Article(id=1325035382085136414, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, issueId=1325035380357079315, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505053, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1735315200000, receivedDateStr=2024-12-28, revisedDate=1748016000000, revisedDateStr=2025-05-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1793842653055, onlineDateStr=2026-11-05, pubDate=1758729600000, pubDateStr=2025-09-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1793842653055, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-11-05, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1793842653055, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1793842653055, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1325035380357079315, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, year='2025', volume='43', issue='5', pageStart='385', pageEnd='479', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1758729600000', pubDateStr='2025-09-25', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1793842652644, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1793959718537, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1325526390799618088, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, issueId=1325035380357079315, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1325526390799618089, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, issueId=1325035380357079315, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=469, endPage=479, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1325035383758663712, articleId=1325035382085136414, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, language=EN, title=Fatigue crack initiation and strength evaluation of cast Al-Si alloy cylinder head, columnId=null, journalTitle=Transactions of CSICE, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In order to deal with the challenges in predicting the high cycle fatigue(HCF) crack initiation life of cast Al-Si alloy cylinder head, the impact of pore characteristics on the mechanical response of cast Al-Si alloy was investigated through a representative volume element model containing the pore. The relationship between pore size and the non-local maximum plastic shear strain amplitudeΔγmaxp*was established. The HCF strength of the cylinder head was evaluated based on the obtained model. The findings reveal a significant level of stress concentration at the local complex concave and convex positions of large pores. The harmfulness of pores is primarily determined by their size. With the increase in pore size, Δγmaxp*experiences an accelerated growth. The HCF life of samples extracted from the cylinder head can be predicted within ±2.5 times dispersion band using the crack initiation model driven byΔγmaxp*. The bottom plate, the inlet and the exhaust walls are the main parts of the cylinder head with high mechanical stress. The combination of high stress and large pores results in a low HCF life of the inlet wall.

, authors=Peirong Ren1, Zhengxing Zuo1, Weiqing Huang1, Chengzhang Zhao1, Haitao Zhou2, Huihua Feng1, authorsList=Peirong Ren, Zhengxing Zuo, Weiqing Huang, Chengzhang Zhao, Haitao Zhou, Huihua Feng, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Huihua Feng, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1325035408085627114, articleId=1325035382085136414, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, language=CN, title=铝硅合金气缸盖疲劳裂纹萌生与强度评估, columnId=null, journalTitle=内燃机学报, columnName=, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

针对铝硅合金气缸盖高周疲劳(HCF)裂纹萌生寿命预测难的问题,建立孔隙代表性体积模型,探究孔隙特征对合金力学响应影响规律,得到孔隙非局部最大塑性剪应变幅Δγmaxp*与孔隙尺寸的关系,开展气缸盖高周疲劳强度评估研究.结果表明:大尺寸缩孔局部几何不规则凹陷和凸起处应力集中程度较高,孔隙尺寸是影响孔隙危害性的主要参数,Δγmaxp*随孔隙尺寸增加而加速升高,以Δγmaxp*驱动的裂纹萌生模型可实现试样在±2.5倍分散带内疲劳寿命预测.气缸盖底板和进/排气门壁面两侧机械应力较高,同时壁面位置孔隙尺寸较大,二者导致进气道壁面高周疲劳寿命较低.

, authors=任培荣1, 左正兴1, 黄渭清1, 赵承章1, 周海涛2, 冯慧华1, authorsList=任培荣, 左正兴, 黄渭清, 赵承章, 周海涛, 冯慧华, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=冯慧华, authorNote=

任培荣,博士,助理研究员,.

, correspAuthorsNote=
冯慧华,博士,教授,.
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tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035382085136414, language=CN, orderNo=3, keyword=高周疲劳), Keyword(id=1325515056783434662, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035382085136414, language=CN, orderNo=4, keyword=裂纹萌生), Keyword(id=1325515056854737831, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035382085136414, language=CN, orderNo=5, keyword=强度评估)], refs=[Reference(id=1325515065683747803, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035382085136414, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2012, volume=30, issue=5, pageStart=402, pageEnd=408, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[1], rfOrder=0, authorNames=郭良平, 刘福水, 王长园, journalName=内燃机学报, refType=null, unstructuredReference=郭良平,刘福水,王长园,等. 高功率条件下气缸盖的温度测试和改善冷却的数值模拟[J]. 内燃机学报,2012,30(5):402-408., articleTitle=高功率条件下气缸盖的温度测试和改善冷却的数值模拟, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1325515065750856668, 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figureFileBig=8TVS93Ruhu2OAw+gYtMBhw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515064324793299, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035382085136414, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Operational conditions of cylinder head

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区域转速均值/(r·min-1)强化负荷/%使用比例/%最高爆压/MPa
11000663014.52
21500722015.84
31600772016.94
41800882019.36
52100991022.00
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柴油机各服役工况区域

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区域转速均值/(r·min-1)强化负荷/%使用比例/%最高爆压/MPa
11000663014.52
21500722015.84
31600772016.94
41800882019.36
52100991022.00
), ArticleFig(id=1325515064534508501, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035382085136414, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

HCF life of the concerned local structure

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位置高周疲劳寿命/h
进气门座圈孔1867
进气道内壁790
排气道水腔隔板910
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关注位置高周疲劳寿命

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位置高周疲劳寿命/h
进气门座圈孔1867
进气道内壁790
排气道水腔隔板910
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铝硅合金气缸盖疲劳裂纹萌生与强度评估
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任培荣 1 , 左正兴 1 , 黄渭清 1 , 赵承章 1 , 周海涛 2 , 冯慧华 1
内燃机学报 | 2025,43(5): 469-479
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内燃机学报 | 2025 , 43 (5) : 469 -479
铝硅合金气缸盖疲劳裂纹萌生与强度评估
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任培荣1 , 左正兴1, 黄渭清1, 赵承章1, 周海涛2, 冯慧华1
作者信息
  • 1.北京理工大学机械与车辆学院,北京 100081
  • 2.中国北方发动机研究所,天津 300400
通讯作者:
冯慧华,博士,教授,.
作者简介:

任培荣,博士,助理研究员,.

Fatigue crack initiation and strength evaluation of cast Al-Si alloy cylinder head
Peirong Ren1 , Zhengxing Zuo1, Weiqing Huang1, Chengzhang Zhao1, Haitao Zhou2, Huihua Feng1
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Mechanical Engineering,Beijing Institute of Technology,Beijing 100081,China
  • 2.China North Engine Research Institute,Tianjin 300400,China
出版时间: 2025-09-25 doi: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505053
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针对铝硅合金气缸盖高周疲劳(HCF)裂纹萌生寿命预测难的问题,建立孔隙代表性体积模型,探究孔隙特征对合金力学响应影响规律,得到孔隙非局部最大塑性剪应变幅Δγmaxp*与孔隙尺寸的关系,开展气缸盖高周疲劳强度评估研究.结果表明:大尺寸缩孔局部几何不规则凹陷和凸起处应力集中程度较高,孔隙尺寸是影响孔隙危害性的主要参数,Δγmaxp*随孔隙尺寸增加而加速升高,以Δγmaxp*驱动的裂纹萌生模型可实现试样在±2.5倍分散带内疲劳寿命预测.气缸盖底板和进/排气门壁面两侧机械应力较高,同时壁面位置孔隙尺寸较大,二者导致进气道壁面高周疲劳寿命较低.

气缸盖  /  铝硅合金  /  高周疲劳  /  裂纹萌生  /  强度评估

In order to deal with the challenges in predicting the high cycle fatigue(HCF) crack initiation life of cast Al-Si alloy cylinder head, the impact of pore characteristics on the mechanical response of cast Al-Si alloy was investigated through a representative volume element model containing the pore. The relationship between pore size and the non-local maximum plastic shear strain amplitudeΔγmaxp*was established. The HCF strength of the cylinder head was evaluated based on the obtained model. The findings reveal a significant level of stress concentration at the local complex concave and convex positions of large pores. The harmfulness of pores is primarily determined by their size. With the increase in pore size, Δγmaxp*experiences an accelerated growth. The HCF life of samples extracted from the cylinder head can be predicted within ±2.5 times dispersion band using the crack initiation model driven byΔγmaxp*. The bottom plate, the inlet and the exhaust walls are the main parts of the cylinder head with high mechanical stress. The combination of high stress and large pores results in a low HCF life of the inlet wall.

cylinder head  /  cast Al-Si alloy  /  high cycle fatigue(HCF)  /  crack initiation  /  strength evaluation
任培荣, 左正兴, 黄渭清, 赵承章, 周海涛, 冯慧华. 铝硅合金气缸盖疲劳裂纹萌生与强度评估. 内燃机学报, 2025 , 43 (5) : 469 -479 . DOI: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505053
Peirong Ren, Zhengxing Zuo, Weiqing Huang, Chengzhang Zhao, Haitao Zhou, Huihua Feng. Fatigue crack initiation and strength evaluation of cast Al-Si alloy cylinder head[J]. Transactions of CSICE, 2025 , 43 (5) : 469 -479 . DOI: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505053
气缸盖是柴油机最重要的承载部件,其结构功能复杂,服役环境恶劣,当前大功率柴油机气缸盖高周疲劳失效时有发生,气缸盖可靠性差也是长期困扰特种车辆设计的应用基础性问题[1-2].然而气缸盖的高周疲劳多发生于曲面薄壁位置,Javidani等[3]研究发现,靠近鼻梁区的水腔薄壁是高周疲劳的典型位置.Augustins[4]试验发现,水腔内壁易萌生高周疲劳裂纹.臧权同等[5]较早指出,气缸盖进气道出口处与底板的交接圆弧易发生高周疲劳开裂.吴波等[6]也试验发现,气缸盖喷油器压紧力矩过大和残余应力导致水腔和气道壁出现高周疲劳失效.上述位置机械应力较高,同时材料缺陷、残余应力等因素增加了高周疲劳失效的复杂性.
金属高周疲劳失效由裂纹萌生、小裂纹扩展和长裂纹扩展组成,而裂纹萌生与小裂纹扩展占主导地位,二者寿命与总寿命的比例最高达90%以上[7].因此,裂纹萌生寿命的有效预测是高周疲劳强度评估的关键.铸铝硅合金因密度低、比强度高和铸造性好等优点而用于气缸盖制造中[8];但因结构形状复杂、铸造熔液流动时间长等原因,气缸盖不可避免地包含孔隙缺陷.孔隙造成材料不均匀变形和局部不可逆塑性应变,是高周疲劳裂纹萌生的典型区域,Khoukhi等[9]发现对于包含较大尺寸孔隙的铝硅合金,裂纹主要萌生于近表面缩孔处.同时,孔隙尺寸对裂纹萌生影响明显,Ammar等[10]发现裂纹萌生寿命随孔隙尺寸的降低而增加,当孔隙尺寸低于萌生临界尺寸时,则一般认为裂纹不萌生.除尺寸外,孔隙形貌也作用明显,孔隙应变集中位置通常为裂纹萌生位置,部分小尺寸的复杂形貌孔隙也可能萌生裂纹[11].Le等[12]研究发现,裂纹萌生孔隙的球形度低于0.2,即不规则孔隙更易萌生裂纹.此外,相比内部,材料表面和亚表面裂纹萌生较多,Serrano-Munoz等[13]试验发现,内部孔隙的危害性明显低于表面孔隙,表面缩孔的应力集中系数在4~5之间,而内部缩孔应力集中系数在3.0~3.5之间.
上述研究表明,孔隙特征对裂纹萌生行为影响明显,然而当前裂纹萌生寿命模型较少耦合孔隙尺寸、位置等影响因素,导致铝硅合金高周疲劳裂纹萌生寿命模型的适用性和精度较差.另外,广泛使用的疲劳安全系数和S-N曲线等方法存在难以考虑微结构影响的不足,铝硅合金气缸盖高周疲劳寿命预测存在精度低的问题.因此,笔者旨在建立考虑孔隙特征的铝硅合金高周疲劳裂纹萌生预测模型,同时将其应用于气缸盖高周疲劳强度评估中,由此提高气缸盖高周疲劳裂纹萌生预测寿命的精度.
首先检测并表征气缸盖铝硅合金孔隙特征,建立孔隙代表性体积模型并开展仿真,建立孔隙特征、负荷与裂纹萌生驱动参数的映射关系,最后拟合高周疲劳裂纹萌生模型.
使用三维X射线断层扫描(工业CT),检测气缸盖进气道与下水腔隔板处孔隙三维特征,同时在隔板处取一个棒状小试样进行高分辨率CT检测,支撑孔隙代表性体积模型构建.隔板CT扫描总体积约为70000mm3,分辨率为50μm;小试样扫描总体积约为115mm3,分辨率为6μm.扫描结束后,将切片导入Avizo软件内重构获得孔隙图像,同时输出各孔隙体积和表面积.此外,将高分辨小试样内孔隙几何特征导出STL文件以进行后续有限元建模.
图1(a)为孔隙3D重构结果,可见该位置包含较多孔隙,大尺寸孔隙主要位于靠近水腔和进气道的表面和亚表面,即典型的皮下孔隙.除形状较规则的气孔外,还存在部分形状复杂、不规则度高且尺寸较大的缩孔,如图1(b)所示.Avizo软件输出孔隙的体积,对其求和得孔隙总体积为352.0mm3,计算得隔板孔隙率为0.502%.金属孔隙特征主要包括尺寸和形状两方面,尺寸通常用等效尺寸De(De=(6Vpore/π)1/3)表征,形状不规则程度则常用球度Se表征,球度为与孔隙体积相同球体的表面积和孔隙表面积的比(Asphere/ Apore),该比值在0~1之间,球度越低,则孔隙不规则程度越高.根据软件输出的各孔隙体积Vpore和表面积Apore,计算各孔隙等效尺寸和球度.
尺寸大于100μm的孔隙尺寸和球度频率分布如图2所示,大部分孔隙的尺寸低于400μm,大约11%的孔隙尺寸大于400μm,极少的孔隙甚至接近1000μm.图2(b)显示孔隙球度主要分布在0.4到0.7之间,通常球度大于0.4的为气孔,而球度小于0.4的更接近缩孔[14],隔板位置约96%的孔隙接近气孔,而剩余4%为形状不规则的缩孔.这主要与凝固过程中孔隙形成相关,体积小的主要为溶解的气孔,而大体积孔隙则为枝晶收缩时形成的缩孔.图2(c)为孔隙尺寸和球度关系,可见二者近似负相关,各孔隙尺寸对应球度最高值随孔隙尺寸的增加而降低,100μm孔隙最高球度约为0.8,而900μm孔隙最高球度仅为0.3,尺寸大于700μm的孔隙球度基本小于0.4.上述结果表明气缸盖进气道和下水腔隔板铸造质量较低,靠近表面的孔隙缺陷尺寸较大,同时存在较多形状不规则的缩孔.
建立孔隙代表性体积模型并开展仿真.图3为小试样高分辨CT重构结果及有限元建模过程.从图3(a)所示的小试样高分辨CT重构结果中选取如图3(b)所示的30个不同大小(40~400μm)的典型孔隙,将其表面几何信息通过三角面片导出.STL格式文件后生成孔隙面和实体;然后使用Hypermesh软件建立以孔隙为中心、边长为3mm的立方体,通过布尔减运算得到含孔隙的立方体和有限元模型,如图3(c)所示.有限元模型表面网格尺寸为150μm,孔隙表面网格加密处理,尺寸为6μm.有限元模型边界是:底面整体设置Y方向位移约束,与X方向垂直的一条边设置X方向约束,原点设置Z方向约束.之后使用Abaqus软件开展有限元仿真,模型顶面施加循环三角波负荷;气缸盖高周疲劳危险区多轴应力幅在50~80MPa之间,故仿真最高负荷设为70MPa,应力比(最高应力与最低应力比值)为-1;铝硅合金应力、应变曲线在4个循环周期后基本稳定,故仿真模拟设为6个周期,总时长为12s;初始负荷步长和最大步长设为0.05s,最小步长设为10-4s;使用铸铝硅合金Chaboche黏弹塑性本构模型及其参数[15].
仿真获得各孔隙Mises应力,此外,国内外学者[16-17]指出高周循环加载导致滑移带形成,不可逆的滑移累计造成塑性变形和应变累计,由此导致疲劳裂纹萌生,故裂纹萌生与塑性应变紧密相关,塑性剪应变也广泛作为裂纹萌生驱动参数[17].因此,计算有限元模型中各单元最大塑性剪应变幅值Δγmaxp,其计算方法[18]为
Δγmaxp=(γmax,tp−γmax,cp)/2
γmaxp=γmax−γmaxe=(ε1−ε3)−2(1+v)τmax⋅E−1
τmax=(σ1−σ3)/2
式中:γmax,tp和γmax,cp为最高和最低负荷时刻对应的最大塑性剪应变,通过最大剪应变γmax和弹性剪应变γmaxe的差值求得;ε1和ε3为第一和第三主应变;τmax为最大剪应力;σ1和σ3为第一和第三主应力;E和ν为材料弹性模量和泊松比.
图4为3个典型大尺寸孔隙在最后一个循环的Mises应力场和Δγmaxp分布.孔隙造成了明显的应力集中,尤其形状复杂的缩孔区域,最高应力为150~250MPa,对应应力集中系数Kt为2.1~3.6.图4(a)~图4(c)显示缩孔局部存在多个曲率较高的凹陷和凸起位置,这些位置应力梯度高,是典型的裂纹萌生区.图4(d)~图4(f)显示Δγmaxp最高位置与Kt最高位置一致,即Kt和塑性应变参数均可作为裂纹萌生位置的有效预测指标,这与文献[13]中的研究结果一致.
孔隙尺寸是影响孔隙应力、应变响应的重要特征,因此,通过Image-pro-plus软件测量各孔隙垂直于加载方向最高应力所在截面的二维等效尺寸,以得到孔隙等效尺寸与Δγmaxp的关系.同时,孔隙处应力、应变梯度较高,裂纹萌生行为也是由一个局部小区域内的响应而非一点处的响应决定,故裂纹萌生驱动参数通常不直接用孔隙响应最高值,而对其“平均化”以降低响应对有限元网格的依赖性,并提高模型适用性.如Mcdowell等[19]使用1%~2%的缺陷体积作为裂纹萌生过程区域,在该区域上对Δγmaxp平均化,Le等[12]采用临界体积法,使用孔隙周围一定体积Vr内单元等效应力σe的均值作为驱动参数,即
σe*=∫VrσedV/Vr
借鉴上述方法[12]对孔隙最高应变响应点周围球形区域Vβ内的Δγmaxp进行体积平均化,得:
Δγmaxp*=∫VβΔγmaxpdV/Vβ
球体区域中心取空间中最高Δγmaxp所在节点,半径参考Le等[12]的相关研究,该研究计算了两种球形半径对应的裂纹萌生累计发生概率,对比分析后得半径为20μm球体适用于铝硅合金大尺寸缩孔,故参考选用该值.以仿真所得的空间最大Δγmaxp节点为圆心,建立球体如图5所示,图中绿色球体为均值化所用空间球体,其内部包括计算所用单元集;继而通过各单元4个节点的坐标求各单元体积,同时输出该单元Δγmax,ip,由此计算各孔隙非局部最大塑性剪应变幅Δγmaxp*,如式(6)所示.
Δγmaxp*=∑i=1w(Δγmax,ip⋅Vele,i)/∑i=1wVele,i
式中:Vele,i和Δγmax,ip为球形区域中第i个单元的体积和最大塑性剪应变幅值;w为球形区域内单元数.
图6为孔隙等效尺寸与Δγmaxp*的关系.在孔隙尺寸较小时,Δγmaxp*变化程度较低,之后随尺寸的增加,Δγmaxp*快速提高.因此,孔隙的危害性随孔隙尺寸的增加而增大,该现象主要由两方面原因导致,首先,当不考虑孔隙局部形貌时,应力集中程度随孔隙尺寸增加而提高;同时孔隙不规则程度总体上与尺寸呈正相关,即大尺寸孔隙越易出现局部高曲率位置,由此加大了孔隙的危害性.另外,Δγmaxp*的差异性也随孔隙尺寸的增加而提高,这主要与局部形貌相关,大尺寸缩孔包含了不同形貌的局部特征,导致了较高的响应差异性.图6中孔隙尺寸与Δγmaxp*的关系和金属强度-缺陷尺寸关系(Kitagawa-Takahashi图,KT图)近似[20].KT图描述了含缺陷材料高周疲劳极限∆σ随缺陷尺寸a的变化关系,图7示出传统KT和部分典型的修正KT之间的关系.当孔隙尺寸较小时,材料疲劳极限变化程度较小,而随孔隙尺寸增加,疲劳极限快速降低.图6示出随孔隙尺寸增加疲劳萌生驱动参数出现先基本不变、后快速增加的趋势,图7呈现疲劳极限随孔隙尺寸增加出现先不变、后快速降低的趋势,二者均说明孔隙尺寸是影响高周疲劳寿命的关键参数.
使用孔隙代表性体积模型可得各孔隙应变响应,然而在实际工程中,无法对所有孔隙进行建模计算,为实现不同孔隙特征应变响应的快速预测,建立考虑孔隙特征的应变映射关系.
考虑孔隙特征的基础上,耦合负荷对局部响应影响.借鉴Mcdowell等[19]所建立的适用于高周和低周疲劳工况的Δγmaxp*与外载之间的关系得式(7).
Δγmaxp*=Y¯[100(εa−εth)]q
式中:εa为施加应力对应的应变;εth为微观塑性应变门槛值,对于铝硅合金高周疲劳工况而言,文献[19]中拟合得到A356铝硅合金参数分别为:Y¯=0.28, q=2.45,εth=0.0005.
在式(7)基础上耦合孔隙尺寸的影响,同时考虑表面和内部孔隙影响得式(8).
Δγmaxp*=Ψ[100(εa−εth)]q(Deq/D0)nφloc
式中:Deq和D0分别为孔隙等效尺寸和孔隙临界尺寸;φloc为孔隙位置影响系数,φloc=1.00是近表面孔隙,φloc=0.77是内部孔隙;n为表征Δγmaxp*随孔隙尺寸增加而提高的指数参数;ψ为待拟合系数.后续的铝硅合金高周疲劳试验试样断口显示萌生裂纹的孔隙等效尺寸最小约为50μm,故在此设定临界尺寸D0为50μm.Murakami[21]定义了内部和表面孔隙应力强度因子KI如式(9)所示,二者的比值为0.5/0.65=0.77,该处参考该值确定内部和表面孔隙形状因子的比值为0.77.
KI=Yσ0A
式中:Y为形状因子,Y=0.65是表面裂纹,Y=0.50是内部裂纹;A为孔隙面积;σ0为施加负荷.
式(8)中待拟合参数为ψ和n,使用仿真所求的各孔隙Δγmaxp*拟合,拟合方式为使所有数据点的预测值和计算值相对误差平方和最小,如式(10)所示.
Δ=∑i=1nnum[(fi,a−fi,p)/fi,a]2
式中:fi,p和fi,a分别为第i个孔隙的Δγmaxp*的预测值和计算值;nnum为孔隙数,拟合方法为对ψ和n遍历,二者均保留小数点后一位,ψ和n遍历范围分别为[0,10]和[0,5],拟合结果是:ψ=5.7,n=1.4.
考虑孔隙尺寸和外载后,使用式(8)计算的各孔隙Δγmaxp*与有限元计算值如图8所示,实际三维孔隙应力应变响应受局部形貌影响而分散性较高,图中显示大部分预测值误差在30%以内,基本满足后续高周疲劳寿命的预测要求.最后绘制Δγmaxp*和孔隙尺寸与施加外负荷间的映射关系,如图9所示.
得到Δγmaxp*表达式后,建立以Δγmaxp*驱动的高周疲劳裂纹萌生寿命模型[19],即
CiniNiniα=χ⋅Δγmaxp*
式中:Nini为裂纹萌生寿命;Cini和α为裂纹萌生线性和指数系数,文献[19]对A356-T6铝硅合金拟合该模型,ZL702A铝合金与A356合金近似,故取其值分别为0.48和-0.50;χ为与计算Δγmaxp*所用的体积平均化球形区域Vβ相关的固有参数.
为拟合裂纹萌生模型固有参数,开展气缸盖取样铝硅合金高周疲劳试验.在原始气缸盖(A组)和优化铸造工艺后气缸盖(B组)底板取样,得到含不同尺寸孔隙的试样,试样尺寸如图10所示.依据国标《GB T GBT 3075—2008金属材料疲劳试验 轴向力控制方法》开展高周疲劳试验,疲劳试验频率为100Hz,负荷比为-1,加载波形为正弦波,负荷幅值从60MPa至100MPa不等.
图11为16个试样寿命和断口处裂纹萌生孔隙尺寸的关系.孔隙尺寸和高周疲劳寿命基本呈负相关,A组和B组中最低寿命试样的裂纹萌生孔隙尺寸均最高,如图中椭圆圈出.此外,该负相关关系在孔隙尺寸较高的原始气缸盖材料中较明显,当孔隙尺寸大于200μm后,孔隙尺寸的增加会较明显地造成疲劳寿命的降低;而当孔隙在约100μm以内,疲劳寿命总体较高,但其跨度也明显较大,孔隙尺寸对寿命影响降低.这与图6的仿真分析结果一致,即裂纹萌生驱动参数随孔隙增加呈先微弱变化、后快速增加.
高周疲劳寿命由裂纹萌生、小裂纹扩展和长裂纹扩展组成.虽然铝硅合金含孔隙缺陷,但裂纹并不是直接萌生,而是在循环加载导致不可逆的塑性变形后萌生裂纹,且在高周负荷工况下,因外载较低,裂纹萌生寿命占比较高.同时长裂纹扩展寿命在高周疲劳中占比较低,故在此仅计算裂纹萌生和小裂纹扩展寿命.裂纹萌生寿命基于式(8)和式(11)计算,裂纹萌生尺寸为断口分析所得的孔隙尺寸;小裂纹扩展速度及寿命基于Shyam等[22]的模型计算式为
da/dN=μ(ΔCTOD)m
ΔCTOD=16σYS(1−v2)aπEln{sec[πσmax(1−R)4σYS]}
式中:∆CTOD为裂尖张开位移范围;μ和m为模型固有参数,文献[23]对所研究的铝硅合金小裂纹扩展行为开展分析,故取其拟合值,μ和m分别为10-5.5和1.28;σmax为最高负荷值;R为负荷比;a为裂纹尺寸;σYS为材料屈服强度.
对式(12)积分后可得小裂纹扩展寿命,开始积分尺寸为孔隙尺寸,结束尺寸为2mm,该尺寸对应小裂纹扩展速度超过10-4mm/cycle,认为是达到断裂对应的尺寸.
裂纹萌生模型待拟合参数为式(11)中的χ,通过高周疲劳寿命试验结果间接拟合该值,拟合方式为使预测寿命与实际寿命相对误差平方和最小,即
Δ=∑i=1nnum(Ri)2
Ri={Lpre,i/Lact,i                 (Lpre,i≥Lact,i)Lact,i/Lpre,i                  (Lpre,i<Lact,i)
式中:Lpre,i和Lact,i分别为第i个试样的疲劳寿命预测值和实际值,二者相对误差Ri为较大值和较小值的比值;χ通过遍历法进行拟合,遍历间隔设为0.001,遍历范围为[0.001,0.100],得到最优值为0.012.
图12(a)为试样实际寿命和预测寿命对比,图中虚线为±2.0和±2.5倍分散带,所有预测寿命均位于±2.5倍分散带以内,故建立的基于孔隙特征的高周疲劳裂纹萌生模型精度良好,可用于气缸盖铝硅合金高周疲劳裂纹萌生寿命预测.为验证所建模型的适用性,对文献[10]中A356-T6和C356-T6两种铝硅合金高周疲劳寿命进行预测,该研究中试样取自柴油机铝硅合金气缸体中隔板位置,并开展了R=-1工况不同负荷的高周疲劳试验,该研究中提供了各试样断口裂纹萌生区域的孔隙面积,由此可计算裂纹萌生孔隙等效尺寸.根据孔隙等效尺寸、负荷和材料屈服强度计算裂纹萌生寿命和扩展寿命,由此得到高周疲劳寿命.图12(b)为高周疲劳寿命预测值和真实值对比,图中虚线为±3倍分散带,大部分预测和真实寿命误差在±3倍分散带内.因此,所建立的基于孔隙特征的高周疲劳裂纹萌生模型可良好预测铝硅合金高周疲劳寿命.
建立铝硅合金高周疲劳裂纹萌生模型后,开展某型柴油机整体式气缸盖高周疲劳寿命评估分析.首先仿真计算气缸盖高周工况负荷,然后检测高应力区孔隙特征,最后开展疲劳强度评估.
建立缸体、缸盖组合结构有限元仿真模型,开展标定工况组合结构静力学仿真,负荷施加包括:(1)施加螺栓预紧力;(2)螺栓预紧力保持+施加稳态温度场;(3)螺栓预紧力保持+稳态温度场保持+施加爆发压力,爆发压力通过在气缸盖火力面和气门座圈施加压强实现,标定工况施加爆压为22MPa;(4)螺栓预紧力保持+稳态温度场保持+去除爆发压力.各分析步步长为1s,初始计算步长和最大计算步长设定为0.1s,最小计算步长设定为10-4s.
获得爆压施加前、后气缸盖应力分布后,使用临界面法计算各单元多轴等效应力[24].图13为标定工况气缸盖多轴等效应力幅分布.由图13(a)可知,进气门座圈孔位置等效应力幅最高(73.0MPa).气门座圈承受气门较高的等效接触压力,同时该位置结构较薄,导致进气门座圈孔位置等效应力幅值最高.其他应力幅值较高区域位于进/排气道与下水腔间隔板,如图13(b)~图13(d)所示.图13(c)显示进气道侧高应力主要位于进气道内壁,应力幅达到64.4MPa(A位置),而水腔隔板应力相对较低为53.8MPa(B位置).图13(d)显示排气道侧高应力主要位于水腔隔板处,最高约为61.9MPa(C位置),而排气道内壁应力则较小.因此,进气门座圈孔、进气道内壁和排气道侧水腔隔板3个位置应力幅高于60MPa,铝硅合金高周疲劳极限基本在50~90MPa之间,故上述3个位置可能出现高周疲劳失效,后续具体对这3个易失效位置进行高周疲劳强度评估.
气缸盖高周负荷谱由车辆在实际道路行驶过程中柴油机运行状态决定,冀树德等[25]对装有柴油机的车辆在石块路和砂石路行驶过程进行测试,本处对其数据进行分析以用于后续气缸盖多工况疲劳强度评估.柴油机运行状态关键参数为转速和转矩,其中转矩通过喷油泵齿杆位移间接测试表征,在40min行驶时间内柴油机数据[25]如图14所示.
统计柴油机转速使用频率如图15(a)所示,采用转速主要为1400~1800r/min,此外,800~1100r/ min也有一定使用频率,其他转速使用频率较低.柴油机转矩可采用负荷率(所受负荷与标定工况负荷之比)表征,图15(b)为不同转速下负荷率使用点分布,使用负荷特征大致分为5个区.首先为600~1400r/ min之间的低转速、低负荷区域,然后为在1500、1600和1800r/min转速附近的高频使用的中高负荷区域,最后为2100r/min附近的高负荷区域.对各区域负荷均值取整后见表1,由于在柴油机可靠性评估中负荷有“向高负荷工况靠近”的原则,同时可能出现爬坡、穿越沟壑等高负荷路面,因而对各负荷率强化,强化因子设为1.1,强化后各区域转速、使用时间、负荷和对应最高爆发压力如表1所示.
通过最高爆发压力变化模拟表1中各区域工况气缸盖应力响应.图16为3个位置各工况的最高等效应力幅,随负荷率增加,各位置多轴等效应力幅值增加,但增加幅度呈降低趋势.图17为使用频率最高的1500r/min、72%负荷对应的等效应力幅值分布,3个关注位置最高应力幅值分别为59.2、51.7和47.8MPa,相比标定工况,各位置多轴等效应力幅均降低.
气缸盖不同位置铸造质量差异较大,检测进气道隔板、排气道隔板和底板(进气门座圈孔位置)孔隙,各区域取10个样块,各样块测试面积为3mm2,各样块拍摄20张光镜图片,检测各图片最大孔隙的二维等效尺寸.图18为3个位置最大孔隙等效尺寸概率密度分布,近似呈对数正态分布,底板孔隙尺寸较小,样本表面最大孔隙等效尺寸在50~130μm之间,而进/排气道隔板处最大孔隙尺寸在120~280μm之间,其中最大的孔隙等效尺寸接近350μm.上述现象与气缸盖低压铸造相关,铸造浇注口位于底板位置,金属液通过加压方式从下向上填充铸型,浇注系统同时起冒口作用;在浇注系统压力作用下,底板金属熔液流动稳定,同时可得到良好地补缩.因此,底板合金铸造质量较高,孔隙缺陷明显较少.而进/排气道与水腔间隔板结构形状复杂,壁厚不均匀且为曲面,铸造过程易发生填充振荡而产生孔隙缺陷[26].此外,文献[27]中仿真结果显示,由于局部湍流孔隙易出现在垂直板与水平板相交位置,这与水腔纵向隔板与水平底板相一致.上述原因导致进/排气道与水腔隔板铸造质量较低、孔隙尺寸较大.
分别计算进气门座圈孔、进气道内壁和排气道侧水腔隔板位置应力幅值最高处对应的高周疲劳寿命,高周疲劳寿命由裂纹萌生寿命tini、小裂纹扩展寿命tsc组成.
裂纹萌生孔隙尺寸使用所检样块最大孔隙尺寸分布均值,负荷特征以10h为一个使用周期,每个周期中依次按时间比例在2.1节中的5个典型工况下受载,各工况在一个周期使用时间为3、2、2、2和1h.根据1.3节模型求得各工况下裂纹萌生寿命,然后计算对应各工况每循环损伤值,通过累计损伤法得裂纹萌生总时间[28]为
Ni,ini=(χ⋅Δγmaxp*/Cini)1/α
Done=∑i=1i=5Ni,oneNi,ini=∑i=1i=560ti,one(ni/2)Ni,ini
tini=10Done−1
式中:Ni,ini为第i个工况对应的裂纹萌生寿命;Done为单个周期对应的总损伤;Ni,one为单个周期内第i工况对应的循环数,其通过该工况每个周期内使用时间ti,one和该工况转速ni确定;通过单个周期总损伤Done求得总裂纹萌生时间tini.
采用分段计算的方法求解小裂纹扩展寿命.小裂纹扩展寿命由多个周期组成,每个周期为10h,包含5个工况,各工况内扩展时间即疲劳循环数已知,在各工况内使用式(12)和(13)计算小裂纹扩展速度与扩展尺寸,由此循环直至达到设定的裂纹尺寸终止.上述计算过程如图19所示.
基于上述流程,以关注的3个高应力位置孔隙均值作为裂纹萌生孔隙尺寸计算疲劳寿命,如表2所示,结果显示进气道寿命较低,为790h;排气道隔板区域寿命也相对较低,为910h.上述位置由于负荷较高,同时铸造质量较差,综合导致疲劳寿命较低,后续应当对该位置进行局部加厚优化、表面强化等处理,或提高该位置局部铸造质量以提高疲劳寿命.底板进气门座圈孔位置虽然应力幅值最高,但该位置铸造孔隙尺寸小,故其疲劳寿命相对较高.
图20为实际外场测试中气缸盖高周疲劳开裂位置.气缸盖在进气道隔板水腔侧壁面、进气道壁面和排气道隔板水腔侧壁面出现了高周疲劳裂纹,部分外场失效位置与所预测的两个疲劳寿命较低位置吻合.因此,基于孔隙的裂纹萌生与小裂纹扩展的方法可良好地预测铝硅合金气缸盖高周疲劳失效位置.
铝硅合金气缸盖不同铸造批次铸造质量存在差异,同时裂纹萌生孔隙尺寸存在随机性.上述微结构特征分散性导致气缸盖高周疲劳寿命差异性较高,在实际外场测试过程中气缸盖疲劳寿命分散性较高.因此,针对气缸盖寿命最低的进气道壁面位置,采用蒙特卡罗模拟方法开展考虑孔隙随机性的高周疲劳寿命概率计算,孔隙尺寸随机取自图18.
图21(a)为开展10000次蒙特卡罗模拟对应的进气道壁面高周疲劳寿命频率分布,由于孔隙分散性导致的气缸盖高周疲劳寿命差距达10倍以上.根据疲劳寿命累计概率密度分布可得90%、95%和99%可靠度对应的疲劳寿命分别为426、365和273h,如图21(b)所示.
所提出的基于裂纹萌生和小裂纹扩展方法主要用于实际气缸盖疲劳寿命评估与服役不同时间后气缸盖剩余寿命计算,同时可支撑气缸盖孔隙特征的加工要求评定,后续将结合气缸盖铸造质量仿真等方法预测不同结构气缸盖孔隙特征,由此支撑气缸盖设计阶段的疲劳寿命预测评估.
(1) 铝硅合金大尺寸缩孔在局部几何不规则、曲率较高的凹陷和凸起位置应力集中程度较高;孔隙尺寸是影响孔隙危害性的主要参数.
(2) 通过孔隙代表性体积有限元仿真,建立了非局部最大塑性剪应变幅与孔隙尺寸和负荷的映射关系,并以此拟合铝硅合金高周疲劳裂纹萌生寿命模型,实现铝硅合金±2.5倍分散因子高周疲劳寿命预测.
(3) 基于道路实测负荷谱统计得柴油机负荷主要分为5个区域:600~1400r/min的低转速、低负荷区域,1500、1600和1800r/min转速附近的高频使用中高负荷区域,2100r/min附近的高负荷区域.
(4) 气缸盖进气门座圈孔、进气道内壁和排气道侧水腔隔板等效多轴应力幅较高;气缸盖进气道壁面高应力和大尺寸孔隙共同导致其较低的高周疲劳寿命,该位置与气缸盖外场测试实际部分疲劳开裂位置吻合.
  • 基础产品创新科研计划资助项目(202320341145)
  • 中国博士后面上基金资助项目(2023M740234)
  • 国家资助博士后研究计划资助项目(GZC20233400)
  • 全国重点实验室开放基金资助项目(QDXT-NY-202407-01)
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2025年第43卷第5期
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doi: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505053
  • 接收时间:2024-12-28
  • 首发时间:2026-11-05
  • 出版时间:2025-09-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-12-28
  • 修回日期:2025-05-24
基金
基础产品创新科研计划资助项目(202320341145)
中国博士后面上基金资助项目(2023M740234)
国家资助博士后研究计划资助项目(GZC20233400)
全国重点实验室开放基金资助项目(QDXT-NY-202407-01)
作者信息
    1.北京理工大学机械与车辆学院,北京 100081
    2.中国北方发动机研究所,天津 300400

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冯慧华,博士,教授,.
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
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属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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