Article(id=1325035381204320451, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, issueId=1325035380357079315, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505049, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1733846400000, receivedDateStr=2024-12-11, revisedDate=1747411200000, revisedDateStr=2025-05-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1793842652846, onlineDateStr=2026-11-05, pubDate=1758729600000, pubDateStr=2025-09-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1793842652846, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-11-05, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1793842652846, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1793842652846, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1325035380357079315, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, year='2025', volume='43', issue='5', pageStart='385', pageEnd='479', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1758729600000', pubDateStr='2025-09-25', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1793842652644, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1793959718537, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1325526390799618088, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, issueId=1325035380357079315, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1325526390799618089, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, issueId=1325035380357079315, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=434, endPage=442, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1325035381380481220, articleId=1325035381204320451, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, language=EN, title=Evolution of soot morphology and internal structure in oxygen-free environment, columnId=null, journalTitle=Transactions of CSICE, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Aiming at the pyrolysis and coking of RP-3 aviation kerosene at temperatures above 1000K and ambient pressure around 1.8MPa, optical imaging and time series sampling of RP-3 aviation kerosene soot formation process under oxygen-free environment were conducted using a new sampling method to study the formation rate and morphology evolution route of soot. The results of optical imaging indicate that the higher the ambient temperature, the faster the growth rate of soot and the higher the soot peak mass. By comparing the transmission electron microscopy images of soot at different times, it is found that soot could complete the whole process from fuel pyrolysis to mature aggregate formation within 8 ms at 1200K. After the soot matured, the particle size distribution and internal structure no longer change over time. However, even though the total mass of soot has stopped increasing, the average particle number of soot aggregates continues to increase with time.

, authors=Yugui He, Sheng Huang, Quan Zhu, authorsList=Yugui He, Sheng Huang, Quan Zhu, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Quan Zhu, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1325035385142771935, articleId=1325035381204320451, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, language=CN, title=无氧环境下碳烟形貌与内部结构演化过程, columnId=null, journalTitle=内燃机学报, columnName=, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

针对温度为1000K以上、环境压力为1.8MPa左右下RP-3航空煤油的裂解结焦,使用新的采样方法对无氧环境下RP-3航空煤油的碳烟生成过程进行光学成像与时序取样,以研究碳烟生成速率、形貌和演化路线.光学成像的结果表明:环境温度越高,碳烟生长速率越快,碳烟峰值质量越高.通过比较不同时刻的碳烟透射电镜图像,发现1200K下碳烟在8ms内就能完成从燃料裂解到形成成熟聚集体的整个过程.碳烟成熟之后,粒径分布与内部结构均不再随时间变化.然而即使碳烟总质量已经停止增长,碳烟聚集体的平均颗粒数还是继续随时间增加而增大.

, authors=何与归, 黄胜, 朱权, authorsList=何与归, 黄胜, 朱权, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=朱权, authorNote=

何与归,硕士研究生,.

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朱权,博士,教授,.
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Applied Physics B,2020,126(8):125-135., articleTitle=The change of soot refractive index function along the height of premixed ethylene/air flame and its correlation with soot structure, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1325515009484268206, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, awardId=T2441001, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金委员会专项资助项目(T2441001), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1325514997496947325, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1325514997505335934, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, companyId=1325514997496947325, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=School of Chemical Engineering,Sichuan University,Chengdu 610065,China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1325514997643747967, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, companyId=1325514997496947325, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=四川大学化学工程学院,成都610065)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1325515002249093783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=Schematic diagram of the sampling device and sampling system, figureFileSmall=vlBMwbIt0208Jzn8oM9ekw==, figureFileBig=QPS1tPgcTFBkdUiFWqY9bg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515002324591256, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图1, caption=取样夹具与取样系统的示意, figureFileSmall=vlBMwbIt0208Jzn8oM9ekw==, figureFileBig=QPS1tPgcTFBkdUiFWqY9bg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515002425254554, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Spatial distribution of soot at 8ms after injection at different temperatures, figureFileSmall=5AJuMCIA/nKI3ti5/jL7hQ==, figureFileBig=EN1pvMp/vBl7/SRY/ZEHnQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515003125703325, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图2, caption=不同温度下喷油后8ms时的碳烟空间分布, figureFileSmall=5AJuMCIA/nKI3ti5/jL7hQ==, figureFileBig=EN1pvMp/vBl7/SRY/ZEHnQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515003205395102, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=Three groups of experimental results of soot mass that changes with time under three different temperatures, figureFileSmall=W2vW+ekgyqa1cf9qPoOdJQ==, figureFileBig=Kjhph3UoafNlXkAy1HxcNg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515003566105247, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图3, caption=碳烟在3种目标温度下质量随时间变化的试验结果, figureFileSmall=W2vW+ekgyqa1cf9qPoOdJQ==, figureFileBig=Kjhph3UoafNlXkAy1HxcNg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515004954419872, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=Morphology of soot samples sampled at different times under 1200K, figureFileSmall=L/S1mx0wLbZLPqp8sp9dug==, figureFileBig=EXvIahvw5gGVbHlbcgRiIQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515005189300897, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图4, caption=1200K下喷油后不同时刻取的碳烟样品形貌, figureFileSmall=L/S1mx0wLbZLPqp8sp9dug==, figureFileBig=EXvIahvw5gGVbHlbcgRiIQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515005629702818, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=Internal structure of soot samples sampled at different times under 1200K, figureFileSmall=Cf0jpBMqqAnCTag/CgtZHg==, figureFileBig=DOifI4h6PJx6TZiYHFZUkA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515005705200291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图5, caption=1200K下喷油后不同时刻取的碳烟样品内部结构, figureFileSmall=Cf0jpBMqqAnCTag/CgtZHg==, figureFileBig=DOifI4h6PJx6TZiYHFZUkA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515006036550308, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.6, caption=Roadmaps of soot morphology evolution proposed by Lahaye et al.[8-9] and Reilly et al. [10] respectively, figureFileSmall=RvxebY4h+WzFBZ+vMgtgiA==, figureFileBig=qTSRLRbU2WQparH13eR2Wg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515006137213605, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图6, caption=Lahaye等[8-9]与Reilly等[10]分别提出的碳烟形貌演化路线, figureFileSmall=RvxebY4h+WzFBZ+vMgtgiA==, figureFileBig=qTSRLRbU2WQparH13eR2Wg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515006506312358, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.7, caption=Particle size distribution and average particle sizes of soot primary particles,average particle numbers of single soot aggregate in different time periods, figureFileSmall=nDlusAVMwYcqwUjRH3AR3g==, figureFileBig=4vVj3DTCo2erQbtysuS97w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515006867022503, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图7, caption=不同时间段的碳烟基元颗粒粒径分布、基元颗粒平均粒径及单个碳烟聚集体的平均颗粒数, figureFileSmall=nDlusAVMwYcqwUjRH3AR3g==, figureFileBig=4vVj3DTCo2erQbtysuS97w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515006929937064, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Fig.8, caption=Internal structure characteristic parameters of soot in different periods, figureFileSmall=GS7Fa7ZHCJbvmcUtZSk19w==, figureFileBig=FU83tsVn7Ovu2+dhQSVd/w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515006980268713, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=图8, caption=不同时间段的碳烟基元颗粒内部结构参数, figureFileSmall=GS7Fa7ZHCJbvmcUtZSk19w==, figureFileBig=FU83tsVn7Ovu2+dhQSVd/w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1325515007290647210, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Operation parameters of spray experiment

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参数数值
目标温度/K115012001300
喷油时刻环境压力/MPa1.741.811.96
环境密度/(kg·m-3)5
壁面温度/K413
喷油压力/MPa40
喷油持续时间/μs500
喷油量/mg1.762
), ArticleFig(id=1325515007349367467, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

喷雾试验运行参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数数值
目标温度/K115012001300
喷油时刻环境压力/MPa1.741.811.96
环境密度/(kg·m-3)5
壁面温度/K413
喷油压力/MPa40
喷油持续时间/μs500
喷油量/mg1.762
), ArticleFig(id=1325515007408087724, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1205116786560364546, articleId=1325035381204320451, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Average start points of soot,average soot peak mass and average peak mass time at different temperatures

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温度/K平均起烟时间/ms平均峰值质量时刻/ms平均峰值质量/μg平均碳转化率/%
13001.7±0.158.3±3.8424.7±45.228.1±3.0
12002.9±0.339.1±3.7260.4±36.517.2±2.4
11503.6±0.660.4±1.2210.2±32.013.9±2.1
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不同温度下碳烟的平均起烟时间、平均碳烟峰值质量与平均峰值质量时刻

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温度/K平均起烟时间/ms平均峰值质量时刻/ms平均峰值质量/μg平均碳转化率/%
13001.7±0.158.3±3.8424.7±45.228.1±3.0
12002.9±0.339.1±3.7260.4±36.517.2±2.4
11503.6±0.660.4±1.2210.2±32.013.9±2.1
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无氧环境下碳烟形貌与内部结构演化过程
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何与归 , 黄胜 , 朱权
内燃机学报 | 2025,43(5): 434-442
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无氧环境下碳烟形貌与内部结构演化过程
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何与归 , 黄胜, 朱权
作者信息
  • 四川大学化学工程学院,成都610065
通讯作者:
朱权,博士,教授,.
作者简介:

何与归,硕士研究生,.

Evolution of soot morphology and internal structure in oxygen-free environment
Yugui He , Sheng Huang, Quan Zhu
Affiliations
  • School of Chemical Engineering,Sichuan University,Chengdu 610065,China
出版时间: 2025-09-25 doi: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505049
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针对温度为1000K以上、环境压力为1.8MPa左右下RP-3航空煤油的裂解结焦,使用新的采样方法对无氧环境下RP-3航空煤油的碳烟生成过程进行光学成像与时序取样,以研究碳烟生成速率、形貌和演化路线.光学成像的结果表明:环境温度越高,碳烟生长速率越快,碳烟峰值质量越高.通过比较不同时刻的碳烟透射电镜图像,发现1200K下碳烟在8ms内就能完成从燃料裂解到形成成熟聚集体的整个过程.碳烟成熟之后,粒径分布与内部结构均不再随时间变化.然而即使碳烟总质量已经停止增长,碳烟聚集体的平均颗粒数还是继续随时间增加而增大.

无氧环境  /  消光法  /  碳烟形貌  /  颗粒生长

Aiming at the pyrolysis and coking of RP-3 aviation kerosene at temperatures above 1000K and ambient pressure around 1.8MPa, optical imaging and time series sampling of RP-3 aviation kerosene soot formation process under oxygen-free environment were conducted using a new sampling method to study the formation rate and morphology evolution route of soot. The results of optical imaging indicate that the higher the ambient temperature, the faster the growth rate of soot and the higher the soot peak mass. By comparing the transmission electron microscopy images of soot at different times, it is found that soot could complete the whole process from fuel pyrolysis to mature aggregate formation within 8 ms at 1200K. After the soot matured, the particle size distribution and internal structure no longer change over time. However, even though the total mass of soot has stopped increasing, the average particle number of soot aggregates continues to increase with time.

oxygen-free environment  /  light extinction method  /  soot morphology  /  particle growth
何与归, 黄胜, 朱权. 无氧环境下碳烟形貌与内部结构演化过程. 内燃机学报, 2025 , 43 (5) : 434 -442 . DOI: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505049
Yugui He, Sheng Huang, Quan Zhu. Evolution of soot morphology and internal structure in oxygen-free environment[J]. Transactions of CSICE, 2025 , 43 (5) : 434 -442 . DOI: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505049
裂解结焦是燃料主动冷却技术的主要瓶颈,对燃料裂解结焦过程的研究具有重要意义.然而常规的流动管试验难以实现裂解结焦的实时观测,现有研究对燃料体相结焦的认识仍有不足.无氧环境下燃料生成碳烟的过程、机理与裂解结焦相似,因此,采用高温无氧环境下的燃料喷雾热解等手段是研究1000K以上的裂解结焦过程的可行手段.
碳烟演化的研究成果对研究裂解结焦过程的认识有重要参考价值.碳烟的演化一般分为:(1)燃料裂解产生气相前驱体多环芳烃;(2)多环芳烃生长,大的多环芳烃分子反应[1-2]形成碳烟颗粒的核;(3)球形颗粒的形成、凝聚以及表面生长[1,3-6]和氧化[7].针对碳烟的演化,不同的学者采用各自的方法研究,得出了不同结论.Lahaye等[8-9]认为一开始先成核形成初始颗粒,这些初始颗粒很小,近似球形,通过表面增长、聚并长成更大的基元颗粒,期间不断碳化;之后这些大的基元颗粒通过团聚、聚集形成碳烟聚集体.而Reilly等[10]认为,一开始先有多环芳烃液滴,之后碳烟成核于多环芳烃液滴中,一个液滴上有许多颗粒成核;成核之后颗粒不断生长并碳化.由于范德华力,单个液滴上的许多颗粒会连接在一起,最后经历融合形成碳烟聚集体[11].Davis等[12]使用倒置重力火焰反应器(IGFR)研究大气压下初始颗粒向成熟颗粒演变的过程发现,在1495~1968K的层流扩散火焰中,初始碳烟在内部形成多个直径为5nm的核,这些核生长成基元颗粒,并最终形成成熟的聚集体.文献[13-14]通过在柴油喷雾火焰的不同轴向位置处安装透射电镜(TEM)载网对碳烟进行取样,发现在环境温度为900K(火焰温度未给出)、环境压力为4MPa的喷雾燃烧条件下,在上游有比成熟基元颗粒还要大的类液体颗粒,下游有许多在大的“液体状”颗粒表面形成的未成熟基元颗粒.Zhao等[15]研究了大气压下正庚烷/甲苯混合燃料射流扩散火焰中的碳烟演变过程发现,在温度大于1249K的火焰中心线上,随着颗粒的成熟,初始颗粒由无定形结构转变为洋葱状结构,颗粒形貌趋向于球状或椭球体.
在碳烟研究领域,层流扩散火焰由于燃料流速恒定,具有稳态测量优势,火焰不同高度代表碳烟演化的不同阶段.但在层流扩散火焰中,碳烟最终一定会氧化,不能观察到碳烟长时间停留后的极限生长状态.对定容弹中喷雾火焰进行热泳取样也是常见的碳烟测量方法之一,这种方法更贴近柴油机实际燃烧环境,不同轴向位置代表喷油后碳烟发展的不同时刻.但碳烟的发展同样受到氧化过程与氧化升温作用的影响.为排除碳烟氧化与氧化升温的影响,笔者借鉴了定容弹内喷雾火焰的碳烟观测方法,通过调整预燃混合气配比实现高温零氧浓度环境.在碳烟取样方面,由于无氧环境下碳烟生成后不会被氧化,而是停留在定容弹内扩散.若在燃烧弹内布置固定式热泳取样支架,各生长阶段的碳烟均沉积于载网上,失去时间分辨能力.
为此,笔者开发了一种对无氧环境下喷雾后不同时刻的碳烟取样的方法,结合消光法碳烟质量在线测量,以研究喷雾后不同时刻的碳烟生成速率、形貌和内部结构,探究碳烟的演化过程,用于类比研究RP-3航空煤油在1000K以上的裂解结焦过程.
碳烟取样系统由取样夹具、电磁阀、不锈钢毛细管和ECU等组成.将一根不锈钢管一头伸入定容弹内碳烟集中分布的区域,一头与取样夹具相连.图1所示该取样夹具内有空腔,载网放置于基座夹具侧壁面上箭头所指处的圆孔.取样夹具一头与电磁阀相连,电磁阀控制定容弹内、外气体的联通.ECU控制着喷油器与电磁阀,ECU可以设置喷油器与电磁阀开启之间的间隔.喷油后过一段时间,电磁阀再打开,此时定容弹内气压远大于大气压,巨大的压差使定容弹内含碳烟的气体沿着不锈钢管进入取样夹具,流向大气.图1(a)中红色箭头为气流方向.载网所在侧壁面平行于气流方向,含碳烟的气流掠过TEM载网,气流中的碳烟因热泳效应沉积于载网上.电磁阀在喷油后不同时刻打开,就可以取不同时刻生成的碳烟.
使用消光法测量碳烟的质量.用LED作为光源照射定容弹,通过计算高速相机接收到的透射光强与入射光强的比值得出Kext,λL值.依据朗伯-比尔定律,可得出使用消光法测量碳烟质量公式为
In/I0=exp(−Kext , λL)
m=ρfv=∑inρλKext,λLA/ke
ke=(1+αsa)6πE(λ)
式中:m为碳烟质量测量值;In为相机收到的透射光的光强;I0为入射光强度;A为单个像素的面积;L为光程;λ为光源波长,在相机镜头前加520nm的滤光片,故λ=520nm;E(λ)为碳烟的吸收函数;fv为碳烟的体积分数;ρ为碳烟密度,ρ=1.8g/cm3[16];ke为量纲为1的消光系数,ke取值为7.46[16-18];αsa为散射与吸收之比,在一般的消光法中,散射在消光中贡献较少且无法测量散射光强,所以通常忽略散射的贡献,把αsa设为0[19].
透射电镜收集透射后的电子信号分布,将其转化成图像,可以得到样品的结构信息.使用imageJ软件手动测量粒径,采用十字法测量基元粒径.在基元颗粒上选取两个交叉特征直径,取这两者直径的平均值作为该基元颗粒的粒径.对TEM图像进行阈值切割,然后使用公式N=(Aa/Ap)α来计算聚集体的颗粒数[20],其中:Aa为碳烟聚集体投影面积;Ap为基元颗粒平均面积;α=1.09.使用Verma等[21]提供的图像处理程序来提取基元颗粒的内部纳米结构参数,该程序通过对内部结构的TEM图片进行降噪、增强对比度、阈值切割和骨架化得到条纹图像.条纹长度为条纹上所有相邻像素的距离之和.在经过处理的条纹图像中存在一组平行的点阵条纹,在这些平行点阵条纹之间画一条法线方向的直线,每个像素在直线中都有自己的灰度值.层间距为两个相邻灰度峰之间的距离[20].弯曲度Tf为条纹长度与条纹两端端点距离之比,即Tf=La/Ds,可以通过测量条纹长度La和端点距离Ds来获得.
采用预混燃烧的方法来创造高温、高压环境.在容积为7.85L的定容弹内充入甲烷、氮气和氧气,定容弹内气体密度恒定为5kg/m3.定容弹内气体比例关系式为
8.5CH4+15O2+76.5N2→1CH4+0O2+       7.5CO2+15H2O+76.5N2
可依据式(4)中组分前的系数计算该组分在定容弹内的体积分数.这样的比例可以保证氧气能全部耗尽从而实现无氧环境.气体充分混合后电极点火,定容弹内甲烷燃烧放热,迅速升温,之后缓慢降温.根据式(5)可以计算温度,即
puMu/Tu=pbMb/Tb=ρR
式中:pu、Mu和Tu分别为预燃前的环境压力、平均相对分子质量和温度;pb、Mb和Tb分别为预燃后的环境压力、平均相对分子质量和温度;R为气体常数.依据式(5),把压力传感器的环境压力信号转化为温度.温度降到目标温度时,喷油器开始喷入1.76mg的RP-3航空煤油,摄像机开始拍摄.相机帧率为10000幅/s,曝光时间为9μs.喷油后时刻用ASOI来表示,在特定ASOI中,电磁阀自动开始取样,取样持续时间固定为8ms.表1所示在目标温度为1150、1200和1300K下做3次重复试验的喷雾运行参数,其余工况参数皆相同.
无氧环境下燃油不发生氧化反应,只会主要发生裂解反应,并随着时间的推移同步生成碳烟.图2为1150、1200和1300K下喷油后8ms时的碳烟空间分布图像,局部区域的颜色越偏褐红色,说明该区域碳烟质量越大.反之越偏深蓝,说明该区域碳烟质量越小.图2的伪彩色是根据式(1)与式(2),由Matlab程序的pcolor函数所绘.结合消光法图像根据式(2)可得图3所示的碳烟质量增长曲线.
图3中还同步给出了定容弹内实测温度变化曲线,实际上由于目标环境压力检测与喷油器控制的延迟,实际喷油时温度与目标温度相差20K左右.而且喷雾后定容弹内的温度是不断下降的,试验中碳烟生成环境的温度呈缓慢下降趋势(~0.8K/ms).需要说明的是,图3中的温度曲线在0~1ms内的陡降-陡升过程是喷油信号干扰造成的,其宽度与喷油持续期相同.图3中的碳烟质量增长曲线为3次重复试验的平均值,使用标准差的误差带表示其误差.
由碳烟生成曲线可以看出,碳烟质量在初期增长迅猛.之后增长速率渐渐放缓,最后达到峰值.理论上讲,由于定容弹内氧气已经耗尽,生成的碳烟不会进行后续氧化反应,碳烟质量达到峰值之后应该不变.但图3中各工况碳烟质量达到峰值后继续缓慢下降.这是因为随着时间尺度拉长,有少部分碳烟颗粒扩散到视窗观察范围之外了.由于试验中在如图2所示的左侧安装了与视窗左边缘形状一致的圆弧形挡板,根据碳烟扩散过程的面积判断,200ms时超出视窗范围的碳烟颗粒质量仍可以控制在15%以内.因而图3的碳烟质量曲线可用于半定量分析.
表2总结了目标温度为1150、1200和1300K时(每个温度各3次重复试验)无氧环境下RP-3航空煤油燃料的起烟时间、碳烟峰值质量及峰值质量时刻.其中,起烟时间就是燃料喷出后到碳烟明显可见时(碳烟质量大于5μg)的间隔时间.1~6nm的碳烟初始颗粒在可见光和近红外光谱区几乎是透明的[22-25],这个粒径范围内的颗粒刚刚成核.因而起烟时间代表燃料开始裂解到形成初始颗粒的时间.峰值质量时刻代表燃料裂解结焦的终点,此时已经无法生成新颗粒,旧颗粒的表面生长也停止了.碳转化率为碳烟峰值质量与喷入的燃料中碳元素质量的比值,代表燃料转化为碳烟的转化率.
由表2可知,温度越高,起烟时间越短,峰值质量越高,1200K的峰值质量时刻小于1150K的.温度升高对成核速率及表面生长速率的促进作用是显著的.理论上讲,温度越高,峰值质量时刻越短.但1300K的峰值质量时刻却远大于1200K的,这是因为局部碳烟浓度超过一定量时,无论局部碳烟浓度多少,相机收到的局部透射光强度都为0.这就导致温度更高时实际的碳烟质量大于测量值,多出来的碳烟质量只有扩散到碳烟稀疏的区域才能测到.这可能导致峰值质量时刻延迟,碳烟质量与碳烟生成速率的测量值偏低.
喷油量相同,温度越高,碳烟峰值质量与碳转化率越高.已知碳烟质量增长大部分源于表面增长,而氢提取-乙炔加成(HACA)机理中乙炔参与了表面生长.碳烟峰值质量随温度升高是因为温度越高,裂解产物中乙炔等参与生成碳烟的物质浓度越高.在Han等[26]的Jet A燃料激波管试验中,燃料在1050K左右开始裂解,乙炔浓度随温度而升高,在1350K以上成为优势物种,在1700K左右到达峰值,之后平稳不变.这从小分子物质浓度的角度揭示了表2中RP-3碳烟峰值质量、碳转化率随温度升高而增加的原因.
表2中的起烟时间、峰值质量时刻可以判断碳烟何时成核、何时停止生长.然而仅凭这些宏观结果是无法判断碳烟何时成熟、为何停止生长,更无法全面了解RP-3航空煤油的裂解、生成碳烟的演化路线,因而必须观察不同时刻的碳烟微观特征.为进一步探究无氧条件下碳烟生成过程的微观特征,在1200K下对喷油后0~8、10~18、20~28、30~38、40~48、100~108和200~208ms分别进行了碳烟取样.其中,8ms的取样持续时间由电磁阀的最短动作时间决定.电磁阀开启与关闭的响应时间均为2ms,维持电磁阀开启的最小脉宽为4ms.图4与图5所示不同时刻的喷雾碳烟形貌、成熟度和粒径存在较大差别.
0~8ms的碳烟大多为基元颗粒数目少的聚集体及少量类液体颗粒.聚集体上的基元颗粒有明显核壳结构.所谓类液体颗粒,就是颗粒表现出大块液体物质的某些行为,如使载网表面收集的颗粒变平,其形貌像在载网表面上飞溅的蜡.一般来说,液体是无定形的,不具有结构的规律性和有序性[23].用TEM图像来测量类液体颗粒的体积可能会导致对其体积的高估,因为这些颗粒在撞击取样载网后不再保持球形.因此,它们的投影面积不能用来计算它们的体积当量直径[27].类液体颗粒的变化及其在碳烟演变中的作用尚未得到广泛研究[28].这些类液体颗粒表明,0~8ms内已完成了燃料裂解、成核,表面生长机制已开始,碰撞作用已经发生.
图5(a)为图4(a)白圈所标注颗粒的内部结构.图4(a)与图5(a)中的类液体基元颗粒看上去像是由液体包裹的小球,包裹颗粒的液滴明显为无定形结构.Jiang等[13]在喷雾火焰的不同轴向位置取样,也观察到了类似的现象.他在喷雾火焰上游发现了大的“液体状”颗粒,这些颗粒被认为是碳烟前驱体或未成熟的碳烟颗粒[13].
10~18ms生成的碳烟大多为由基元颗粒连接而成的枝桠状聚集体.18ms之后的碳烟与10~18ms一样都是聚集体占大多数,基元颗粒都是有核壳结构的规整球形颗粒,部分球形颗粒有多个核,没有类液体行为.这说明8ms足以使基元颗粒成熟.
由图5(a)可以明显地观察到3个有核壳结构的颗粒被无定形结构的多环芳烃液滴包裹的现象.这说明无氧环境下RP-3航空煤油的裂解、生成碳烟过程中存在颗粒成核于多环芳烃液滴中的现象,与图6中Reilly等[10]提出的碳烟形貌演化路线相似.但也有几点差异.Reilly等[10]认为,既然聚集体由多环芳烃液滴中的多个颗粒生长、融合而成,那么聚集体的尺寸与多环芳烃液滴的尺寸相近.但图4(a)与图5(a)所示液滴尺寸明显小于图4(e)、图4(g)中成熟颗粒组成的聚集体的尺寸,所以在液滴内部形成大的聚集体是不可能的[27].显然,大的碳烟聚集体是由基元颗粒碰撞作用产生的,这点又与图6中Lahaye等[8-9]提出的路线相似.屏蔽氧化与氧化升温的影响之后,在相对均匀的温度下碳烟形貌演化路线与Kholghy等[27]在层流扩散火焰中得出的结论一致,说明在无氧与温度相对均匀的条件下生成的碳烟形貌与扩散燃烧过程的碳烟形貌有很高的一致性.
碳烟形貌的变化表明,在1200K附近温度条件下,RP-3航空煤油裂解后生成的碳烟会持续碳化,直至成熟.Dobbins[29]发现多种燃料(CH4、C2H2和C7H8等)的层流扩散火焰碳烟起始温度在1350~1700K之间.Kholghy等[27]在Jet A1替代燃料的层流扩散火焰中发现中心线上有大量的类液体颗粒,但这些类液体颗粒一旦越过碳化起始温度1500K,就迅速碳化,由类液体颗粒转变为成熟颗粒的停留时间约为12ms.他在火焰边缘却没有发现较大的类液体颗粒,边缘的颗粒貌似先碳化再聚集.他认为这是因为火焰边缘的燃料与氧气反应,温度比中心线高,颗粒比中心线更早跨过碳化起始温度,类液体颗粒存活时间更短.而RP-3航空煤油在低于1200K、相对均匀的温度下也能碳化,且在8ms内就能成熟,说明RP-3的碳化起始温度在1200K下,比Dobbins[29]与Kholghy等[27]获得的温度低很多,这可能是试验条件下燃料可以在同一温度停留较长时间导致的,这部分佐证了高温停留时间对碳化过程的重要性.
为进一步定量判断碳烟基元颗粒的变化,图7统计了不同时刻碳烟基元颗粒的粒径分布,图8测量了不同时刻基元颗粒的内部结构参数(平均条纹长度、平均层间距和平均弯曲度).
图7(a)中各取样时间段的粒径概率密度曲线几乎重叠,图7(b)中最大平均粒径(42.47nm)与最小平均粒径(39.03nm)相差约3.5nm,最大中值粒径(42.68nm)与最小中值粒径(38.54nm)相差约4.0nm.这点差距太小,可归咎于统计误差.粒径统计误差主要来源于:(1)无法将TEM载网上的所有碳烟纳入统计,只能选取特定位置的样本来统计;(2)基元颗粒并非标准的圆,更多是椭圆或类似圆的不规则形状,测量时难免出现误差.图7(b)所示基元颗粒的平均粒径基本在40nm左右,明显大于以往层流扩散火焰中的结果,这可能是因为高压.而以往文献[28,30]中层流扩散火焰的环境压力大多在1MPa以下,碳烟基元颗粒大多在20nm左右.而喷油时刻定容弹内气体压力在1.8MPa左右.Karatas等[31]在1.5MPa下层流扩散火焰中燃烧器上方高度(HAB)为3mm处取得的碳烟粒径分布,其平均粒径为44.4nm,与笔者结果相似.Karatas等[31]发现,粒径随着环境压力的增加而持续增大.文献[32-33]中1MPa以上层流扩散火焰的平均粒径、中值粒径均在40nm以上.事实证明,环境压力对碳烟粒径分布确实有影响.
一般认为,碳烟质量增长来源于成核与表面生长,表面生长会使颗粒体积增大,颗粒成熟后停止表面生长.不同时间段的碳烟粒径高度相似说明颗粒在8ms内就能成熟并停止表面生长.虽然图3的消光法结果表明喷油后40ms左右碳烟质量才达到峰值,碳烟生长才彻底停止,但是如图7(a)所示的不同取样时间段粒径分布却高度相似.这可以说明两点:(1)该工况下碳烟生长速度极快,8ms就足以完成从燃料裂解到形成成熟基元颗粒的生长过程.8ms之后的碳烟质量增长是因为有新的颗粒源源不断地生成;(2)碳烟基元颗粒尺寸明显存在上限,上限主要取决于环境压力等工况.尺寸上限是因为成熟后碳烟表面的活性位点减少以及氢原子浓度降低[34],表面生长难以为继.10ms后碳烟总质量继续增长,说明多环芳烃、乙炔和氢等物质的浓度还足够生成新的碳烟基元颗粒.这说明在笔者的工况下成熟颗粒停止表面生长是因为表面活性位点数量极低,难以继续进行显著的表面生长.
尽管粒径分布相似,但聚集体上的颗粒数目不一样.图7(c)所示聚集体平均颗粒数随时间增大呈增长趋势,40~48ms之后的聚集体平均颗粒数明显大于0~8ms;而100~108ms的平均颗粒数出现异常下降的原因是拍摄TEM图片、数颗粒时存在统计误差.误差主要来源于:(1)无法将TEM载网的所有碳烟纳入统计,只能选取特定位置的样本来统计,误差无法避免;(2)颗粒数目N太多时,只能使用图像处理程序,依据式N=(Aa/Ap)α(Aa为碳烟聚集体的投影面积,Ap为基元颗粒的投影面积)来计算颗粒数[20],误差也无法避免.平均颗粒数随时间增长的原因解释是:碳烟总质量停止增长后,还在发生团聚与聚集,碳烟聚集体(包括基元颗粒)之间继续因范德华力发生缠绕或通过碰撞在附着点处形成化学键,组合为更大的聚集体.
为了更好地表征碳烟基元颗粒的纳米结构演化,使用高分辨率透射电镜对碳烟晶格条纹的长度、弯曲度和层间距进行了研究.条纹长度表示碳层平面尺寸,碳层平面的尺寸反映了稳定基面和活性边缘位原子的比例,稳定基面碳原子的反应性远低于边缘位点碳原子.因此,条纹长度越长意味着反应性越低.弯曲度源于碳平面内的五元或七元环、六边形薄片的弯曲和折叠.高弯曲度通常意味着高反应性.层间距越宽,氧气越容易抵达碳层的边缘位点位置,这可能导致碳烟颗粒具有更高的氧化反应性.随着碳烟老化,基面碳原子与边缘位点碳原子比例增大,条纹变长.基元颗粒结构逐渐变得有序,碳平面内奇数元环更少,sp2/sp3杂化比增加,弯曲度变小,颗粒内石墨层增多,层间距减小,抗氧化性增强.
图8所示不同时间段的平均条纹长度、平均弯曲度和平均层间距极其相似.不同时间段的内部结构与粒径分布一样差别极小,这更能说明在笔者的工况下碳烟成熟得太快,8ms内就能彻底成熟.结果中有几处与其他文献不同的地方,所有时间段的平均层间距都在0.500nm左右,明显大于石墨的层间距(约为0.335nm[15]).0.500nm的大层间距与0.335nm的石墨值差距太大,不像是统计误差造成的.这可能是受碳烟的无定形内部结构的影响[35]造成,碳烟颗粒的石墨化程度有限.同时,燃料、温度和停留时间等因素对碳烟纳米结构都有深远的影响,碳烟的纳米结构及石墨化程度可能取决于其形成条件.为探究试验中出现的大层间距与何种主导因素有关,还需要未来开展进一步研究.
综合消光法宏观结果与TEM微观结果,1200K下1.76mg的RP-3航空煤油裂解结焦的路线是:RP-3燃料在2.9ms内裂解并成核形成初始碳烟,碳烟成核于多环芳烃液滴中;在8ms之内多环芳烃液滴褪去,基元颗粒成熟,并因表面活性位点降低而停止表面生长;RP-3航空煤油最终因乙炔等参与碳烟质量增长的小分子物质耗尽而在39ms左右停止生成碳烟.整个过程都在发生碰撞作用,生成更大的碳烟聚集体.即使碳烟质量停止增长,碰撞作用还在发生.
(1) 1100K以上RP-3航空煤油的裂解、结焦过程极快,在5ms内就能完成燃料裂解、成核;温度越高,裂解、成核越快,碳烟到达峰值也越快,碳烟峰值质量也越高.
(2) 屏蔽氧化与氧化升温的影响之后,在相对均匀的温度下碳烟形貌演化路线与燃烧过程的碳烟形貌演化路线有很高的相似性.
(3) 温度低于1200K,RP-3航空煤油产生的碳烟也能碳化.
(4) 颗粒成熟之后,其粒径与内部结构不会有大变化;无氧环境下颗粒停止生长是因为其表面活性位点数量降低,低到难以进行显著的表面生长;而在碳烟质量增长结束之后,碳烟聚集体的颗粒数与尺寸还在增大,这是因为碳烟还在发生碰撞作用,从而产生更多的大聚集体.
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doi: 10.16236/j.cnki.nrjxb.202505049
  • 接收时间:2024-12-11
  • 首发时间:2026-11-05
  • 出版时间:2025-09-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-12-11
  • 修回日期:2025-05-17
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国家自然科学基金委员会专项资助项目(T2441001)
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    四川大学化学工程学院,成都610065

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
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