华力的作用, 催化剂易于聚集。而添加 Ionomer 增加了浆料中的熵斥力, 阻碍了催化剂颗粒的团聚。浆料中作用于各组分的相互作用决定了浆料的分散性和涂覆能力。浆料不均一可能导致在催化层中形成裂缝, 虽然膜电极的初始性能可能会因为裂缝导致的高孔隙率结构而有所提升, 但是容易造成催化层的局部快速降解,导致寿命大幅衰减。此外,由于催化剂中的纳米粒子和碳载体分别属于亲水相和疏水相, Ionomer更倾向于粘附在碳载体上。对于应用于低铂化膜电极的高载量催化剂而言, 碳载体表面可吸附的 Ionomer 含量较低。这会导致浆料的 Zeta 电位下降, 催化剂更容易发生团聚, 剩下没有吸附的自由 Ionomer 则会自发聚集。当团聚直径大于 ${10}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$ 后,便无法渗透进入碳载体,只会在碳载体表面形成 $2 \sim {10}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$ 厚的非均匀 Ionomer 层,不利于催化层内三相界面的构建。
针对 Ionomer 结构, LIU Shengchu 等 [ 78 ] 研究了 Ionomer 侧链结构对催化剂浆料团簇分散和催化层微观结构的影响, 发现使用短侧链时, 团簇的粒径分布均匀且团簇表面 Ionomer 膜更薄, 具有均匀连续的离聚物网络, 具有更好的质子传导能力 ( 图 8 )。 同时, 在 Ionomer 优化过程中还必须考虑水的传输问题, 水管理能力的提升可以有效延长 PEMFC 的耐久性。因此, 正确地理解和控制溶剂/Ionomer/催化剂之间的相互作用以及催化层微观形貌结构, 对于提升膜电极性能和耐久性十分关键, 是实现膜电极高效稳定应用的重要研究方向。
低铂化膜电极中更薄的催化层结构对高质量的批量化大面积生产提出了更高的要求。在 $3\mathrm{M}$ 公司的合金纳米结构薄膜(NSTF)产品的制作过程中, 采用了比较复杂的十字转印技术, 不利于产品的规模化制备。在传统膜电极的转印制备过程中, 没有直接与溶剂相接触, 可以有效避免质子交换膜的 “溶胀”现象。但是,转印法制备最大的难点是选择与催化剂浆料有良好适应性的基底材料, 所用的基材不仅要具有一定的 “亲和力”, 易于浆料的铺展, 还要易于使催化层从上面剥离, 这对于大面积的膜电极制备提出了更高的难度。此外, 转印的制备流程比较繁琐、耗时,存在不均匀或者不完全转移的现象, 容易造成催化剂的浪费。催化层还要经历两次热压操作, 在高温下容易造成催化层变形和氧化,同样不利于膜电极性能的提升。在采用超声喷涂技术制备膜电极时, 催化剂浆料可以渗透到 PEM中, 增加催化剂与 Nafion 的两相界面, 能有效降低膜与催化层之间的质子传递阻力, 并且制备的膜电极具有更大的电化学表面积, 较低的电池欧姆电阻以及电荷转移电阻。然而, 在采用超声喷涂制备的过程中,质子交换膜的膨胀现象会破坏催化层, 使直接喷涂具有挑战性。同时, 在低铂化过程中催化层会变得很薄, 这会导致超声喷涂的催化层浆料很稀, 无法实现稳定的雾化, 造成 PEM 上的催化层分布很差, 尤其难以保证大面积膜电极催化层的均一性, 使耐久性大幅下降。
此外, 制备后的催化层结构高度依赖于喷头速度、喷头幅宽、喷头与膜的距离等,从而增加了最终结构控制的难度。目前, 催化层在喷涂过程中的结构演变过程尚不明晰。狭缝涂布技术可以有效降低生产成本, 但对于低铂膜电极而言, 合适的催化层浆料配方、涂覆和组装工艺的精确控制仍然是一个巨大的挑战。同时,开发批量化大面积生产设备以实现低铂膜电极的制备需要极高的精度和复杂的操作条件, 这既增加了生产成本又降低了成品率。 从工业生产的角度, 高质量批量生产低铂化膜电极的困难仍需要进一步的深入研究, 这也成为燃料电池商业化最重要的因素之一。车用燃料电池低铂化膜电极优化方法对比见 表 1
随着燃料电池技术的持续进步, 目前车用燃料电池的 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 含量已经在稳步下降。在实际应用上,目前丰田等第一梯队车企的商业化车型用量大约为 ${0.17}\mathrm{\;g}/\mathrm{{kW}}$ (约 ${20}\mathrm{\;g}/$ 辆),国内技术水平则维持在 0.3 $\mathrm{g}/\mathrm{{kW}}$ (约 ${35.3}\mathrm{\;g}/$ 辆)。有机构测算,国外最新的研究结果能将燃料电池汽车的 $\mathrm{{Pt}}$ 用量降至 ${0.06}\mathrm{\;g}/\mathrm{{kW}}$ (约 ${7.06}\mathrm{\;g}/$ 辆)。据相关报道,韩国现代汽车公司、 加拿大巴拉德动力系统公司以及德国奔驰公司等众多企业均已经开始在燃料电池电堆中逐步采用低铂催化剂和高效制造工艺, 以减少 Pt 用量并降低成本。但是, 距离正式的商业化车型应用仍有一定距离,车用低铂化燃料电池技术仍需持续开发。
PEMFC 技术近年来得到了快速的发展, 是应对全球能源转型的重要解决方案。车用 PEMFC 低铂化技术的发展仍存在传质和寿命两大关键问题。 目前,关键材料、催化层结构和膜电极制备等多方面工作取得了明显的成效, 但距离规模化应用仍有一定差距。
在关键材料的开发方面, 新型介孔碳合金催化剂的开发, 有望降低传质阻力, 大幅提升低载量膜电极性能。未来的重点发展方向包括:
(1)可控调节催化剂介孔碳内外担载比例,缓解催化剂失效溶出, 维持催化剂的活性点位数量;
(2)调控介孔碳孔径参数,实现气液高效传输;
(3)加固介孔碳结构, 避免坍塌引起性能衰减。
在催化层结构的设计方面, Ionomer 和催化剂界面的优化, 有望大幅降低传质阻抗、维持三相界面稳定性, 提升高电流密度下低铂膜电极性能及寿命。未来的重点发展方向包括:
(1)有效控制 Ionomer 在催化剂表面的均匀超薄包覆, 降低传质阻力的同时提升均匀稳定性;
(2)减少金属阳离子溶出对 Ionomer 的影响, 实现膜电极寿命提升。
在膜电极制备的优化方面, 狭缝涂布技术的升级优化, 有望实现低成本、高均一稳定性的膜电极批量化制备。未来的重点发展方向包括:
(1)掌握催化层浆料中多组份分散行为, 实现浆料的长时间稳定分散;
(2)设备的集成和智能化升级,简化涂敷/组装工艺。
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2023YFB4006100)
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2024年第14卷第4期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.04.01
  • 接收时间:2024-03-31
  • 首发时间:2025-07-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-31
  • 修回日期:2024-04-07
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国家重点研发计划项目(2023YFB4006100)
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    同济大学 汽车学院 上海 201804

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林瑞(1973-),女,浙江瑞安人,博士,教授,主要研究方向为车用新能源材料及氢能燃料电池技术、储能材料开发与应用、碳中和技术开发及应用。Tel:021-65983837 E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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