Article(id=1319955554672431797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, issueId=1319955375944745964, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12086/oee.2026.250117, pmid=null, cstr=32245.14.oee.2026.250117, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1744992000000, receivedDateStr=2025-04-19, revisedDate=1750608000000, revisedDateStr=2025-06-23, acceptedDate=1750608000000, acceptedDateStr=2025-06-23, onlineDate=1792631527821, onlineDateStr=2026-10-22, pubDate=1771948800000, pubDateStr=2026-02-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792631527821, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-22, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792631527821, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792631527821, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1319955375944745964, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, year='2026', volume='53', issue='2', pageStart='250117', pageEnd='1', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1771948800000', pubDateStr='2026-02-25', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792631485210, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792631485210, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=250117, endPage=1, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1319955554869564086, articleId=1319955554672431797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, language=EN, title=Printed circuit board defect detection based on LightRT-DETR algorithm, columnId=1279511634116841602, journalTitle=Opto-Electronic Engineering, columnName=Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
Objective The manufacturing of printed circuit boards (PCBs) constitutes the foundational infrastructure of the contemporary electronics industry. As the sector evolves in response to consumer demands for increasingly miniaturized, sophisticated, and high-performance devices, the physical characteristics of PCBs have undergone significant transformation. Modern boards are characterized by high-density interconnects, multi-layered architectures, and microscopic component placement. In this context, the role of quality control has shifted from a supplementary process to a critical determinant of product viability and yield. Traditionally, defect detection has relied on manual inspection or standard automated optical inspection (AOI) systems. However, these conventional methods are increasingly challenged by the escalating complexity of modern PCB designs. Manual inspection is labor-intensive, subjective, and prone to fatigue-induced errors, rendering it unsuitable for mass production. Similarly, traditional AOI systems based on pattern matching or simple image processing often struggle with the subtle variations and complex backgrounds found in high-density PCBs. Consequently, there is a growing necessity for more intelligent and adaptive inspection solutions capable of discerning defects with high precision. Current state-of-the-art detection methods, particularly those leveraging deep learning paradigms, encounter a distinct set of challenges when applied to the specific constraints of industrial manufacturing environments. The first challenge is the significant computational burden associated with high-precision models. Accurately detecting minute defects typically necessitates high-resolution imagery; however, processing such data with deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) or complex Transformer models consumes substantial computational resources and memory. This computational demand often translates to prohibitive hardware costs for widespread deployment on factory floors. The second challenge is scale variation, which presents a persistent hurdle. PCB defects manifest in widely varying sizes, from tiny pinholes barely visible to the naked eye to larger structural errors like open circuits. A detection model must possess the multi-scale capability to identify these diverse anomalies with uniform accuracy. The third challenge is the imperative for real-time performance. In high-velocity production lines, inspection algorithms must operate at speeds commensurate with manufacturing throughput to avoid creating bottlenecks. Unfortunately, many existing high-accuracy models are computationally too intensive for real-time inference, forcing manufacturers to make an undesirable trade-off between inspection speed and detection precision. These limitations highlight the need for an optimized architecture that balances resource efficiency with robust detection capabilities.
Methods To address these pressing challenges effectively, this study proposes LightRT-DETR, a lightweight real-time detection transformer specifically optimized for PCB defect detection. Building upon the architectural principles of the real-time detection Transformer (RT-DETR), our approach introduces a series of strategic modifications designed to mitigate computational costs significantly while maintaining, and in some aspects enhancing, detection accuracy. The design of LightRT-DETR is characterized by three primary technical innovations: the implementation of the EfficientFastGLU-18 backbone, the integration of a cascaded group attention (CGA) mechanism, and the development of an efficient selective feature pyramid network (ES-FPN). These components work in concert to refine the model's ability to extract relevant features from complex backgrounds without incurring the heavy computational penalties associated with standard transformer architectures. The overarching goal is to create a model that is both agile enough for edge deployment and accurate enough to meet rigorous quality standards. To resolve the inefficiency of traditional backbones like ResNet-18 when deployed on edge computing devices, we propose the integration of the EfficientFastGLU-18 backbone. This novel structure synthesizes partial convolution (PConv) with convolutional gated linear units (GLU). PConv operates by applying convolution to only a subset of input channels while leaving the remainder untouched for the next layer. This strategy effectively reduces memory access and floating-point operations (FLOPs) without compromising the flow of information. By coupling this efficient convolution strategy with GLU, which provides robust non-linear transformation capabilities, the backbone maintains strong feature extraction abilities. This is particularly crucial for identifying defects against the complex, texture-rich backgrounds of PCBs, where differentiating between a valid trace and a defect requires discerning subtle feature variations. Furthermore, to address the computational expense of standard multi-head attention mechanisms, we introduce a cascaded group attention (CGA) mechanism. Instead of processing all feature channels simultaneously, CGA splits feature maps into distinct groups and processes them through a cascaded structure. This approach allows the network to refine features progressively, as the output of one group's attention computation can inform the next, creating a hierarchical refinement process. This mechanism appears particularly beneficial for defects possessing intricate or fine-grained details, such as "mouse bites" or "spurs", which are frequently overlooked by coarser, global attention mechanisms. Finally, we tackle multi-scale defect detection through the efficient selective feature pyramid network (ES-FPN). This redesigned module employs selective feature integration and incorporates RetBlockC3 modules enhanced with manhattan self-attention (MaSA). Unlike standard self-attention, MaSA is specifically designed to capture long-range dependencies in horizontal and vertical directions. Given that PCB layouts consist largely of orthogonal lines, this domain-specific adaptation enables more effective recognition of defects across widely varying scales by aligning the attention mechanism with the geometric priors of the PCB domain.
Results and Discussions The efficacy of LightRT-DETR was validated through extensive experiments on a public PCB defect dataset, revealing a significant improvement in both efficiency and accuracy compared to current state-of-the-art models, including the widely utilized YOLO series. In terms of quantitative performance, LightRT-DETR achieved a mean average precision (mAP50) of 98.3% and a stricter metric, mAP50-95, of 52.9%. When benchmarked against the advanced YOLOv9e model, our approach demonstrated an improvement of 3.0% in mAP50 and 1.8% in mAP50-95. These metrics suggest that the model is not only capable of detecting defects but also does so with high localization accuracy, minimizing false positives and false negatives—a critical requirement for industrial quality control. The experimental setup ensured fair comparisons by utilizing consistent hyperparameters and training environments, further reinforcing the validity of the observed performance gains.
Conclusions Perhaps the most distinct advantage of LightRT-DETR lies in its computational efficiency. The model requires approximately 37.2 GFLOPs, representing an 80.3% reduction in computational cost compared to the baseline RT-DETR model. Similarly, the parameter count is reduced to 12.8 million, a 77.7% decrease. This substantial reduction has practical implications: it facilitates deployment on cost-effective hardware with limited computing power or allows the system to operate at significantly higher frame rates on standard hardware.
, authors=Zhiyuan Xi
1, 3, Ting Mei
1, 3, Shanling Lin
2, 3, Zhixian Lin
1, 2, 3, Jianpu Lin
2, 3, Shanhong Lü
2, 3, Tailiang Guo
1, 3, authorsList=Zhiyuan Xi, Ting Mei, Shanling Lin, Zhixian Lin, Jianpu Lin, Shanhong Lü, Tailiang Guo, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Shanling Lin, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2026 Opto-Electronic Engineering. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1319955564260610835, articleId=1319955554672431797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, language=CN, title=基于LightRT-DETR算法的印刷电路板缺陷检测, columnId=1319955120360636489, journalTitle=光电工程, columnName=研究论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
针对工业生产中印刷电路板(printed circuit board, PCB)缺陷检测精度和实时性不高的问题,本文提出了一种基于LightRT-DETR的PCB缺陷检测算法。首先,设计了一种高效的主干网络EfficientFastGLU-18,该网络通过引入部分卷积(partial convolution, PConv) 和卷积门控线性单元(convolutional gated linear unit, convolutional GLU) 机制来降低ResNet-18架构的计算复杂度和参数量,同时保持较好的特征提取能力。其次,采用级联分组注意力机制替代了RT-DETR中的多头注意力机制,通过特征分割与级联,增强输入特征的多样性,并降低不必要的计算开销。最后,提出了一种高效选择性特征金字塔网络(efficient selective feature pyramid network, ES-FPN),其主要由特征选择模块和串联RetBlockC3的特征融合模块构成,增强对细微缺陷的检测能力的同时减少计算冗余,从而实现更高效的实时缺陷检测。实验结果表明,本文改进的模型的mAP50达到了98.3%,mAP50-95值较基准模型RT-DETR提高了11.1%,GFLOPs下降了34.7%,Params降低了35.3%,FPS提升了约5.1%。这些优化使得LightRT-DETR模型在移动设备或嵌入式系统中更加适用。
, authors=希治远
1, 3, 梅婷
1, 3, 林珊玲
2, 3, *, *, 林志贤
1, 2, 3, 林坚普
2, 3, 吕珊红
2, 3, 郭太良
1, 3, authorsList=希治远, 梅婷, 林珊玲, 林志贤, 林坚普, 吕珊红, 郭太良, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=林珊玲, authorNote=
作者贡献
希治远:研究设计、论文初稿撰写、算法实现与验证;梅婷:参与实验设计与结果分析;林珊玲:负责研究方向把控、论文结构审阅与最终定稿;林志贤,林坚普,吕珊红:协助完成基准对比实验;郭太良:提供实验理论指导。
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1School of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
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1福州大学物理与信息工程学院,福建 福州 350116
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1School of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
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1福州大学物理与信息工程学院,福建 福州 350116
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2School of Advanced Manufacturing, Fuzhou University, Quanzhou, Fujian 362000, China
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2, 3, *, *, address=
2福州大学先进制造学院,福建 泉州 362000
3中国福建光电信息科学与技术创新实验室,福建 福州 350116, bio={"img":"vkVx9jvf4c0HmcQkiDwsyQ==","content":"
林珊玲(1991-),女,福建泉州人,博士,讲师,硕士研究生导师,福州大学先进制造学院电子信息系教师,主要从事主要研究新型显示技术、平板显示器驱动系统图像处理技术等。E-mail:sllin@fzu.edu.cnsllin@fzu.edu.cn
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1, 2, 3, address=
1School of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
2School of Advanced Manufacturing, Fuzhou University, Quanzhou, Fujian 362000, China
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1School of Physics and Information Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1319955564491297558, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, companyId=1319955564478714644, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
1福州大学物理与信息工程学院,福建 福州 350116)]), AuthorCompany(id=1319955564566795031, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, xref=2, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1319955564575183640, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, companyId=1319955564566795031, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
2School of Advanced Manufacturing, Fuzhou University, Quanzhou, Fujian 362000, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1319955564583572249, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, companyId=1319955564566795031, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
2福州大学先进制造学院,福建 泉州 362000)]), AuthorCompany(id=1319955564642292506, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, xref=3, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1319955564650681115, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, companyId=1319955564642292506, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
3Fujian Optoelectronic Information Science and Technology Innovation Laboratory, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1319955564659069724, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, companyId=1319955564642292506, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
3中国福建光电信息科学与技术创新实验室,福建 福州 350116)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1319955567372784466, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=
Network architecture of the RT-DETR-R18 model, figureFileSmall=8kgB39lFmtksFciMh/FhzA==, figureFileBig=h35hxoiWB7RZf9bl/T5v7A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955567452476243, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图1, caption=
RT-DETR-R18 模型网络结构, figureFileSmall=8kgB39lFmtksFciMh/FhzA==, figureFileBig=h35hxoiWB7RZf9bl/T5v7A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955567662191444, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=
Network architecture of the LightRT-DETR model, figureFileSmall=Xs7ZnZZ28/Lq2fVhs6ZwNw==, figureFileBig=yqcvC+lMJhxCWuWaC3hZhw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955567754466133, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图2, caption=
LightRT-DETR模型网络结构, figureFileSmall=Xs7ZnZZ28/Lq2fVhs6ZwNw==, figureFileBig=yqcvC+lMJhxCWuWaC3hZhw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955567859323734, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=
EfficientFastGLU architecture, figureFileSmall=PE01KO5LOR1XKA5b3OrljQ==, figureFileBig=QRgZ+F6PpEY0IHwcXT1cIA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955567939015511, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图3, caption=
EfficientFastGLU架构, figureFileSmall=PE01KO5LOR1XKA5b3OrljQ==, figureFileBig=QRgZ+F6PpEY0IHwcXT1cIA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568035484504, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=
Network structure diagram of Pconv, figureFileSmall=hbMCixbmtA8jz9Ck+Rff/w==, figureFileBig=n8QPryYPWq6ZTTYk75rWkw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568123564889, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图4, caption=
Pconv网络结构图, figureFileSmall=hbMCixbmtA8jz9Ck+Rff/w==, figureFileBig=n8QPryYPWq6ZTTYk75rWkw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568203256666, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=
Structural comparison between Convolutional GLU module and ConvFFN module. (a) Convolutional GLU module; (b) ConvFFN module, figureFileSmall=eSQerNyAQdYv0cuogkiy1g==, figureFileBig=YSFNh231mnCuGOWkCPPX5w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568270365531, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图5, caption=
Convolutional GLU模块与ConvFFN模块结构对比图。(a) Convolutional GLU模块;(b) ConvFFN模块, figureFileSmall=eSQerNyAQdYv0cuogkiy1g==, figureFileBig=YSFNh231mnCuGOWkCPPX5w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568337474396, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.6, caption=
CGA attention mechanism, figureFileSmall=wkMWY28IeV+kDN6OdQcB5Q==, figureFileBig=D8r0gbiE9EmQ+ImTAt7kKg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568421360477, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图6, caption=
CGA注意力机制, figureFileSmall=wkMWY28IeV+kDN6OdQcB5Q==, figureFileBig=D8r0gbiE9EmQ+ImTAt7kKg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568501052254, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.7, caption=
ES-FPN architecture, figureFileSmall=mPzNRZ3f1+6aiFNR6Mp2BQ==, figureFileBig=e4TOSLCJJkmSJVV/JMM6MA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568584938335, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图7, caption=
ES-FPN架构, figureFileSmall=mPzNRZ3f1+6aiFNR6Mp2BQ==, figureFileBig=e4TOSLCJJkmSJVV/JMM6MA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568660435808, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.8, caption=
CA Module architecture, figureFileSmall=o+QD/Sl8m0nVZ0HidURgiQ==, figureFileBig=xuI+KC1k+G8rKYO2Ruq5yw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568756904801, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图8, caption=
CA模块架构, figureFileSmall=o+QD/Sl8m0nVZ0HidURgiQ==, figureFileBig=xuI+KC1k+G8rKYO2Ruq5yw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955568878539618, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.9, caption=
RetBlockC3 module architecture, figureFileSmall=k6o2YdpCK9zry4K78PdbdQ==, figureFileBig=2VNxwm9+YLyg4QOZD54GtA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569000174435, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图9, caption=
RetBlockC3模块架构, figureFileSmall=k6o2YdpCK9zry4K78PdbdQ==, figureFileBig=2VNxwm9+YLyg4QOZD54GtA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569071477604, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.10, caption=
Comparison of loss values and mAP images before and after incorporating PConv. (a) Comparison image of loss value changes; (b) Comparison image of mAP50 changes, figureFileSmall=T0MdSv9ZPZTpo87ewUaOrg==, figureFileBig=oW/Xk548h5jJf7KB/feSjg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569205695334, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图10, caption=
引入PConv前后的损失值图像与mAP图像对比。(a)损失值变化的对比图;(b) mAP50变化的对比图, figureFileSmall=T0MdSv9ZPZTpo87ewUaOrg==, figureFileBig=oW/Xk548h5jJf7KB/feSjg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569285387111, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.11, caption=
Performance and feature analysis before and after introducing PConv. (a) Comparison bar chart of mAP50 changes; (b) Feature space similarity between RT-DETR-R18 and EfficientFastGLU-18; (c) Feature spectral energy comparison between RT-DETR-R18 and EfficientFastGLU-18, figureFileSmall=DhTXvHemAcGeb2LlbdoGiQ==, figureFileBig=amTTm2M2mrpcUTv+R/Sp8A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569390244712, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图11, caption=
引入PConv前后的性能与特征分析。(a) mAP50变化的对比柱状图;(b) RT-DETR-R18与EfficientFastGLU-18的特征空间相似性;(c) RT-DETR-R18与EfficientFastGLU-18的特征谱能量对比, figureFileSmall=DhTXvHemAcGeb2LlbdoGiQ==, figureFileBig=amTTm2M2mrpcUTv+R/Sp8A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569478325097, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.12, caption=
Comparison of loss values. (a) Curves of loss value versus epoch; (b) Curves of mAP50 versus epoch, figureFileSmall=Nq5UHoqdSs3l5ennd+zXNw==, figureFileBig=cdmLYqoaTUGC0lIYNbIvmA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569562211178, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图12, caption=
损失值图像对比。(a)损失值随epoch变化曲线;(b) mAP50随epoch变化曲线, figureFileSmall=Nq5UHoqdSs3l5ennd+zXNw==, figureFileBig=cdmLYqoaTUGC0lIYNbIvmA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569637708651, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.13, caption=
Comparison of detection results before and after improvement. (a-f) Represent the original annotations and model predictions results for missing hole, mouse bite, open circuit, short circuit, spur, and spurious copper, respectively, figureFileSmall=5JAFivltbmN0lbAAP/VcfQ==, figureFileBig=TEL9GNoFllB+MytBxShNAw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569713206124, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图13, caption=
改进前后检测结果对比。(a~f)分别代表漏孔、鼠咬、开路、短路、杂散和杂铜的原始标注及模型推理效果, figureFileSmall=5JAFivltbmN0lbAAP/VcfQ==, figureFileBig=TEL9GNoFllB+MytBxShNAw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569780314989, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Fig.14, caption=
Comparison of heatmaps before and after improvement. (a) Original annotation image; (b) RT-DETR heatmap; (c) LightRT-DETR heatmap, figureFileSmall=80hRFpf80EOyVBzuxehaYQ==, figureFileBig=PvMVIQZeJHezgIFO3G+RDQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569860006766, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=图14, caption=
改进前后热力图对比。(a)原始标注图;(b) RT-DETR热力图;(c) LightRT-DETR热力图, figureFileSmall=80hRFpf80EOyVBzuxehaYQ==, figureFileBig=PvMVIQZeJHezgIFO3G+RDQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1319955569922921327, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=
Dataset information
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Defect type | Number of images | Number of defects |
|---|
| Missing hole | 115 | 449 |
| Mouse bite | 115 | 411 |
| Open circuit | 116 | 453 |
| Short circuit | 116 | 433 |
| Spurious copper | 116 | 473 |
| Spur | 115 | 443 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955569985835888, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表1, caption=
数据集信息
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Defect type | Number of images | Number of defects |
|---|
| Missing hole | 115 | 449 |
| Mouse bite | 115 | 411 |
| Open circuit | 116 | 453 |
| Short circuit | 116 | 433 |
| Spurious copper | 116 | 473 |
| Spur | 115 | 443 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955570044556145, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=
Comparison of improvement strategies for backbone networks
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Base model | Backbone network improvement | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| RT-DETR | Resnet18 (baseline) | 96.2 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | EfficientFormer_v2 | 95.7 | 29.5 | 44.7 | 11.8 |
| RT-DETR | EfficientViT | 90.0 | 27.2 | 32.1 | 10.7 |
| RT-DETR | RepViT | 88.4 | 36.4 | 45.5 | 4.4 |
| RT-DETR | Fasternet | 94.4 | 28.5 | 64.9 | 10.8 |
| RT-DETR | MobileNet_v4 | 91.5 | 39.5 | 64.0 | 11.3 |
| RT-DETR | EfficientFastGLU-18 | 96.9 | 46.2 | 57.2 | 15.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955570128442226, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表2, caption=
主干网络的改进策略对比
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Base model | Backbone network improvement | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| RT-DETR | Resnet18 (baseline) | 96.2 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | EfficientFormer_v2 | 95.7 | 29.5 | 44.7 | 11.8 |
| RT-DETR | EfficientViT | 90.0 | 27.2 | 32.1 | 10.7 |
| RT-DETR | RepViT | 88.4 | 36.4 | 45.5 | 4.4 |
| RT-DETR | Fasternet | 94.4 | 28.5 | 64.9 | 10.8 |
| RT-DETR | MobileNet_v4 | 91.5 | 39.5 | 64.0 | 11.3 |
| RT-DETR | EfficientFastGLU-18 | 96.9 | 46.2 | 57.2 | 15.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955570191356787, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=
The results comparison of EfficientFastGLU-18 with different channel reduction factors r
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Reduction ratio r | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS |
|---|
| 0.125 | 95.7 | 45.5 | 58.8 |
| 0.250 | 96.9 | 46.2 | 57.2 |
| 0.500 | 96.9 | 49.0 | 53.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955570359128948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表3, caption=
EfficientFastGLU-18采用不同的通道缩减因子r结果对比
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Reduction ratio r | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS |
|---|
| 0.125 | 95.7 | 45.5 | 58.8 |
| 0.250 | 96.9 | 46.2 | 57.2 |
| 0.500 | 96.9 | 49.0 | 53.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955570451403637, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.4, caption=
Comparison of attention mechanism improvements
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Base model | Attention | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| RT-DETR | MHA attention (baseline) | 96.2 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | Focused linear attention | 94.9 | 56.7 | 56.7 | 19.2 |
| RT-DETR | Performer attention | 95.7 | 56.7 | 58.7 | 19.3 |
| RT-DETR | Linformer attention | 95.6 | 55.7 | 60.3 | 19.3 |
| RT-DETR | HiLo attention | 94.8 | 57.1 | 53.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | Deformable attention transformer | 95.2 | 57.2 | 55.0 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | CGA attention | 97.7 | 57.0 | 57.8 | 19.7 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955570833085302, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表4, caption=
注意力机制的改进策略对比
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Base model | Attention | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| RT-DETR | MHA attention (baseline) | 96.2 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | Focused linear attention | 94.9 | 56.7 | 56.7 | 19.2 |
| RT-DETR | Performer attention | 95.7 | 56.7 | 58.7 | 19.3 |
| RT-DETR | Linformer attention | 95.6 | 55.7 | 60.3 | 19.3 |
| RT-DETR | HiLo attention | 94.8 | 57.1 | 53.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | Deformable attention transformer | 95.2 | 57.2 | 55.0 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | CGA attention | 97.7 | 57.0 | 57.8 | 19.7 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955571206378359, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.5, caption=
Comparison of feature neck improvement strategies
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Base model | Neck network improvement | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| RT-DETR | PANet (baseline) | 96.2 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | BIFPN | 95.5 | 64.3 | 41.4 | 20.3 |
| RT-DETR | HSFPN | 96.4 | 53.3 | 50.5 | 18.1 |
| RT-DETR | SDFM | 95.8 | 61.9 | 44.4 | 21.3 |
| RT-DETR | PSFM | 95.2 | 71.2 | 37.7 | 22.4 |
| RT-DETR | ES-FPN | 97.4 | 47.9 | 57.0 | 17.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955571554505592, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表5, caption=
特征颈部的改进策略对比
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Base model | Neck network improvement | mAP50/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| RT-DETR | PANet (baseline) | 96.2 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| RT-DETR | BIFPN | 95.5 | 64.3 | 41.4 | 20.3 |
| RT-DETR | HSFPN | 96.4 | 53.3 | 50.5 | 18.1 |
| RT-DETR | SDFM | 95.8 | 61.9 | 44.4 | 21.3 |
| RT-DETR | PSFM | 95.2 | 71.2 | 37.7 | 22.4 |
| RT-DETR | ES-FPN | 97.4 | 47.9 | 57.0 | 17.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955571676140409, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.6, caption=
Ablation experiment results
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Model | EfficientFastGLU-18 | CGA encoder | ES-FPN | mAP50/% | mAP50-95/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| M1 | × | × | × | 96.2 | 47.6 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| M2 | √ | × | × | 96.9 | 51.8 | 46.2 | 57.2 | 15.4 |
| M3 | × | √ | × | 97.7 | 52.4 | 57.0 | 57.8 | 19.7 |
| M4 | × | × | √ | 97.4 | 52.4 | 47.9 | 57.0 | 17.4 |
| M5 | √ | × | √ | 97.6 | 53.0 | 37.2 | 58.7 | 12.9 |
| M6 | √ | √ | × | 96.9 | 52.0 | 46.3 | 58.0 | 15.2 |
| M7 | × | √ | √ | 97.8 | 52.8 | 48.0 | 58.4 | 17.2 |
| M8 | √ | √ | √ | 98.3 | 52.9 | 37.2 | 59.3 | 12.8 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955571818746747, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表6, caption=
消融实验结果
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Model | EfficientFastGLU-18 | CGA encoder | ES-FPN | mAP50/% | mAP50-95/% | GFLOPs | FPS | Params/M |
|---|
| M1 | × | × | × | 96.2 | 47.6 | 57.0 | 56.4 | 19.8 |
| M2 | √ | × | × | 96.9 | 51.8 | 46.2 | 57.2 | 15.4 |
| M3 | × | √ | × | 97.7 | 52.4 | 57.0 | 57.8 | 19.7 |
| M4 | × | × | √ | 97.4 | 52.4 | 47.9 | 57.0 | 17.4 |
| M5 | √ | × | √ | 97.6 | 53.0 | 37.2 | 58.7 | 12.9 |
| M6 | √ | √ | × | 96.9 | 52.0 | 46.3 | 58.0 | 15.2 |
| M7 | × | √ | √ | 97.8 | 52.8 | 48.0 | 58.4 | 17.2 |
| M8 | √ | √ | √ | 98.3 | 52.9 | 37.2 | 59.3 | 12.8 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955572049433469, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.7, caption=
Comparison of detection accuracy of each model for different target sizes
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Model | EfficientFastGLU-18 | CGA encoder | ES-FPN | mAP50/% (large target) | mAP50-95/% (large target) | mAP50/% (small target) | mAP50-95/% (small target) |
|---|
| M1 | × | × | × | 96.8 | 52.3 | 96.0 | 47.5 |
| M2 | √ | × | × | 97.6 | 53.9 | 96.8 | 51.8 |
| M3 | × | √ | × | 98.4 | 54.6 | 97.5 | 52.3 |
| M4 | × | × | √ | 98.0 | 53.0 | 97.2 | 52.2 |
| M5 | √ | × | √ | 98.3 | 54.7 | 97.5 | 52.9 |
| M6 | √ | √ | × | 97.3 | 54.3 | 96.9 | 52.0 |
| M7 | × | √ | √ | 98.4 | 56.0 | 97.8 | 52.6 |
| M8 | √ | √ | √ | 98.5 | 55.6 | 98.2 | 52.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955572145902463, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表7, caption=
各模型在不同目标尺寸下的精度对比
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Model | EfficientFastGLU-18 | CGA encoder | ES-FPN | mAP50/% (large target) | mAP50-95/% (large target) | mAP50/% (small target) | mAP50-95/% (small target) |
|---|
| M1 | × | × | × | 96.8 | 52.3 | 96.0 | 47.5 |
| M2 | √ | × | × | 97.6 | 53.9 | 96.8 | 51.8 |
| M3 | × | √ | × | 98.4 | 54.6 | 97.5 | 52.3 |
| M4 | × | × | √ | 98.0 | 53.0 | 97.2 | 52.2 |
| M5 | √ | × | √ | 98.3 | 54.7 | 97.5 | 52.9 |
| M6 | √ | √ | × | 97.3 | 54.3 | 96.9 | 52.0 |
| M7 | × | √ | √ | 98.4 | 56.0 | 97.8 | 52.6 |
| M8 | √ | √ | √ | 98.5 | 55.6 | 98.2 | 52.4 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955572410143616, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=EN, label=Tab.8, caption=
Comparative experimental results
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Model | mAP50/% | mAP50-95/% | GFLOPs | Params/M |
|---|
| EP-RTDETR[23] | 96.7 | 46.2 | — | 17.7 |
| Improved Faster R-CNN [24] | 92.9 | — | — | — |
| LIDD-YOLO[25] | 93.3 | — | 7.1 | 2.6 |
| WiseYOLOv7[26] | 96.1 | 57.9 | 136.8 | 57 |
| FPFM[27] | 78.86 | — | — | — |
| LDD-Net[28] | 95.90 | — | — | 5.13 |
| ExtendedFPN[29] | 96.20 | — | — | 137.00 |
| TD-Net[30] | 96.20 | — | — | 7.06 |
| YOLOv5l | 94.0 | 48.5 | 134.7 | 53.1 |
| YOLOv8m | 91.3 | 46.6 | 78.7 | 25.8 |
| YOLOv8l | 94.7 | 49.3 | 164.8 | 43.6 |
| YOLOv9m | 93.4 | 47.8 | 76.5 | 20.0 |
| YOLOv9e | 95.3 | 51.1 | 189.2 | 57.3 |
| LightRT-DETR | 98.3 | 52.9 | 37.2 | 12.8 |
), ArticleFig(id=1319955572506612609, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1278651732997652489, articleId=1319955554672431797, language=CN, label=表8, caption=
对比实验结果
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Model | mAP50/% | mAP50-95/% | GFLOPs | Params/M |
|---|
| EP-RTDETR[23] | 96.7 | 46.2 | — | 17.7 |
| Improved Faster R-CNN [24] | 92.9 | — | — | — |
| LIDD-YOLO[25] | 93.3 | — | 7.1 | 2.6 |
| WiseYOLOv7[26] | 96.1 | 57.9 | 136.8 | 57 |
| FPFM[27] | 78.86 | — | — | — |
| LDD-Net[28] | 95.90 | — | — | 5.13 |
| ExtendedFPN[29] | 96.20 | — | — | 137.00 |
| TD-Net[30] | 96.20 | — | — | 7.06 |
| YOLOv5l | 94.0 | 48.5 | 134.7 | 53.1 |
| YOLOv8m | 91.3 | 46.6 | 78.7 | 25.8 |
| YOLOv8l | 94.7 | 49.3 | 164.8 | 43.6 |
| YOLOv9m | 93.4 | 47.8 | 76.5 | 20.0 |
| YOLOv9e | 95.3 | 51.1 | 189.2 | 57.3 |
| LightRT-DETR | 98.3 | 52.9 | 37.2 | 12.8 |
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