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The skeleton is a multiscale hierarchical structure composed of minerals, collagen proteins, and other constituents. The complex nonuniformity and anisotropy of bones are attributed to their adaptive characteristics under physiological loads. To characterize the biomechanical properties of bones in various fields such as mechanical engineering, biomechanics, medicine, aerospace, and forensics, it is necessary to employ a range of material testing methods to accurately obtain the material constitutive parameters of the skeleton. The article comprehensively introduces the preservation, preparation, testing, and identification methods for material constitutive parameters of bone specimens, and analyzes the characteristics of various mechanical testing methods and their requirements for bone samples. Additionally, the article discusses the application of new testing technologies in characterizing the biomechanical properties of bones. Finally, based on the threepoint bending testing method, this article proposes a process for acquiring material parameters of human bones. The methods and technologies discussed provide theoretical and methodological references for the systematic characterization of bone biomechanical properties.

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骨骼是由矿物质和胶原蛋白等成分构成的多尺度层级结构,其在生理载荷作用下的自适应特性造就了骨骼复杂的非均匀性、各项异性等特性。为适应机械、生物力学、医学、航空航天、法医等多领域中骨骼生物力学特性的表征,需要利用多种不同的材料力学测试方法,准确地获取骨骼的材料本构参数。全面介绍了骨骼试样的保存、制备、测试及材料本构参数识别方法,分析了各种力学测试方法的特点及其对骨骼试样的要求。还介绍了新测试技术在骨骼力学特性表征方面的应用,基于三点弯曲测试方法提出了一套人体骨骼的材料参数获取流程。可为骨骼生物力学特性的系统表征提供理论和方法参考。

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张冠军(1981-),男,山东金乡人,博士,副教授,主要研究方向为汽车安全与人体损伤生物力学。Tel:18570327941 E-mail:

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张冠军(1981-),男,山东金乡人,博士,副教授,主要研究方向为汽车安全与人体损伤生物力学。Tel:18570327941 E-mail:

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张冠军(1981-),男,山东金乡人,博士,副教授,主要研究方向为汽车安全与人体损伤生物力学。Tel:18570327941 E-mail:

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序号 文献 保存温度℃ 保存时间 保存方法 样本 测试方法/参数 结果
1 FRANKEL (1960) [ 14 ] -25 人股骨近端 压缩 无变化
2 SEDLIN (1965) [ 15 ] -20 3~4 周 人股骨皮质骨 弯曲 无显著变化
3 WEAVER (1966) [ 16 ] -20 ${48}\mathrm{\;h}$ 密封 人皮质骨 硬度 无变化
4 PELKER (1984) [ 17 ] -20 2 周 鼠皮质骨 扭转 无显著变化
鼠松质骨 压缩 极限应力弹性模量增加
5 ROE (1988) [ 18 ] -20 1/16/32 周 密封 狗股骨 压缩 极限应力先增后减
狗股骨 螺丝拉出/剥离 无变化
6 GOH (1989) [ 19 ] -20 3/21 天 猫股骨 弯曲 无显著变化
猫肱骨 扭转 无显著变化
7 LINDE (1993) [ 20 ] -20 $1/{10}/{100}$ 密封 人松质骨 压缩 无显著变化
8 HUSS (1995) [ 21 ] -20 14/28 天 潮湿、密封 狗股骨 销拨出 无显著变化
9 BORCHERS(1995) [ 22 ] -20 8 天 密封 奶牛松质骨 压缩 无变化
10 HAMER(1996) [ 23 ] -70 5次冻融循环 6/12/24 月 是否用盐水 人股骨皮质骨 弯曲 无变化
11 KANG (1997) [ 24 ] -20 奶牛松质骨 凹痕 无变化
12 MATTER (2001) [ 25 ] -20 猪肱骨 拉拔试验 无显著变化
13 HAAREN (2008) [ 26 ] -20 1.5/3/6/12 月 密封 山羊股骨 弯曲 无显著变化
山羊肱骨 扭转 无显著变化
14 NAZARIAN (2009) [ 27 ] -20 2 周 潮湿 潮湿、密封 鼠股骨/椎骨 压缩 无显著变化
15 STEFAN (2010) [ 13 ] -20 6 月 人股骨/牛胫骨 弯曲 无显著变化
16 DIEFENBECK (2011) [ 28 ] -20 14 天 鼠胫骨 拉拔试验 无显著变化
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序号 文献 保存温度℃ 保存时间 保存方法 样本 测试方法/参数 结果
1 FRANKEL (1960) [ 14 ] -25 人股骨近端 压缩 无变化
2 SEDLIN (1965) [ 15 ] -20 3~4 周 人股骨皮质骨 弯曲 无显著变化
3 WEAVER (1966) [ 16 ] -20 ${48}\mathrm{\;h}$ 密封 人皮质骨 硬度 无变化
4 PELKER (1984) [ 17 ] -20 2 周 鼠皮质骨 扭转 无显著变化
鼠松质骨 压缩 极限应力弹性模量增加
5 ROE (1988) [ 18 ] -20 1/16/32 周 密封 狗股骨 压缩 极限应力先增后减
狗股骨 螺丝拉出/剥离 无变化
6 GOH (1989) [ 19 ] -20 3/21 天 猫股骨 弯曲 无显著变化
猫肱骨 扭转 无显著变化
7 LINDE (1993) [ 20 ] -20 $1/{10}/{100}$ 密封 人松质骨 压缩 无显著变化
8 HUSS (1995) [ 21 ] -20 14/28 天 潮湿、密封 狗股骨 销拨出 无显著变化
9 BORCHERS(1995) [ 22 ] -20 8 天 密封 奶牛松质骨 压缩 无变化
10 HAMER(1996) [ 23 ] -70 5次冻融循环 6/12/24 月 是否用盐水 人股骨皮质骨 弯曲 无变化
11 KANG (1997) [ 24 ] -20 奶牛松质骨 凹痕 无变化
12 MATTER (2001) [ 25 ] -20 猪肱骨 拉拔试验 无显著变化
13 HAAREN (2008) [ 26 ] -20 1.5/3/6/12 月 密封 山羊股骨 弯曲 无显著变化
山羊肱骨 扭转 无显著变化
14 NAZARIAN (2009) [ 27 ] -20 2 周 潮湿 潮湿、密封 鼠股骨/椎骨 压缩 无显著变化
15 STEFAN (2010) [ 13 ] -20 6 月 人股骨/牛胫骨 弯曲 无显著变化
16 DIEFENBECK (2011) [ 28 ] -20 14 天 鼠胫骨 拉拔试验 无显著变化
), ArticleFig(id=1153978782651244762, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测试方法 常用试样形状 材料参数
拉伸 哑铃状 弹性模量、最大载荷、最大位移、极限应力、破坏强度、延伸率、断面收缩率、能量吸收、结构刚度
压缩 长方体 弹性模量、最大载荷、最大位移、极限应力、最大应变、能量吸收、结构刚度
三点弯曲 骨段/长方体 弹性模量、最大载荷、挠度、破坏载荷、破坏位移、破坏应力、破坏应变、最大破坏弯矩、极限强度、 结构刚度、能量吸收
四点弯曲 骨段/长方体 弹性模量、最大载荷、挠度、破坏载荷、破坏位移、破坏应力、破坏应变、最大破坏弯矩、极限强度、 结构刚度、能量吸收
扭转 整骨/哑铃状 最大转矩、最大扭转剪应力、最大拉应力、最大压应力、扭转角
超声波 立方体/圆柱体 弹性模量
纳米压痕 硬度和压入模量
Micro-CT $\mathrm{{HU}}$ 值、 $\mathrm{{TMD}}$ 、表观密度 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{app}}}$ 、灰密度 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{ash}}}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978782718353628, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 2, caption=材测试方法与材料参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测试方法 常用试样形状 材料参数
拉伸 哑铃状 弹性模量、最大载荷、最大位移、极限应力、破坏强度、延伸率、断面收缩率、能量吸收、结构刚度
压缩 长方体 弹性模量、最大载荷、最大位移、极限应力、最大应变、能量吸收、结构刚度
三点弯曲 骨段/长方体 弹性模量、最大载荷、挠度、破坏载荷、破坏位移、破坏应力、破坏应变、最大破坏弯矩、极限强度、 结构刚度、能量吸收
四点弯曲 骨段/长方体 弹性模量、最大载荷、挠度、破坏载荷、破坏位移、破坏应力、破坏应变、最大破坏弯矩、极限强度、 结构刚度、能量吸收
扭转 整骨/哑铃状 最大转矩、最大扭转剪应力、最大拉应力、最大压应力、扭转角
超声波 立方体/圆柱体 弹性模量
纳米压痕 硬度和压入模量
Micro-CT $\mathrm{{HU}}$ 值、 $\mathrm{{TMD}}$ 、表观密度 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{app}}}$ 、灰密度 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{ash}}}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978782789656798, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚(总长)/mm 弹性模量/GPa
1 股骨 EVANS (1967) [ 49 ] 16 33~89 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {3.8} \times {2.3}$ (76) 14.10
2 股骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {33}$ 29~89 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${16.84} \pm {1.92}$
3 股骨 KATSAMANIS (1990) [ 51 ] 1 45~55 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {10.5} \times 4\left( {54}\right)$ ${16.24} \pm {0.94}$
4 股骨 NEIL (2004) [ 57 ] 3 44~64 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times 3 \times 3\left( {20}\right)$ ${16.61} \pm {1.83}$
5 股骨 BAYRAKTAR (2004) [ 52 ] 11 51~85 ${19.97} \pm {1.80}$
6 股骨 HANSEN (2008) [ 53 ] 1 51 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {2.4} \times 3$ 18.52
7 股骨 DUCHEMIN (2008) [ 54 ] 13 54~101 长方体 ${25} \times 3 \times 3$ ${14.30} \pm {4.00}$
8 股骨 SUBIT (2013) [ 55 ] 5 15~75 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${16.27} \pm {1.65}$
9 股骨 MIRZAALI (2016) [ 56 ] 39 46~99 圆柱截面哑铃状 ${6.5} \times {\Phi 3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${18.16} \pm {1.88}$
10 胫骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {28}$ 50~59 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${23.83} \pm {4.40}$
11 胫骨 KEMPER (2007) [ 58 ] 2 56~67 矩形截面哑铃状 $9 \times 2 \times 2\left( {33}\right)$ ${18.35} \pm {1.55}$
12 胫骨 SUBIT (2013) [ 55 ] 5 15~75 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${19.85} \pm {1.50}$
13 额、顶、枕骨 BORUAH (2017) [ 59 ] 10 ${41} \sim {70}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${12.01} \pm {3.28}$
14 肋骨(1-12) KEMPER (2005) [ 60 ] 6 18~67 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times {2.5} \times {0.3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${13.90} \pm {3.95}$
15 肋骨(4-7) KEMPER (2007) [ 61 ] 6 ${42} \sim {81}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times {2.5} \times {0.3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${14.40} \pm {3.04}$
16 肋骨(6、7) SUBIT (2013) [ 62 ] 3 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${13.50} \pm {2.60}$
17 肋骨(6) ALBERT (2018) [ 63 ] 18 35~99 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times {2.5} \times {0.3}\left( {30}\right)$ 12.46
18 肋骨(3-7) KATZENBERGER (2020) [ 64 ] 61 17~99 矩形截面哑铃状 厚度 ${0.23} \sim {0.43}$ ${14.75} \pm {3.28}$
19 肋骨(7) VELÁZQUEZ-AMEIJIDE (2021) [ 65 ] 64 ${10} \sim {91}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times 2 \times {0.5}$ (25) ${16.00} \pm {0.40}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978782890320097, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 3, caption=人体皮质骨拉伸测试相关参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚(总长)/mm 弹性模量/GPa
1 股骨 EVANS (1967) [ 49 ] 16 33~89 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {3.8} \times {2.3}$ (76) 14.10
2 股骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {33}$ 29~89 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${16.84} \pm {1.92}$
3 股骨 KATSAMANIS (1990) [ 51 ] 1 45~55 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {10.5} \times 4\left( {54}\right)$ ${16.24} \pm {0.94}$
4 股骨 NEIL (2004) [ 57 ] 3 44~64 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times 3 \times 3\left( {20}\right)$ ${16.61} \pm {1.83}$
5 股骨 BAYRAKTAR (2004) [ 52 ] 11 51~85 ${19.97} \pm {1.80}$
6 股骨 HANSEN (2008) [ 53 ] 1 51 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {2.4} \times 3$ 18.52
7 股骨 DUCHEMIN (2008) [ 54 ] 13 54~101 长方体 ${25} \times 3 \times 3$ ${14.30} \pm {4.00}$
8 股骨 SUBIT (2013) [ 55 ] 5 15~75 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${16.27} \pm {1.65}$
9 股骨 MIRZAALI (2016) [ 56 ] 39 46~99 圆柱截面哑铃状 ${6.5} \times {\Phi 3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${18.16} \pm {1.88}$
10 胫骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {28}$ 50~59 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${23.83} \pm {4.40}$
11 胫骨 KEMPER (2007) [ 58 ] 2 56~67 矩形截面哑铃状 $9 \times 2 \times 2\left( {33}\right)$ ${18.35} \pm {1.55}$
12 胫骨 SUBIT (2013) [ 55 ] 5 15~75 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${19.85} \pm {1.50}$
13 额、顶、枕骨 BORUAH (2017) [ 59 ] 10 ${41} \sim {70}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${12.01} \pm {3.28}$
14 肋骨(1-12) KEMPER (2005) [ 60 ] 6 18~67 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times {2.5} \times {0.3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${13.90} \pm {3.95}$
15 肋骨(4-7) KEMPER (2007) [ 61 ] 6 ${42} \sim {81}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times {2.5} \times {0.3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${14.40} \pm {3.04}$
16 肋骨(6、7) SUBIT (2013) [ 62 ] 3 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times {2.5} \times {0.5}\left( {25}\right)$ ${13.50} \pm {2.60}$
17 肋骨(6) ALBERT (2018) [ 63 ] 18 35~99 矩形截面哑铃状 ${10} \times {2.5} \times {0.3}\left( {30}\right)$ 12.46
18 肋骨(3-7) KATZENBERGER (2020) [ 64 ] 61 17~99 矩形截面哑铃状 厚度 ${0.23} \sim {0.43}$ ${14.75} \pm {3.28}$
19 肋骨(7) VELÁZQUEZ-AMEIJIDE (2021) [ 65 ] 64 ${10} \sim {91}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times 2 \times {0.5}$ (25) ${16.00} \pm {0.40}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783007760612, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚(总长)/mm 弹性模量/GPa
1 股骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {19}$ ${29} \sim {89}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${16.84} \pm {1.92}$
2 股骨 HANSEN (2008) [ 53 ] 1 51 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {2.4} \times 3$ 18.52
3 股骨 DUCHEMIN (2008) [ 54 ] 13 54~101 长方体 ${25} \times 3 \times 3$ ${14.30} \pm {4.00}$
4 股骨 MIRZAALI (2016) [ 56 ] 39 46~99 圆柱截面哑铃状 ${6.5} \times {\Phi 3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${18.16} \pm {1.88}$
5 胫骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {11}$ 29~89 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${16.24} \pm {0.94}$
6 胫骨 KEMPER (2007) [ 58 ] 2 56~67 长方体 $7 \times {2.5} \times {2.5}$ ${16.91} \pm {2.86}$
7 顶骨 EVANS (1957) [ 71 ] $N = {15}$ 长方体
8 额、顶、枕骨 MCELHANEY (1970) [ 72 ] 17 56~73 长方体体 ${10} \times {10} \times {10}$ ${2.40} \pm {1.40}$
9 额、顶、枕骨 BORUAH (2013) [ 73 ] 10 ${41} \sim {70}$ 圆柱体 ${\Phi 18.24}$ ${0.45} \pm {0.14}$
10 额骨 ZHAI Xuedong (2020) [ 74 ] 3 70~74 长方体 ${7.2} \times {4.7} \times {7.9}$ ${1.48} \pm {0.45}$
11 肋骨(5-7) ALBERT (2021) [ 75 ] 30 ${18} \sim {95}$ 圆柱体 $2 \times {\Phi 1}$ ${11.47} \pm {1.90}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783083258084, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 4, caption=人体骨骼压缩测试参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚(总长)/mm 弹性模量/GPa
1 股骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {19}$ ${29} \sim {89}$ 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${16.84} \pm {1.92}$
2 股骨 HANSEN (2008) [ 53 ] 1 51 矩形截面哑铃状 $- \times {2.4} \times 3$ 18.52
3 股骨 DUCHEMIN (2008) [ 54 ] 13 54~101 长方体 ${25} \times 3 \times 3$ ${14.30} \pm {4.00}$
4 股骨 MIRZAALI (2016) [ 56 ] 39 46~99 圆柱截面哑铃状 ${6.5} \times {\Phi 3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${18.16} \pm {1.88}$
5 胫骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {11}$ 29~89 矩形截面哑铃状 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${16.24} \pm {0.94}$
6 胫骨 KEMPER (2007) [ 58 ] 2 56~67 长方体 $7 \times {2.5} \times {2.5}$ ${16.91} \pm {2.86}$
7 顶骨 EVANS (1957) [ 71 ] $N = {15}$ 长方体
8 额、顶、枕骨 MCELHANEY (1970) [ 72 ] 17 56~73 长方体体 ${10} \times {10} \times {10}$ ${2.40} \pm {1.40}$
9 额、顶、枕骨 BORUAH (2013) [ 73 ] 10 ${41} \sim {70}$ 圆柱体 ${\Phi 18.24}$ ${0.45} \pm {0.14}$
10 额骨 ZHAI Xuedong (2020) [ 74 ] 3 70~74 长方体 ${7.2} \times {4.7} \times {7.9}$ ${1.48} \pm {0.45}$
11 肋骨(5-7) ALBERT (2021) [ 75 ] 30 ${18} \sim {95}$ 圆柱体 $2 \times {\Phi 1}$ ${11.47} \pm {1.90}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783141978342, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚/mm 杨氏模量/GPa
1 股骨 SEEDHOM (2004) [ 79 ] 5 62~88 长方体 ${35} \times 2 \times 1$ ${18.60} \pm {1.90}$
2 股骨 STEFAN (2010) [ 11 ] 3 ${69} \pm 5$ 圆柱体 ${60} \times {\Phi 3}$ ${17.85} \pm {1.01}$
3 胫骨 SNYDER (1991) [ 72 ] 7 29~73 长方体 ${40} \times 2 \times 2$ ${17.50} \pm {1.62}$
4 腓骨 BERTEAU (2014) [ 81 ] 3 66~96 长方体 $\left( {{15} \sim {50}}\right) \times \left( {4 \sim {10}}\right) \times \left( {{0.5} \sim 3}\right)$ ${7.00} \pm {2.70}$
5 顶骨 HUBBARD (1971) [ 82 ] $N = 4$ 长方体 ${11} \times {1.6}$ ${9.72} \pm {1.50}$
6 额, 顶, 枕, 颞骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 ${52} \sim {83}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${5.21} \pm {3.30}$
7 额骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 ${52} \sim {83}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ 3.79
8 顶骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 ${52} \sim {83}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ 4.95
9 颞骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 52~83 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ 11.32
10 额骨 MOTHERWAY (2009) [ 76 ] 8 ${81} \pm {11}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {10}$ ${5.70} \pm {1.73}$
11 顶骨 MOTHERWAY(2009) [ 76 ] 8 ${81} \pm {11}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {10}$ ${4.35} \pm {1.71}$
12 额, 顶骨 MOTHERWAY(2010) [ 77 ] 8 ${81} \pm {11}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {10}$ ${7.46} \pm {5.39}$
13 额, 顶, 颞骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ ${52} \sim {95}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${6.17} \pm {3.47}$
14 额骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ 52~95 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${3.81} \pm {1.55}$
15 顶骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ ${52} \sim {95}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${5.00} \pm {3.12}$
16 颞骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ 52~95 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${9.70} \pm {5.75}$
17 额骨 RAHMOUN (2014) [ 87 ] 11 88 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${3.28} \pm {2.00}$
18 顶骨 RAHMOUN (2014) [ 87 ] 11 88 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${4.53} \pm {4.81}$
19 颞骨 RAHMOUN (2014) [ 87 ] 11 88 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${5.99} \pm {2.22}$
20 额, 顶, 枕骨 LEE (2019) [ 88 ] 2 61~86 颅骨段 ${40} \times {10}$ ${2.22} \pm {1.01}$
21 肋骨(6/7) GRANIK (1973) [ 89 ] 15 肋骨段 ${11.50} \pm {2.14}$
22 肋骨(7、8) YOGANANDAN (1998) [ 78 ] 30 ${29} \sim {81}$ 肋骨段 长度 150 ${2.10} \pm {0.33}$
23 肋骨(1-12) STITZEL (2003) [ 90 ] 4 61~71 长方体 ${29} \times 4 \times {0.75}$ ${10.02} \pm {4.00}$
24 肋骨(4-7) KEMPER (2007) [ 61 ] 6 ${42} \sim {81}$ 肋骨段 长度 100 ${20.04} \pm {2.84}$
25 胸骨 TORIMITSU (2023) [ 91 ] 120 ${21} \sim {93}$ 胸骨段 ${30} \times 5$
26 髂骨 KUHN (1989) [ 92 ] 2 ${23} \sim {63}$ 长方体 厚度 0.05~0.2 ${4.89} \pm {1.99}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783200698601, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 5, caption=人体骨骼三点弯曲测试参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚/mm 杨氏模量/GPa
1 股骨 SEEDHOM (2004) [ 79 ] 5 62~88 长方体 ${35} \times 2 \times 1$ ${18.60} \pm {1.90}$
2 股骨 STEFAN (2010) [ 11 ] 3 ${69} \pm 5$ 圆柱体 ${60} \times {\Phi 3}$ ${17.85} \pm {1.01}$
3 胫骨 SNYDER (1991) [ 72 ] 7 29~73 长方体 ${40} \times 2 \times 2$ ${17.50} \pm {1.62}$
4 腓骨 BERTEAU (2014) [ 81 ] 3 66~96 长方体 $\left( {{15} \sim {50}}\right) \times \left( {4 \sim {10}}\right) \times \left( {{0.5} \sim 3}\right)$ ${7.00} \pm {2.70}$
5 顶骨 HUBBARD (1971) [ 82 ] $N = 4$ 长方体 ${11} \times {1.6}$ ${9.72} \pm {1.50}$
6 额, 顶, 枕, 颞骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 ${52} \sim {83}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${5.21} \pm {3.30}$
7 额骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 ${52} \sim {83}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ 3.79
8 顶骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 ${52} \sim {83}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ 4.95
9 颞骨 DELILLE (2007) [ 75 ] 18 52~83 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ 11.32
10 额骨 MOTHERWAY (2009) [ 76 ] 8 ${81} \pm {11}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {10}$ ${5.70} \pm {1.73}$
11 顶骨 MOTHERWAY(2009) [ 76 ] 8 ${81} \pm {11}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {10}$ ${4.35} \pm {1.71}$
12 额, 顶骨 MOTHERWAY(2010) [ 77 ] 8 ${81} \pm {11}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {10}$ ${7.46} \pm {5.39}$
13 额, 顶, 颞骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ ${52} \sim {95}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${6.17} \pm {3.47}$
14 额骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ 52~95 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${3.81} \pm {1.55}$
15 顶骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ ${52} \sim {95}$ 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${5.00} \pm {3.12}$
16 颞骨 AUPERRIN (2014) [ 86 ] $N = {21}$ 52~95 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${9.70} \pm {5.75}$
17 额骨 RAHMOUN (2014) [ 87 ] 11 88 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${3.28} \pm {2.00}$
18 顶骨 RAHMOUN (2014) [ 87 ] 11 88 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${4.53} \pm {4.81}$
19 颞骨 RAHMOUN (2014) [ 87 ] 11 88 颅骨段 ${60} \times {13}$ ${5.99} \pm {2.22}$
20 额, 顶, 枕骨 LEE (2019) [ 88 ] 2 61~86 颅骨段 ${40} \times {10}$ ${2.22} \pm {1.01}$
21 肋骨(6/7) GRANIK (1973) [ 89 ] 15 肋骨段 ${11.50} \pm {2.14}$
22 肋骨(7、8) YOGANANDAN (1998) [ 78 ] 30 ${29} \sim {81}$ 肋骨段 长度 150 ${2.10} \pm {0.33}$
23 肋骨(1-12) STITZEL (2003) [ 90 ] 4 61~71 长方体 ${29} \times 4 \times {0.75}$ ${10.02} \pm {4.00}$
24 肋骨(4-7) KEMPER (2007) [ 61 ] 6 ${42} \sim {81}$ 肋骨段 长度 100 ${20.04} \pm {2.84}$
25 胸骨 TORIMITSU (2023) [ 91 ] 120 ${21} \sim {93}$ 胸骨段 ${30} \times 5$
26 髂骨 KUHN (1989) [ 92 ] 2 ${23} \sim {63}$ 长方体 厚度 0.05~0.2 ${4.89} \pm {1.99}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783284584684, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚(总长)/mm 弹性模量/GPa
1 股骨和胫骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {33}$ ${29} \sim {89}$ 方截面哑铃形 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${3.36} \pm {2.29}$
2 股骨 MARTENS (1980) [ 91 ] $N = {65}$ ${27} \sim {92}$ 整骨
3 胫骨 MARTENS (1980) [ 91 ] $N = {65}$ ${27} \sim {92}$ 整骨
4 股骨 NEIL (2003) [ 57 ] 3 44~64 方截面哑铃形 ${10} \times 3 \times 3\left( {20}\right)$ ${4.74} \pm {0.65}$
5 股骨 ZDERO (2011) [ 98 ] $N = {25}$ 58~91 整骨
6 股骨 MIRZAALI (2016) [ 56 ] 39 46~99 圆柱面哑铃形 ${6.5} \times {\Phi 3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${6.07} \pm {0.57}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783351693552, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 6, caption=人体骨骼扭转测试参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚(总长)/mm 弹性模量/GPa
1 股骨和胫骨 BURSTEIN (1976) [ 50 ] $N = {33}$ ${29} \sim {89}$ 方截面哑铃形 $6 \times 2 \times 2\left( {15}\right)$ ${3.36} \pm {2.29}$
2 股骨 MARTENS (1980) [ 91 ] $N = {65}$ ${27} \sim {92}$ 整骨
3 胫骨 MARTENS (1980) [ 91 ] $N = {65}$ ${27} \sim {92}$ 整骨
4 股骨 NEIL (2003) [ 57 ] 3 44~64 方截面哑铃形 ${10} \times 3 \times 3\left( {20}\right)$ ${4.74} \pm {0.65}$
5 股骨 ZDERO (2011) [ 98 ] $N = {25}$ 58~91 整骨
6 股骨 MIRZAALI (2016) [ 56 ] 39 46~99 圆柱面哑铃形 ${6.5} \times {\Phi 3}\left( {30}\right)$ ${6.07} \pm {0.57}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783406219507, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚/mm
1 胫骨 RHO (1996) [ 99 ] 8 45~68 立方体 ${10} \times {10} \times {10}$ ${20.70} \pm {1.9}$
2 股骨 HUNT (1998) [ 103 ] 19 ${55} \sim {98}$ 长方体 ${4.86} \times {4.67} \times {2.89}$ ${32.52} \pm {0.87}$
3 胫骨 HUNT (1998) [ 103 ] 19 ${55} \sim {98}$ 长方体 ${4.86} \times {4.67} \times {2.89}$ ${34.07} \pm {4.31}$
4 胫骨 HOFFMEISTER (2000) [ 105 ] 8 45~68 立方体 20.90
5 顶骨 PETERSON (2002) [ 106 ] $N = {10}$ ${58} \sim {88}$ 圆柱体 ${\Phi 5}$ ${14.60} \pm {2.90}$
6 顶骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\Phi 4}$ ${20.30} \pm {4.50}$
7 额骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\Phi 4}$ ${19.40} \pm {4.20}$
8 枕骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\phi 4}$ ${20.60} \pm {4.70}$
9 颞骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\Phi 4}$ ${23.40} \pm {5.10}$
10 股骨 ESPINOZA (2009) [ 104 ] 1 78 立方体 $5 \times 5 \times 5$ ${27.30} \pm {2.30}$
11 腓骨 BERTEAU (2014) [ 81 ] 3 66~96 长方体 $\left( {{15} \sim {50}}\right) \times \left( {4 \sim {10}}\right) \times \left( {{0.5} \sim 3}\right)$ ${17.00} \pm {2.00}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783473328375, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 7, caption=人体骨骼超声测试参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 样本量 年龄/岁 横截面 长×宽×厚/mm
1 胫骨 RHO (1996) [ 99 ] 8 45~68 立方体 ${10} \times {10} \times {10}$ ${20.70} \pm {1.9}$
2 股骨 HUNT (1998) [ 103 ] 19 ${55} \sim {98}$ 长方体 ${4.86} \times {4.67} \times {2.89}$ ${32.52} \pm {0.87}$
3 胫骨 HUNT (1998) [ 103 ] 19 ${55} \sim {98}$ 长方体 ${4.86} \times {4.67} \times {2.89}$ ${34.07} \pm {4.31}$
4 胫骨 HOFFMEISTER (2000) [ 105 ] 8 45~68 立方体 20.90
5 顶骨 PETERSON (2002) [ 106 ] $N = {10}$ ${58} \sim {88}$ 圆柱体 ${\Phi 5}$ ${14.60} \pm {2.90}$
6 顶骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\Phi 4}$ ${20.30} \pm {4.50}$
7 额骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\Phi 4}$ ${19.40} \pm {4.20}$
8 枕骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\phi 4}$ ${20.60} \pm {4.70}$
9 颞骨 PETERSON (2003) [ 100 ] 15 27~100 圆柱体 ${\Phi 4}$ ${23.40} \pm {5.10}$
10 股骨 ESPINOZA (2009) [ 104 ] 1 78 立方体 $5 \times 5 \times 5$ ${27.30} \pm {2.30}$
11 腓骨 BERTEAU (2014) [ 81 ] 3 66~96 长方体 $\left( {{15} \sim {50}}\right) \times \left( {4 \sim {10}}\right) \times \left( {{0.5} \sim 3}\right)$ ${17.00} \pm {2.00}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783527854330, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 年龄/岁 骨骼 弹性模量/GPa 硬度/GPa
1 LIN (2010) [ 125 ] <60 股骨 骨间质 ${18.52} \pm {1.69}$ ${0.61} \pm {0.07}$
骨单元 ${16.71} \pm {1.69}$ ${0.53} \pm {0.09}$
骨小梁 ${15.88} \pm {1.72}$ ${0.56} \pm {0.04}$
60
股骨 骨间质 ${20.22} \pm {2.38}$ ${0.64} \pm {0.07}$
骨单元 ${17.21} \pm {2.29}$ ${0.53} \pm {0.08}$
骨小梁 ${15.97} \pm {2.17}$ ${0.59} \pm {0.07}$
2 RHO (1997) [ 126 ] 57、61 胫骨皮质骨 骨间质 ${25.80} \pm {0.70}$ ${0.74} \pm {0.03}$
骨单元 ${22.50} \pm {1.30}$ ${0.61} \pm {0.04}$
3 ZYSSET (1999) [ 127 ] ${75} \pm {11}$ 股骨中段 骨间质 ${21.20} \pm {5.30}$
骨单元 ${19.10} \pm {5.40}$
股骨颈 骨间质 ${17.50} \pm {5.30}$
骨单元 ${15.80} \pm {5.30}$
骨小梁 ${11.40} \pm {5.60}$
4 HOFFLER (2005) [ 128 ] 53~93 股骨皮质骨 骨间质 ${20.30} \pm {5.10}$ ${0.59} \pm {0.20}$
骨单元 ${18.60} \pm {4.20}$ ${0.52} \pm {0.15}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783594963199, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 8, caption=人体骨骼纳米压痕测试参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 年龄/岁 骨骼 弹性模量/GPa 硬度/GPa
1 LIN (2010) [ 125 ] <60 股骨 骨间质 ${18.52} \pm {1.69}$ ${0.61} \pm {0.07}$
骨单元 ${16.71} \pm {1.69}$ ${0.53} \pm {0.09}$
骨小梁 ${15.88} \pm {1.72}$ ${0.56} \pm {0.04}$
60
股骨 骨间质 ${20.22} \pm {2.38}$ ${0.64} \pm {0.07}$
骨单元 ${17.21} \pm {2.29}$ ${0.53} \pm {0.08}$
骨小梁 ${15.97} \pm {2.17}$ ${0.59} \pm {0.07}$
2 RHO (1997) [ 126 ] 57、61 胫骨皮质骨 骨间质 ${25.80} \pm {0.70}$ ${0.74} \pm {0.03}$
骨单元 ${22.50} \pm {1.30}$ ${0.61} \pm {0.04}$
3 ZYSSET (1999) [ 127 ] ${75} \pm {11}$ 股骨中段 骨间质 ${21.20} \pm {5.30}$
骨单元 ${19.10} \pm {5.40}$
股骨颈 骨间质 ${17.50} \pm {5.30}$
骨单元 ${15.80} \pm {5.30}$
骨小梁 ${11.40} \pm {5.60}$
4 HOFFLER (2005) [ 128 ] 53~93 股骨皮质骨 骨间质 ${20.30} \pm {5.10}$ ${0.59} \pm {0.20}$
骨单元 ${18.60} \pm {4.20}$ ${0.52} \pm {0.15}$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783662072066, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 设备型号 各向同性 分辨率/ μm 功率/ W 电压/ kV 曝光时 间/ms 试样描述
1 COOPER [ 135 ] SkyScan1072 5,10,15 10 100 5 900 股骨前干骨(直径 5 mm,长 8 mm)
2 KAZAKIA [ 131 ] $\mu$ CT40 8 7.9 70 250 股骨头、椎体、胫骨近端(直径 8 mm,长 4 mm)
3 GAUTHIER ${}^{\lbrack {136}}$ SR-μCT 0.7 31 300 桡骨W=2.02±0.09 mm(骨膜-内膜方向)、B=1.00±0.06 mm (与骨截面切线方向)、沿骨干长轴平行方向约12.5 mm
4 LOUNDAGIN [ 137 ] 0.9 40 400 股骨和胫骨骨干中段 (直径 5 mm,长 35 mm)
5 CIROVIC [ 138 - 139 ] SkyScan1172 10 9.9 80 1 200 股骨颈外侧
6 IORI [ 140 ] VivaCT80 39 7.9 70 200 左胫骨中段
7 LEREBOURS [ 141 ] SR-μCT 11.8 37 1500 股骨中段骨块(长约 16mm)
8 XIA Ning [ 142 ] QuantumGX micro-CT 4.5 7.9 90 股骨颈区域皮质骨
9 WÖLFEL [ 143 ] $\mu$ CT40 10 7.9 55 200 胫骨中段(长 35mm,宽 2mm,厚 1mm)
10 BAKALOVA [ 144 ] $\mu$ CT35 6 7.9 70 3 200 腓骨骨干,厚约12 mm
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783724986628, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 9, caption=人长骨皮质骨micro-CT测试参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 设备型号 各向同性 分辨率/ μm 功率/ W 电压/ kV 曝光时 间/ms 试样描述
1 COOPER [ 135 ] SkyScan1072 5,10,15 10 100 5 900 股骨前干骨(直径 5 mm,长 8 mm)
2 KAZAKIA [ 131 ] $\mu$ CT40 8 7.9 70 250 股骨头、椎体、胫骨近端(直径 8 mm,长 4 mm)
3 GAUTHIER ${}^{\lbrack {136}}$ SR-μCT 0.7 31 300 桡骨W=2.02±0.09 mm(骨膜-内膜方向)、B=1.00±0.06 mm (与骨截面切线方向)、沿骨干长轴平行方向约12.5 mm
4 LOUNDAGIN [ 137 ] 0.9 40 400 股骨和胫骨骨干中段 (直径 5 mm,长 35 mm)
5 CIROVIC [ 138 - 139 ] SkyScan1172 10 9.9 80 1 200 股骨颈外侧
6 IORI [ 140 ] VivaCT80 39 7.9 70 200 左胫骨中段
7 LEREBOURS [ 141 ] SR-μCT 11.8 37 1500 股骨中段骨块(长约 16mm)
8 XIA Ning [ 142 ] QuantumGX micro-CT 4.5 7.9 90 股骨颈区域皮质骨
9 WÖLFEL [ 143 ] $\mu$ CT40 10 7.9 55 200 胫骨中段(长 35mm,宽 2mm,厚 1mm)
10 BAKALOVA [ 144 ] $\mu$ CT35 6 7.9 70 3 200 腓骨骨干,厚约12 mm
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783783706889, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 适用范围 表达式
1 CONG (2011) [ 148 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = - {9.00} \times {10}^{-3} + {7.00} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {14664}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{1.49}$
2 DRAGOMIR-DAESCU (2011) [ 154 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = - {9.00} \times {10}^{-3} + {7.00} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {14664}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{1.49}$
3 OP DEN BUIJS (2011) [ 149 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = {7.00} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {29800}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{1.56}$
4 RUESS (2015) [ 155 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = {9.70} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {10200}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{2.01}$
5 KHEIROLLAHI (2015) [ 156 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{ash}}} = {4.162} \times {10}^{-2} + {8.54} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {10500}{\rho }_{\mathrm{{ash}}}^{2.29}$
6 CAMPOLI (2014) [ 157 ] 胛骨 ${\rho }_{\text{app }} = {3.90} \times {10}^{-4} + \mathrm{{HU}};E = {6850}{\rho }_{\text{app }}^{1.49}$
7 WAGNER (2011) [ 129 ] 湿骨 ${\log }_{10}\left( {E}_{\mathrm{t}}\right) = - {8.58} + {4.05}{\log }_{10}\left( {{400}/\left( {1 + \left( {{0.504}/{\rho }_{\mathrm{{HA}}}}\right) }\right) }\right)$
), ArticleFig(id=1153978783863398666, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1152916057816748034, articleId=1153978731061306102, language=CN, label=表 10, caption=基于micro-CT的人皮质骨材料参数预测模型, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号 文献 适用范围 表达式
1 CONG (2011) [ 148 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = - {9.00} \times {10}^{-3} + {7.00} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {14664}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{1.49}$
2 DRAGOMIR-DAESCU (2011) [ 154 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = - {9.00} \times {10}^{-3} + {7.00} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {14664}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{1.49}$
3 OP DEN BUIJS (2011) [ 149 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = {7.00} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {29800}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{1.56}$
4 RUESS (2015) [ 155 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\text{ash }} = {9.70} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {10200}{\rho }_{\text{ash }}^{2.01}$
5 KHEIROLLAHI (2015) [ 156 ] 股骨 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{ash}}} = {4.162} \times {10}^{-2} + {8.54} \times {10}^{-4}\mathrm{{HU}};E = {10500}{\rho }_{\mathrm{{ash}}}^{2.29}$
6 CAMPOLI (2014) [ 157 ] 胛骨 ${\rho }_{\text{app }} = {3.90} \times {10}^{-4} + \mathrm{{HU}};E = {6850}{\rho }_{\text{app }}^{1.49}$
7 WAGNER (2011) [ 129 ] 湿骨 ${\log }_{10}\left( {E}_{\mathrm{t}}\right) = - {8.58} + {4.05}{\log }_{10}\left( {{400}/\left( {1 + \left( {{0.504}/{\rho }_{\mathrm{{HA}}}}\right) }\right) }\right)$
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人体骨骼生物力学测试研究综述
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张冠军 1 , 马巾慧 1 , 李昊 1 , 刘煜 2
汽车工程学报 | 损伤生物力学及其测评 2024,14(3): 433-454
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汽车工程学报 | 损伤生物力学及其测评 2024, 14(3): 433-454
人体骨骼生物力学测试研究综述
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张冠军1 , 马巾慧1, 李昊1, 刘煜2
作者信息
  • 1 湖南大学 整车先进设计制造技术全国重点实验室 长沙 410082
  • 2 中国汽车工程研究院股份有限公司 重庆 401122
  • 张冠军(1981-),男,山东金乡人,博士,副教授,主要研究方向为汽车安全与人体损伤生物力学。Tel:18570327941 E-mail:

Review of Biomechanical Testing Methods for Human Bones
Guanjun ZHANG1 , Jinhui MA1, Hao LI1, Yu LIU2
Affiliations
  • 1 State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body Hunan University Changsha 410082 China
  • 2 China Automotive Engineering Research Institute Co., Ltd. Chongqing 401122 China
doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.03.11
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骨骼是由矿物质和胶原蛋白等成分构成的多尺度层级结构,其在生理载荷作用下的自适应特性造就了骨骼复杂的非均匀性、各项异性等特性。为适应机械、生物力学、医学、航空航天、法医等多领域中骨骼生物力学特性的表征,需要利用多种不同的材料力学测试方法,准确地获取骨骼的材料本构参数。全面介绍了骨骼试样的保存、制备、测试及材料本构参数识别方法,分析了各种力学测试方法的特点及其对骨骼试样的要求。还介绍了新测试技术在骨骼力学特性表征方面的应用,基于三点弯曲测试方法提出了一套人体骨骼的材料参数获取流程。可为骨骼生物力学特性的系统表征提供理论和方法参考。

人体骨骼  /  力学测试  /  生物力学  /  材料参数

The skeleton is a multiscale hierarchical structure composed of minerals, collagen proteins, and other constituents. The complex nonuniformity and anisotropy of bones are attributed to their adaptive characteristics under physiological loads. To characterize the biomechanical properties of bones in various fields such as mechanical engineering, biomechanics, medicine, aerospace, and forensics, it is necessary to employ a range of material testing methods to accurately obtain the material constitutive parameters of the skeleton. The article comprehensively introduces the preservation, preparation, testing, and identification methods for material constitutive parameters of bone specimens, and analyzes the characteristics of various mechanical testing methods and their requirements for bone samples. Additionally, the article discusses the application of new testing technologies in characterizing the biomechanical properties of bones. Finally, based on the threepoint bending testing method, this article proposes a process for acquiring material parameters of human bones. The methods and technologies discussed provide theoretical and methodological references for the systematic characterization of bone biomechanical properties.

human bones  /  mechanical test  /  biomechanics  /  material parameters
张冠军, 马巾慧, 李昊, 刘煜. 人体骨骼生物力学测试研究综述. 汽车工程学报, 2024 , 14 (3) : 433 -454 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.03.11
Guanjun ZHANG, Jinhui MA, Hao LI, Yu LIU. Review of Biomechanical Testing Methods for Human Bones[J]. Chinese Journal of Automotive Engineering, 2024 , 14 (3) : 433 -454 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.03.11
骨是由有机质(主要是胶原蛋白)和无机羟基磷灰石等组成的复合材料 [ 1 - 3 ] ,在皮质骨湿重中, 有机物约占 35%(90%~95%的胶原蛋白,5%的其他蛋白质和 1% 的糖胺聚糖),羟基磷灰石(HAP) 约占 45%,水约占 20% [ 2 ] 。在结构上,骨具有复杂的层级结构,通常分为 4 个层级 [ 2 - 5 ] : HAP 和 I型胶原蛋白组成的复合结构,也称为矿化胶原纤维;矿化胶原纤维形成具有优先方向的片状或片层; 哈弗氏管(Haversian Canal)和骨粘合线(Cement Line)等;皮质骨和松质骨。骨骼的力学性能主要由成分和结构决定。为适应骨骼自身的生理载荷条件, 骨骼成分和微观结构随方向和位置而变化, 使其展现出显著的各向异性和非均质性。准确表征骨骼的生物力学特性, 是构建骨骼数学模型的重要基础, 已广泛应用于机械、生物力学、医学、航空航天、法医等领域。许多学者致力于利用不同的测试方法在不同层次上研究骨骼的力学特性及其表征, 但是详细、全面地描述骨骼的力学特性仍然需要继续深入研究 [ 4 , 6 - 9 ]
本文面向骨骼力学特性的测试与表征, 详细介绍了骨骼多种力学测试方法及其特点和对试样的要求, 包括拉伸、压缩、三点弯曲、四点弯曲、扭转、超声、纳米压痕和micro-CT等。最后基于三点弯曲测试方法提出了一种骨骼材料参数自动识别流程, 为人体骨骼力学特性表征提供了一种准确高效的材料参数识别方法。
骨骼的成分和微观结构决定了其具有显著的各向异性和非均一性。同时,骨骼作为有机生物体, 水合状态、温度等也会影响其力学特性。因此, 骨骼力学特性研究应当关注试样制备及保存过程中的温度和测试前的水合状态 [ 10 ]
试样的切割、磨削等机械加工,应在冷却条件下使用低速金刚石锯或其他工具小心加工, 避免对骨骼试样造成影响力学特性的损伤。由于骨骼在离体后数小时内就会发生组织自溶 [ 11 - 12 ] ,无法立即进行测试的试样, 必须采用合理的方法进行保存。常用的保存方法是冷冻和化学固定。
冷冻保存是普遍采用的骨骼试样保存方式, 可以有效减缓骨骼的组织自溶。大量文献研究了冷冻保存以及反复解冻对骨骼力学特性的影响, 见 表 1 。 在 16 篇研究冷冻对骨骼力学性能影响的论文中, 有 14 篇论文表明冷冻不会改变骨骼的力学性能,冷冻保存的时间跨度从 1 天到 24 个月不等, 只有 2 篇论文认为冷冻会改变骨压缩性能。COWIN [ 10 ] 回顾了许多关于冷冻对骨骼力学性能影响的文献, 指出在保持样本水分含量的条件下,冷冻至 $- {20}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 的温度不太可能显著影响骨骼的力学性能。虽然冷冻保存不会对骨骼的力学特性造成影响, 但应当注意, 冷冻保存并不会阻断传染风险[10, 13] 。骨骼的化学固定方法不仅可以防止组织腐烂, 还可以保存细胞结构以供显微检查, 并阻断传染风险。化学固定溶液通常含有甲醛、酒精或戊二醛 [ 10 ] 。最常用的化学固定试剂是福尔马林, 它是甲醛气体的饱和水溶液, 可以防止试样腐烂并保持细胞膜的完整状态, 但它很容易氧化形成甲酸,从而导致矿物质溶解。 乙醇固定也是一种常用的方式, 通常的浓度为 70% 乙醇水溶液, $\mathrm{{pH}}$ 值呈中性,可避免矿物质溶解, 但它不能像甲醛一样保护细胞膜,并且渗透骨骼的速度相对较慢。第 3 种是戊二醛浓缩液,是 50% 的戊二醛水溶液, 其缓冲戊二醛溶液在剂固定会显著影响骨骼的力学性能, 包括弹性模量、极限应力、 失效能和硬度等参数[15-16, 19-20], 29-31。因此,在考虑试样保存方法时,需要根据研究目的选择最佳的方法。
与在体骨相比, 干燥骨骼的杨氏模量和强度一般会增加,韧性会减小 [ 32 - 33 ] 。EVANS 等 [ 34 ] 的研究表明人股骨干骨比湿骨的杨氏模量增加了 17%,极限强度增加了 31%,但韧性下降了 55%。因此,要准确地获取骨骼的力学特性, 应当在水合状态下进行力学测试。通常将试样置于生理盐水中或用盐水浸泡的纱布包裹, 室温下放置一段时间使之达到水合状态。已经干燥的皮质骨也可以通过在缓冲生理盐水中再润湿来恢复其力学性能。皮质骨水合3 h 后,杨氏模量、最大位移和失效功等力学性能均可得到恢复 [ 35 - 36 ] 。然而, CURREY [ 36 ] 发现干燥/再水合步骤可能存在弯曲强度降低的风险。因此, 应当尽量减少试样干燥/再水合转换次数。
与大多数生物材料一样, 骨骼的机械性能也受温度影响。为了准确模拟在体环境,人体骨骼应尽量在 ${37}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 环境中测试。也有研究表明,骨骼在室温 $\left( {{23}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}}\right)$ 下的杨氏模量比 ${37}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时仅增加 $2\% \sim$ 4% [ 37 - 39 ] 。因此,室温测试造成的误差可能并不大。
材料本构是描述材料在载荷下的响应及其变形机理的数学模型, 能表征材料的力学性质。材料本构参数则是材料本构方程中的参数, 用于描述材料在加载下的应力-应变关系。常用的骨骼材料本构有弹性模型、双曲线模型、弹塑性模型、粘弹性模型等 [ 40 - 43 ] 。相应地,常见的材料本构参数有弹性模量、屈服应力、屈服应变、切线模量、极限应力、 极限应变等。这些本构参数描述了骨骼材料受载时的力学响应和变形特性, 可用于对比分析骨骼力学性能的变化。
典型的骨骼应力一应变曲线如 图 1 所示。该曲线可分为弹性区域和塑性区域。弹性区域的应力和应变符合胡克定律, 曲线的斜率即为弹性模量或杨氏模量 [ 2 , 11 , 44 ] 。弹性区域和塑性区域之间的转变点称为屈服点。确定屈服点的方法有 3 种: 定义为比例极限点(应力和应变保持正比的最大应力)(A 点);定义为某个残余塑性应变对应的点, 即弹性段偏移某个应变值后与应力一应变曲线的交点; 定义为塑性区域的起点 (B 点)。屈服点对应的应力称为屈服应力[1, 3, 45]。切线模量是塑性区域内应力一应变曲线的斜率, 用于量化试样在塑性区域内的刚度 [ 1 ] 。极限应力也称为破坏强度或失效强度, 是试样在失效前能承受的最大应力, 所对应的应变称为极限应变 [ 44 ]
还有一些其他参数也能表征材料的力学性能。 弹性吸能是指材料吸收能量而不产生永久应变的能力, 通过弹性区域应力-应变曲线下的面积来量化。 总吸能是指材料吸收能量而不失效的能力, 也称为韧性, 通过整个应力-应变曲线下的面积来量化 [ 44 ] 。根据不同的力学测试,可以得到不同的材料参数, 不同试验可得到的参数见 表 2
拉伸测试是最常用的材料力学测试方法, 拉伸试样通常是矩形和圆形等横截面的哑铃状, 如 图 2 所示。测试时将试样一端固定, 另一端施加沿试样轴线且通过横截面中心的拉力, 以在标距段的横截面上只产生正应力 [ 11 ] 。在试样的标距段夹持引伸计测量变形量,或通过数字图像相关技术 (DIC) 测量工程应变或真实应变。
工程应力和工程应变通过式(1)计算 [ 10 - 11 , 45 ] :
$ \sigma = F/A,\varepsilon = {\Delta L}/{L}_{0}\text{。} $
式中: $\sigma$ 为工程应力; $F$ 为载荷; $A$ 为横截面积; $\varepsilon$ 为工程应变; ${\Delta L}$ 为变形量; ${L}_{0}$ 为初始标距。
真实应力一应变曲线真实地反映材料的力学特性,可由式 (2) 计算 [ 46 ]
$ {\sigma }_{\mathrm{T}} = \sigma \left( {\varepsilon + 1}\right) ,{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{T}} = \ln \left( {\varepsilon + 1}\right) \text{。} $
式中: ${\sigma }_{\mathrm{T}}$ 为真实应力; ${\sigma }_{\mathrm{T}}$ 为真实应变。
拉伸测得的骨骼真实应力一应变曲线为单调递增的近似双线性曲线 [ 1 , 6 ] 。基于真实应力-应变曲线, 选择相应的材料本构模型, 可以拟合得到弹性模量、屈服应力、屈服应变、极限应力、极限应变等参数。虽然拉伸测试在各类材料测试中应用非常广泛, 但在骨骼材料测试领域仍存在以下 5 个方面的局限性。
1)标准拉伸试样应符合特定的几何形状且尺寸不宜过小, 通常需要较大的骨骼组织才能制样, 不太适合小尺寸或不规则的骨骼组织。
2)骨骼测试中试样夹紧力不宜过大,且应注意防止试样在测试中滑移。由于夹紧力的限制, 拉伸测试较少用于松质骨测试。
3)一些学者认为骨骼在人体中主要起支撑作用, 在正常生理状态下的拉应力不常见, 建议只将拉伸测试作为骨骼力学性能测试的补充 [ 8 , 47 ]
4)由于微型试样的夹具变形和夹紧效应, 拉伸所测得的弹性模量可能会存在较大误差, $\mathrm{{GB}}/\mathrm{T}$ 228.1-2021 标准和一些学者认为采用拉伸方法准确测量弹性模量仍有改进空间 [ 46 , 48 ]
5)由于上、下夹具中心线和试样中心线无法精确对齐和试样不对称等原因, 拉伸测试所得材料参数仍可能存在一定误差。
骨骼拉伸试样不能采用整骨进行,文献中均采用机械加工的标准试样。人股骨拉伸试样通常是纵向试样(骨单位平行于拉伸加载方向) [ 49 - 56 ] ,少量研究同时使用了纵向和横向试样 [ 57 ] 。大多数文献使用的股骨拉伸试样为矩形或圆形截面的哑铃状, 标距段的长度为 $6 \sim {25}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ ,宽度为 $2 \sim {10.5}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ , 厚度为 ${0.5} \sim 4\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ 。胫骨拉伸试样与股骨类似,试样的尺寸范围比股骨略小 ${}^{\lbrack {50},\;{55},\;{58}\rbrack }$ 。相比于股骨和胫骨,肋骨和颅骨由于曲率和皮质厚度的限制,拉伸试样宽度(最大值 ${2.5}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ )和厚度(最大值 0.5 mm)更小 [ 59 - 65 ] 。人体皮质骨拉伸测试相关参数见 表 3
压缩测试是沿试样的轴线通过横截面的中心施加载荷, 在试样上没有引起弯矩, 称之为中心轴向载荷 [ 11 ] ,常用于测试松质骨和皮质骨的力学性能。 压缩试样通常是圆柱体或立方体 [ 10 , 66 - 67 ] ,可通过式(3)计算试样的应力-应变曲线 [ 68 ] :
$ \sigma = F/A,\varepsilon = {\Delta L}/{L}_{0}\text{。} $
式中: $\sigma$ 为工程应力; $F$ 为载荷; $A$ 为横截面积; $\varepsilon$ 为工程应变; ${\Delta L}$ 为变形量; ${L}_{0}$ 为原始标距。
进而根据式 (2) 得到真实应力-应变曲线。
相比于拉伸测试, 压缩测试可以制备相对较小的骨骼试样, 且试样制备形状相对简单。一些学者认为, 压缩测试更加符合骨骼在体内的载荷状态, 比拉伸测试更具有优势 [ 66 ] 。但边界效应、末端效应和摩擦等对测试结果有一定影响[10, 45, 66, 69],具体如下。
1)边界效应是指试样表面和支撑条件对应力分布的影响, 即试样表面与加载面间轻微不贴合 ( 图3 a), 造成试样边界产生不同于试样内部的应力分布, 例如应力集中、变形局部化等。
2)末端效应是指试样末端与加载面由于试样的不均匀性、非线性以及加载条件的影响, 所造成的试样末端的应力和应变分布与中部不同, 通常试样末端的应变比在试样中间大得多。
3)试样与压缩板之间的摩擦会影响泊松效应膨胀的效果, 改变试样的表观刚度, 造成测量误差。
为了解决上述问题, 可设置可调压板减少不对中误差 ( 图 3 b), 利用机械、光学引伸计或数字散斑测量试样中部应变以改善末端效应 [ 10 , 45 , 67 , 69 - 70 ] 。 对于摩擦问题,一些学者推荐使用无侧限压缩测试 [ 10 , 67 ]
人体股骨、胫骨、颅骨和肋骨的压缩测试见 表 4[50, 53-54, 56, 58, 71-75]。大多数压缩试样采用较容易加工的长方体,长度为 $7 \sim {25}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ ,宽度为 ${2.5} \sim {10}$ $\mathrm{{mm}}$ ,厚度为 ${2.5} \sim {10}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$
三点弯曲测试是骨骼生物力学研究中广泛使用的方法,特别是长骨的力学性能研究 [ 10 - 11 , 76 ] 。试样两端支撑, 在中部施加载荷, 试样的上、下表面分别产生压应力和拉应力。由于剪切应力的作用, 断裂一般发生在加载点或加载点附近;且由于骨骼受拉能力比受压弱, 断裂通常发生在受拉表面 (忽略加载造成的应力集中[10, 76]。三点弯曲试样通常为整根长骨、部分骨段或机械加工制备的长方体。传统的骨段三点弯曲测试, 通常假设试样横截面积为壁厚均匀的椭圆形,如 图 4 a所示。长方体试样的横截面积如 图 4 b 所示。
根据试验测得的压头加载力和位移, 利用梁弯曲公式可分别计算骨段或长方体试样的应力、应变和杨氏模量等参数, 分别如式 (4) 和式 (5) 所示。
$ \sigma = F\left( \frac{Lc}{4I}\right) ,\varepsilon = d\left( \frac{12c}{{L}^{2}}\right) , E = S\left( \frac{{L}^{3}}{48I}\right) , S = \frac{\Delta F}{\Delta d}\text{。} $
$ \sigma = F\left( \frac{3L}{{2w}{t}^{2}}\right) ,\varepsilon = d\left( \frac{6t}{{L}^{2}}\right) , E = S\left( \frac{{L}^{3}}{{4w}{t}^{3}}\right) , S = \frac{\Delta F}{\Delta d}\text{。} $
(5)式中: $\sigma$ 为加载处的应力; $\varepsilon$ 为加载处的应变; $E$ 为杨氏模量; $S$ 为刚度(力-位移曲线弹性段斜率); $c$ 为骨段横截面最远端到截面中性轴的距离 ( 图 4 a); $I$ 为绕中性轴的截面惯性矩; $F$ 为载荷; $d$ 为位移; $L$ 为跨距; $w$$t$ 分别为试件宽度和厚度。
三点弯曲是骨骼常见的载荷状态, 能反映骨骼在体内的弯曲应力情况 [ 70 ] 。尽管试样的制备相对简单甚至不需要制备, 但该方法仍存在以下局限性。
1)梁弯曲公式假设试样为规则的几何形状、 线弹性、均质材料, 试验过程中横截面积和形状沿骨的纵轴恒定[66, 76] 。但骨骼试样难以完全满足上述假设, 例如股骨、胫骨等长骨横截面不对称, 骨骼材料是粘弹性且非均质的 [ 77 ] ,因此,由梁弯曲理论计算的应变在塑性段不准确。全骨或部分骨段的三点弯曲测试中, 横断面参数难以准确量化, 目前常用 CT 或 micro-CT 等方法将横截面进行数字化处理后计算其几何参量[61, 78] ,或通过机械加工制备形状规则的试样以获得精确几何数据[10, 66]
2)在两端支撑和加载处, 试样可能存在应力集中并发生局部塑性变形, 造成试样应力状态更复杂而影响测试结果, 因此, 应尽可能避免支撑和加载处的应力集中。
3)三点弯曲试样中部存在较大的剪切应力, 造成杨氏模量降低,因此,一般要求跨距与试样厚度的比值不低于20:1[10, 66]
人股骨 [ 13 , 79 ] 、胫骨 [ 80 ] 、腓骨 [ 81 ] 、颅骨 [ 82 - 88 ] 、 肋骨 [ 61 , 78 , 89 - 90 ] 、胸骨 [ 91 ] 和髂骨 [ 92 ] 的三点弯曲测试数据见 表 5 。大部分颅骨和肋骨的研究采用骨段进行测试,骨段长度多为 ${60}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ ,宽度为 ${10}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$${13}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ 。有文献分别制备了股骨、胫骨、腓骨、 肋骨和髂骨皮质骨的长方体试样, 尺寸比骨段要小得多,长度 11~50 mm,宽度 1.6~10 mm,厚度 ${0.05} \sim 3\mathrm{\;{mm}}$
四点弯曲测试与三点弯曲测试的原理类似, 试样两端支撑, 试样中部使用双加载头施加载荷, 两加载点之间没有剪切力且弯矩恒定 ( 图 5 )[45, 76] 。 四点弯曲测试与三点弯曲测试的试样相似, 通常采用全骨、部分骨段或机械加工的长方体。根据试验测得的加载力和位移数据, 利用梁弯曲公式计算试样中部的应力、应变和杨氏模量等参数, 如式 (6) 所示。
$ \sigma = F\left( \frac{ac}{2I}\right) ,\varepsilon = d\left( \frac{6c}{a\left( {{3L} - {4a}}\right) }\right) , E = \\ S\left( \frac{{a}^{2}}{12I}\right) \left( {{3L} - {4a}}\right) \text{。} $
式中: $\sigma$ 为应力; $\varepsilon$ 为应变; $E$ 为杨氏模量; $S$ 为刚度; $c$ 为骨段横截面最远端到截面中性轴的距离; $I$ 为绕中性轴的截面惯性矩; $F$ 为载荷; $d$ 为位移; $L$ 为跨距; $a$ 为加载点到支撑点的距离 ( 图 5 )。
与三点弯曲方法相似, 四点弯曲载荷也是骨骼在体常见的受力状态。尽管四点弯曲测试消除了剪切应力的影响, 能够获得较精确的材料本构参数, 但四点弯曲测试也存在以下局限性。
1)四点弯曲测试也采用梁弯曲假设测试材料参数, 这与三点弯曲测试的局限性相同。
2)四点弯曲测试要求 2 个加载点同时接触试样并产生相同的力, 加载压头结构较复杂, 实际加载均衡性不易保证,尤其在整骨或骨段试验中 [ 47 , 66 , 76 ]
3)四点弯曲测试所需试样通常比三点弯曲试样长。
通过四点弯曲测试进行人体骨骼材料力学特性研究的文献较少。MARTENS 等 [ 93 ] 对 33 根人股骨整骨进行了四点弯曲试验, 探究股骨最大弯曲载荷及失效能等参数。KELLER 等 [ 94 ] 对年龄为 46~70 岁的 5 具尸体的股骨长方体试样进行了四点弯曲测试,试样尺寸为 ${30}\mathrm{\;{mm}} \times 3\mathrm{\;{mm}} \times 3\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ ,得到人股骨的弹性模量为 ${12.1} \pm {4.14}\mathrm{{GPa}}$
扭转测试用于测量骨骼在扭转工况下的机械性能,常用于管状长骨骨干的扭转力学特性研究 [ 44 ] ( 图 6 )。扭转测试中骨骼试样的力矩从中心向表面由 0 逐步增加到最大值 [ 95 ] 。扭转测试中圆形截面的剪切应力和剪切弹性模量为:
$ \tau = \frac{Tr}{J}, G = \left( \frac{TL}{\theta J}\right) \circ $
式中: $\tau$ 为剪切应力; $G$ 为剪切模量; $T$ 为施加扭矩; $\theta$ 为旋转角度; $r$ 为试样的半径; $L$ 为试样测试区域的长度; $J$ 为试样的极惯性矩。
扭转测试也存在以下局限性。
1)骨骼试样几何形状通常假设为圆形或椭圆形,但 LEVENSTON 等 [ 96 ] 的研究表明,几何形状假设可能导致剪切模量高达 42% 的误差。
2)整骨试样的夹装困难,骨骼两端必须包埋处理, 以便与测试夹具固定, 但包埋处理难以保证试样两端精准对齐,易引起弯矩而影响测试结果 [ 10 ]
3)由于骨的结构特性,扭转试验不仅有剪切力的作用,还有张力作用于骨,会产生试验误差 [ 95 ]
人股骨 [ 50 , 56 - 57 , 97 - 98 ] 和胫骨 [ 50 , 97 ] 的扭转测试参数见 表 6 。扭转测试中的股骨和胫骨试样通常为整骨或哑铃型试样。
超声测试是一种测量材料力学性能的无损检测技术, 利用声音在试样中的传播特性, 测量和评估材料的弹性特性[10-11, 99-100]。超声测试中的试样多为立方体或圆柱体 [ 99 , 101 ] ,测量试样两侧的声速延迟时间,用试样厚度除以延迟时间即为超声声速 $v$ 。 通过纵波或横波的传播速度( 图 7 )来评估骨骼的力学特性。弹性特性与波传播速度的一般关系为 [ 10 , 101 ] :
$ E = \rho {v}^{2}, G = \rho {v}_{\mathrm{s}}^{2}\text{。} $
式中: $E$ 为杨氏模量; $\rho$ 为密度; $v$ 为纵波传播速度; $G$ 为剪切模量; ${v}_{\mathrm{s}}$ 为横波传播速度。
相比于机械测试, 超声有其独特的优势: 超声为无损检测, 可重复多次测量, 有助于减小参数误差 [ 10 , 44 ] ;试样尺寸可以更小,对形状的要求低 [ 2 ] ; 可在单个试样内进行多方向测量, 能分析各向异性特性[10, 99] 。虽然优势明显,但也有其不可忽视的缺点: 声学测试在小试样 $\left( {{0.5} \sim 5\mathrm{\;{mm}}}\right)$ 中可得到较准确的结果,但长度超过 ${10}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ 的试样会因衰减过度造成较大误差 [ 10 ] ;超声测试可直接得到骨骼的弹性参数, 但骨骼详细力学行为、负荷承受能力、应力和应变特性等需要推断或间接分析得出 [ 10 , 102 ]
超声测试应用于人股骨 [ 103 - 104 ] 、胫骨 [ 99 , 103 , 105 ] 、 腓骨 [ 81 ] 和颅骨 [ 106 - 107 ] 的研究见 表 7 。大部分骨骼超声研究采用长方体或圆柱体试样,试样长度为 4~ ${50}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ ,宽度为 $4 \sim {10}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ ,厚度为 ${0.5} \sim {10}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$
$N$ 表示骨骼数量,不明确尸体样本量,未标注 $N$ 的为尸体样本量。
纳米压痕测试通常使用尖端曲率半径为纳米尺度的 Berkonvich 或 Conical 探针, 在载荷或位移控制下压入材料表面,测量加载、卸载过程中的载荷和位移 [ 108 ] 。通过分析载荷 $P$ 和压入深度 $h$ 曲线,计算材料的硬度 $H$ 和压入模量 ${E}_{\mathrm{r}}$
不同于传统的显微硬度计使用光学显微镜测量压痕面积, 纳米压痕仪利用传感器采集的压入深度和已知面积函数的探针,间接计算峰值载荷 ${P}_{\max }$ 对应的接触面积 $A$ ,再由式 (8) 计算材料硬度 $H$ :
$ H = \frac{{P}_{\max }}{A}。 $
在卸载时, 材料内的部分应力得到释放, 材料在弹性变形范围内试图恢复其原始形状, 但由于塑性变形的产生, 只能部分恢复。对弹性卸载响应的初始部分, 即: 初始卸载点至卸载曲线上部的 25%~50% [ 109 ] ,进行分析可得到初始卸载接触刚度 $S$ ,如式 (9) 所示。
$ S = \frac{\mathrm{d}P}{\mathrm{\;d}h}\text{。} $
根据接触刚度 $S$ 和压入模量 ${E}_{\mathrm{r}}$ 的关系,可计算得到压入模量 ${E}_{\mathrm{r}}$[110] ,如式(10)所示。
$ S = \frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi }}{E}_{\mathrm{r}}\sqrt{A}\text{ 。 } $
根据式 (11) 可求得试样的杨氏模量${E}_{\mathrm{s}}$[111-113] , 如式 (11) 所示。
$ \frac{1}{{E}_{\mathrm{r}}} = \frac{\left( 1 - {v}_{\mathrm{t}}^{2}\right) }{{E}_{\mathrm{t}}} + \frac{\left( 1 - {v}_{\mathrm{s}}^{2}\right) }{{E}_{\mathrm{s}}} \circ $
式中: ${E}_{\mathrm{t}}\text{、}{v}_{\mathrm{t}}$${E}_{\mathrm{s}}\text{、}{v}_{\mathrm{s}}$ 分别为压头和试样的弹性模量和泊松比。对于标准金刚石压头, ${E}_{\mathrm{t}}$${1140}\mathrm{{GPa}}$ , ${v}_{\mathrm{t}}$ 为 0.07。
首先, 在压痕测试中要注意样品表面平整度、 固定方式以及压痕之间的相对位置。大部分纳米压痕分析软件都采用 OLIVER 和 PHARR 提出的针对锥形尖端和平坦表面之间弹性接触问题的解算方法 [ 114 - 115 ] ,这意味着只有当真实接触面积与投影面积较一致时, 结果才是准确的。其次, 样品与支撑平面要有足够的刚度, 通常会在样品和支撑面间涂抹脆性胶水固定, 或将样品进行镶嵌。最后, 为减少材料位置梯度的影响,重复性试验必须在足够近的位置进行, 但又必须保证适当间隔, 以避免材料堆积对真实接触面积造成干扰 [ 116 ]
对于骨骼材料, 由于粘弹性效应的影响 [ 117 - 118 ] , 导致其不满足 OLIVER 和 PHARR 方法中对卸载段材料纯弹性的假设, 造成接触刚度和面积估算误差较大 [ 119 - 120 ] 。粘弹性效应的影响程度取决于峰值载荷、卸载前的保持时间和卸载速率的复杂耦合 [ 121 ] 。 有学者认为增加保持时间和提高卸载速率是抑制粘弹性的重要手段, 但骨骼材料的高度不均匀性导致在确定可有效抑制粘弹性效应的载荷方案时, 带来极大的困难 [ 108 ] 。另一个替代方案是允许粘弹性效应发生, 使用已在单体工程材料中确定的方法修正粘弹性效应[119, 122-123]。但修正后的结果能否准确反映骨骼的材料参数, 仍是未知。 表 8 归纳了纳米压痕测得的人骨材料参数。
尽管纳米压痕测试技术在骨骼测试领域仍存在一定的局限性, 但其所具有的独特特点使其在一些方面具有不可替代性 [ 124 ] 。第一,以骨骼材料为代表的生物材料是不均匀的, 压痕测试具备研究骨骼力学特性的位置梯度规律的能力; 第二,许多生物材料很难加工成传统的拉伸或其他机械测试所需的几何形状, 纳米压痕具备对不规则小尺寸试样进行测试的能力;第三,测试所需的材料体积相对较小,可用于检测珍贵的样本。
Micro-CT(Micro-Computed Tomography)是一种计算机断层扫描技术, 能在不破坏试样的情况下获得多角度的 $\mathrm{X}$ 射线衰减数据并形成灰度图像, 经计算机三维重建得到试样的宏观形貌和微观结构。对于骨骼进行扫描时, 骨中的矿物质含量是造成 $\mathrm{X}$ 射线衰减程度不同的关键因素。因此, micro-CT图像能表征骨骼矿物质的含量。通过特定材料的体模对衰减数据进行校正, 以水的密度作为 0 HU, 空气的密度为 $- {1000}\mathrm{{HU}}$ ,能获得影像中每个体素的准确 $\mathrm{{HU}}$ 值。也可以建立衰减数据与羟基磷灰石含量的关系,进而获得每个体素的羟基磷灰石等效组织矿物密度, 用于表征试样的矿化程度, 即组织矿物密度(Tissue Mineral Density, TMD) [ 129 ]
Micro-CT在形态学测量上的准确性已在多项研究中得到证实, 是评价骨形态和微结构的 “金标准” [ 130 ] 。但是影响 TMD 的因素有很多,包括设备、 试样、体模、介质等多方面。设备间的差异通常无法避免 [ 131 ] ,例如射线硬化矫正算法。而试样尺寸的增加会使 TMD 下降 [ 132 ] ,有研究认为只有当皮质厚度超过 $2\mathrm{\;{mm}}$ 时,才能准确测量TMD [ 133 ] 。此外, 标准体膜的尺寸、密度均会影响 TMD 的测量 [ 132 ] 。 最后,不同的扫描介质(空气、生理盐水、乙醇等)也会对 $\mathrm{X}$ 射线的衰减造成影响 [ 134 ] ,进而影响 TMD 测试结果。综上所述, 在设备和测试参数不一致的情况下, 比较不同研究结果之间的 TMD 变得困难。但相同试样条件下的比较仍具有说服力。 因此, 建议在设计试验方案时, 除了设备型号和扫描参数 (例如:射线管电压、功率、各项同性分辨率)外, 还应当进一步考虑试样大小、体模尺寸、 密度和扫描介质等。 表 9 归纳了人体骨骼 micro-CT 测试中常见的设备及参数。
通过非破坏性技术确定骨骼的力学特性对于研究骨力学性能的梯度变化、设计植入体以及评估骨科手术风险等极具吸引力 [ 79 ] 。该方面的研究主要分为松质骨和皮质骨两方面。
在松质骨的研究中, 使用micro-CT 技术建立了不同解剖学部位的密度或体积分数与骨组织力学特性之间的关系模型[145, 149] ,但该类模型预测的模量结果差异可能超过 10 倍 [ 150 ] ,这种误差已无法归因于测试条件和解剖学位置差异。在之后研究中, 通过考虑微观结构排列特征将各向异性纳入预测,有效提升了预测精度, 人松质骨弹性模量预测精度可达 97% [ 151 ] 。至此,松质骨的弹性性能预测得到了较好的发展,但针对皮质骨的研究还较少 [ 152 ]
皮质骨作为一种高度优化的骨结构, 化学成分、微结构、微观机械性能的变化都可能影响骨的宏观机械性能 [ 142 ] 。矿物质含量通常被认为是骨组织弹性模量的主要决定因素 [ 153 ] , micro-CT 测试得到的 $\mathrm{{HU}}$ 值和 $\mathrm{{TMD}}$ 数据客观的反映了骨骼的矿化程度, 所以皮质骨弹性模量的预测多以此为基础展开。普遍的做法是将 $\mathrm{{HU}}$ 值转化为密度值(表观密度 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{app}}}$ 、灰密度 ${\rho }_{\mathrm{{ash}}}$ 等),再将密度值转换为弹性模量 (见 表 10)[148-149, 154-157]。但同一个体的弹性模量预测精度只有 45%,个体之间,可解释的弹性模量的差异范围为0%~64%[158]。由此可见,仅通过骨骼的矿化程度并不能准确预测组织的弹性模量。
此外, 皮质骨微观结构上的差异已被广泛研究, 但深层次的规律并未被完全掌握。有报道显示, 人股骨中段皮质骨的弹性模量没有纵向区域差异 [ 79 ] ,且未发现骨模量与 $\mathrm{X}$ 射线衰减数据之间的相关性, 这超出了一般认知, 也进一步证明了预测皮质骨模量的复杂性, 单一测试手段或因素的考虑可能无法充分反映骨骼材料力学特性的多维性。而 micro-CT 无损检测的特点, 使试样可用于后续其他检测, 为构建多维度的骨骼力学特性预测模型创造了条件。
尽管三点弯曲试验方法计算试样材料参数的方法基于梁理论假设, 但其可以反映骨骼在体的载荷状态 [ 70 ] ,且制备精确的规则试样较简便,依然能保证材料测试精度, 获得了广泛的应用。本文在分析骨骼三点弯曲测试研究的基础上, 结合项目组前期的研究经验, 介绍了一种探究骨骼材料不均匀性和各向异性的三点弯曲测试方法。
长骨的整个制备流程包括双向多梯度(即轴向、周向不同位置)的试样块划分及切割、三向粗制试样切割磨制、最终试样数控精铣。
根据骨干长度确定骨干中点及中间骨环, 然后分别向近心端和远心端确定长骨轴向方向归一化的骨环位置, 通过切割得到轴向不同位置的相同厚度的骨环;将每个骨环沿周向方向按照前/后/内/外 4 个象限进行分割, 得到整根长骨双向多梯度 (即轴向、周向不同位置)的扇形试样块。将每个试样块切割为两个试样区, 一个纵向试样块, 一个为横向/周向试样块。再用金相磨抛机进行打磨, 得到形状规则、表面平整的两种长方体粗制皮质骨试样块。然后利用数控铣床配合试样夹具, 精铣出双向多梯度和三向 (轴向、周向、横向) 小尺寸规则试样 ( 图 8 )。最后使用粗糙度为 1500 的碳化硅砂纸极其轻微地打磨试样 4 个长棱边,去除加工毛刺。 为防止试样加工过程中过热, 所有机械加工过程都在水冷条件下进行。
如前文所述, 室温与体温下骨骼力学特性的差异非常小, 但试样的水合状态对骨骼力学特性的影响非常大, 因此试验前应确保骨骼解冻并在室温下完成水合。
将试样放置在两个光滑的刚性支撑轴上, 支撑跨距与试样厚度的比值至少为 20:1。因此,需要根据制备试样的厚度尺寸, 合理选择合适的支撑跨距。一般而言, 为了更好地分析骨骼的梯度变化, 试样尺寸应尽可能小, 包括试样的厚度, 所以支撑轴跨距也可以相应地减小。对于准静态测试,一般使用位移控制以 ${0.02}\mathrm{\;{mm}}/\mathrm{s}$ 的速度对试样加载,直到试样断裂, 并记录试验过程中的加载力和加载位移。
将试验得到加载力和位移的时间历程曲线进行滤波处理, 然后合成获得加载力-位移曲线。根据试验前测量的试样尺寸, 使用经典梁理论方法, 根据式(5)计算得到试样的应力-应变曲线。
试样的变形分为弹性阶段和塑性阶段。在弹性阶段, 应力一应变曲线近似呈线性, 以极限应力的 25% 为移动窗宽, 以极限应力的 5% 为移动步长, 在应力一应变曲线范围内进行线性拟合, 取拟合优度 ${R}^{2}$ 最大时所对应的拟合直线的斜率为该试样的杨氏模量。将杨氏模量拟合直线段按照应变偏移0.2%[159],偏移后的直线与应力-应变曲线的交点为屈服点, 对应的横、纵坐标分别为屈服应变和屈服应力。以应力达到最大时作为试样的失效点, 横坐标和纵坐标分别对应极限应变和极限应力。切线模量定义为杨氏模量的5%[31, 159-161]。具体的流程如 图9 所示。使用 Matlab 程序将上述方法自动化, 包括试验曲线的合成、应力一应变曲线的计算、基于应力- 应变曲线的材料参数提取等, 实现自动获取每个试样的材料本构参数。
本文研究了骨骼材料力学测试的常用方法, 包括拉伸、压缩、三点弯曲、四点弯曲、扭转、超声波、纳米压痕和 micro-CT 等,分析了各种测试方法能获取的材料本构参数、优缺点及其对试样的要求。
经典的拉伸、压缩、弯曲、扭转等材料力学测试方法, 通常反映材料的宏观力学性能。由于骨骼具有显著的层级结构、非均一性、各向异性等特性, 需要借助新的测试手段分析骨骼的微观性能, 以提高骨骼力学性能的表征准确性, 比如超声波和纳米压痕等测试方法。但需要指出, 目前常用于骨骼的材料本构主要基于宏观力学测试建立, 新的材料力学测试手段对这些材料本构的适用性有待进一步的研究。
骨骼的各种力学性能与其微观结构和组织成分密切相关, 通过透射电镜、扫描电镜等可视化骨微结构排列, 利用傅里叶变换红外光谱 (FTIR)、拉曼光谱和核磁共振光谱等检测矿物和有机物的成分, 有助于更深入地理解骨骼多尺度的力学性能。 同时, 非破坏性的测试方法及基于此的力学性能预测方法, 为未来个性化的人体力学性能预测提供了一种可能。
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2024年第14卷第3期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095–1469.2024.03.11
  • 接收时间:2024-01-27
  • 首发时间:2025-07-21
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  • 收稿日期:2024-01-27
  • 修回日期:2024-03-05
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整车先进设计制造技术全国重点实验室自主研究课题(72275006)
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    1 湖南大学 整车先进设计制造技术全国重点实验室 长沙 410082
    2 中国汽车工程研究院股份有限公司 重庆 401122
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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