Article(id=1154428734615572691, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, issueId=1154428727883714760, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=null, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1686067200000, receivedDateStr=2023-06-07, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1753166858581, onlineDateStr=2025-07-22, pubDate=1732032000000, pubDateStr=2024-11-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1753166858581, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-22, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1753166858581, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753166858581, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1154428727883714760, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, year='2024', volume='42', issue='11', pageStart='1420', pageEnd='1562', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1753166856976, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753694530898, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1156641952767533916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, issueId=1154428727883714760, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1156641952767533917, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, issueId=1154428727883714760, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1440, endPage=1448, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1154428735362158806, articleId=1154428734615572691, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, language=EN, title=Research progress of electrode materials for biochar-based supercapacitors, columnId=null, journalTitle=Renewable Energy Resources, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Supercapacitors have excellent charging and discharging efficiency and have a broad application prospect in the field of energy storage. The electrode material is the key factor to determine the performance of supercapacitors. Biochar is considered a promising electrode material due to its wide source, high economy, and excellent performance. The article describes the characteristics of biocharbased electrode materials, details the preparation method of biochar with high specific surface area, the optimization and regulation method of biochar pore structure and the surface modification and regulation means of biochar based on defect engineering technology, summarizes the problems faced by highperformance biochar for supercapacitor electrode materials, and outlooks the future research directions of biochar based electrode materials.

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超级电容器具有优异的充、放电效率,在储能领域具有广阔的应用前景。电极材料是决定超级电容器性能的关键因素,生物炭由于来源广泛、经济性强和性能优异等特点,被认为是极具前景的电极材料。文章阐述了生物炭基电极材料的特点,详细介绍了高比表面积生物炭的制备方法、生物炭孔隙结构优化与调控方法以及基于缺陷工程技术的生物炭表面修饰调控手段,总结了用作超级电容器电极材料的高性能生物炭面临的问题,展望了生物炭基电极材料的未来研究方向。

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孙洋(1981-),男,博士,副教授,主要从事生物质能资源化利用方面的研究。E-mail:

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孙洋(1981-),男,博士,副教授,主要从事生物质能资源化利用方面的研究。E-mail:

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孙洋(1981-),男,博士,副教授,主要从事生物质能资源化利用方面的研究。E-mail:

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原料 制备条件 比表面积 电流密度 比电容/ 文献
竹材加工剩余物 玉米秆、柠檬酸、 ${\mathrm{{NaH}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 按照 4:4:1 的质量比 混合,在氩气气氛下 ${800}{}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 热解 2 h 2167 1 390 [ 23 ]
玉米秸秆 ${500}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 恒温煅烧 $2\mathrm{\;h},\mathrm{{KOH}}$ 活化 1 228 1 125 [ 24 ]
花生壳秆 600 ℃热解, KOH 活化 2936.8 1 339 [ 25 ]
水稻秸秆 $\mathrm{{KOH}}$ 混合后 ${800}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 热解 $1\mathrm{\;h}$ 2790.4 1 205 [ 26 ]
棉花茎 ${\mathrm{H}}_{3}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 混合后 ${600}{}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 热解 $2\mathrm{\;h}$ 1 342.93 1 338 [ 22 ]
), ArticleFig(id=1154428741326459131, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1154428734615572691, language=CN, label=表 1, caption=生物质衍生炭电极比表面积及电化学性能, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
原料 制备条件 比表面积 电流密度 比电容/ 文献
竹材加工剩余物 玉米秆、柠檬酸、 ${\mathrm{{NaH}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 按照 4:4:1 的质量比 混合,在氩气气氛下 ${800}{}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 热解 2 h 2167 1 390 [ 23 ]
玉米秸秆 ${500}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 恒温煅烧 $2\mathrm{\;h},\mathrm{{KOH}}$ 活化 1 228 1 125 [ 24 ]
花生壳秆 600 ℃热解, KOH 活化 2936.8 1 339 [ 25 ]
水稻秸秆 $\mathrm{{KOH}}$ 混合后 ${800}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 热解 $1\mathrm{\;h}$ 2790.4 1 205 [ 26 ]
棉花茎 ${\mathrm{H}}_{3}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 混合后 ${600}{}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$ 热解 $2\mathrm{\;h}$ 1 342.93 1 338 [ 22 ]
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生物炭基超级电容器电极材料研究进展
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孙洋 , 赵世玉 , 张晓梅 , 于倩倩 , 杨天华
可再生能源 | 2024,42(11): 1440-1448
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可再生能源 | 2024, 42(11): 1440-1448
生物炭基超级电容器电极材料研究进展
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孙洋 , 赵世玉, 张晓梅, 于倩倩, 杨天华
作者信息
  • 1 沈阳航空航天大学 能源与环境学院 辽宁 沈阳 110136
  • 孙洋(1981-),男,博士,副教授,主要从事生物质能资源化利用方面的研究。E-mail:

Research progress of electrode materials for biochar-based supercapacitors
Yang Sun , Shiyu Zhao, Xiaomei Zhang, Qianqian Yu, Tianhua Yang
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Energy and Environment Shenyang Aerospace University Shenyang 110136 China
出版时间: 2024-11-20
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超级电容器具有优异的充、放电效率,在储能领域具有广阔的应用前景。电极材料是决定超级电容器性能的关键因素,生物炭由于来源广泛、经济性强和性能优异等特点,被认为是极具前景的电极材料。文章阐述了生物炭基电极材料的特点,详细介绍了高比表面积生物炭的制备方法、生物炭孔隙结构优化与调控方法以及基于缺陷工程技术的生物炭表面修饰调控手段,总结了用作超级电容器电极材料的高性能生物炭面临的问题,展望了生物炭基电极材料的未来研究方向。

超级电容器  /  电极材料  /  生物炭  /  活化改性  /  缺陷工程

Supercapacitors have excellent charging and discharging efficiency and have a broad application prospect in the field of energy storage. The electrode material is the key factor to determine the performance of supercapacitors. Biochar is considered a promising electrode material due to its wide source, high economy, and excellent performance. The article describes the characteristics of biocharbased electrode materials, details the preparation method of biochar with high specific surface area, the optimization and regulation method of biochar pore structure and the surface modification and regulation means of biochar based on defect engineering technology, summarizes the problems faced by highperformance biochar for supercapacitor electrode materials, and outlooks the future research directions of biochar based electrode materials.

supercapacitor  /  electrode material  /  biochar  /  activation modification  /  defect engineering
孙洋, 赵世玉, 张晓梅, 于倩倩, 杨天华. 生物炭基超级电容器电极材料研究进展. 可再生能源, 2024 , 42 (11) : 1440 -1448 .
Yang Sun, Shiyu Zhao, Xiaomei Zhang, Qianqian Yu, Tianhua Yang. Research progress of electrode materials for biochar-based supercapacitors[J]. Renewable Energy Resources, 2024 , 42 (11) : 1440 -1448 .
“双碳”战略的提出, 促进了低碳可再生能源的高速发展。由于太阳能、风能等可再生能源具有间歇性,因此其发展迫切需要高效、洁净的储能系统。超级电容器因其具有比容量大、功率密度高、循环使用寿命长、工作温度区间广、维护成本低和清洁无污染等特点,被认为是一种性能优秀、 绿色环保的储能装置, 被广泛用作电子产品和电动汽车的辅助电源 [ 1 , 2 ]
作为超级电容器的核心部件, 电极材料的性能优劣直接影响超级电容器的性能。多孔炭材料具有高比表面积、优异的导电性和化学稳定性等特点, 这使其成为主要的电极材料之一。生物炭是多孔炭材料的一种 [ 3 , 4 ] ,由各种富含碳的生物质在惰性气氛中碳化、活化而成。生物炭比表面积大、孔隙结构发达、碳含量高、灰分少、有效双电层面积高、表面物化性质稳定,同时兼具较多的高度芳香化的表面官能团 [ 5 ] 。基于上述优点,生物炭被认为是最为理想的电极材料之一。
目前, 高性能生物炭的研究与开发已成为新电极材料与新能源储能领域的前沿。本文在生物炭电极材料电化学性能影响因素分析的基础上, 对生物炭在高比表面积、孔隙结构和官能团的调控技术方面进行了综述, 对高性能生物炭基电极材料的不同制备方法进行了归纳, 对用作超级电容器电极材料的高性能生物炭面临的问题进行了总结, 指出未来的研究方向, 以期为生物炭基电极材料的研究发展提供指导。
首先, 根据双电层理论, 用作超级电容器电极材料的生物炭应当具有利于电荷积累的高比表面积和便于电解液润湿及离子快速运动的孔隙结构;其次,生物炭自身存在大量缺陷位点,因此其表面通常含有丰富的官能团,这些官能团有利于改善电极材料的表面化学性质, 提高其表面浸润性 [ 6 , 7 ] ; 最后,对于炭材料而言,石墨化度越高,意味着材料的导电性越好。生物炭的导电性对其电化学性能具有重要的影响。生物炭的导电性能越好, 电子的传输速率越快, 越有利于减小电极材料的内部电阻、提高倍率性能、改善能量和功率密度。
生物炭比表面积的增加能够有效提高其电化学性能 [ 8 ] 。理论上来说,生物炭的比表面积越大, 能提供的双电层面积越大, 生物炭的比电容也就越大。但是, 有研究发现, 当生物炭的比表面积达到一定数值后, 比表面积继续增大意味着生物炭的微孔数量增多,大量微孔的存在会导致生物炭在电荷储存、释放时发生堵塞,继续提高生物炭比表面积,甚至会降低比电容 [ 9 ] 。因此,生物炭的比电容与比表面积的关系仅呈现一种总体趋势, 而不是完全的线性关系。
生物炭的孔隙结构组成能够影响生物炭的电化学性能。孔隙结构可以分为 3 类:大孔(直径大于 ${50}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$ )、介孔(直径为 $2 \sim {50}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$ )和微孔(直径小于 $2\mathrm{\;{nm}}$ )。大孔有利于电解液的充分渗透,介孔为离子迁移和传输提供通道, 两者能够共同提高材料的电导率;微孔为材料提供大比表面积,为离子储存提供足够的活化点位, 有利于材料双电层电容和能量密度的增大。不规则的孔隙会对离子传输产生较高的阻力,导致离子难以扩散 [ 10 ] 。因此, 层次分明且形状规则完整的大孔、介孔和微孔是性能优异的生物炭电极材料的必备因素 [ 11 ]
表面官能团是影响生物炭表面化学性质的重要因素。官能团通过发生高度可逆的氧化还原反应为生物炭电极材料提供赝电容, 并且能够提高生物炭的亲水性, 使生物炭表面与电解液充分接触,进一步提高生物炭双电层的有效面积,从而提高生物炭的电化学性能 [ 12 ]
通常来讲, 生物炭的导电性由石墨化度决定, 生物炭的石墨化度越高,其导电性越好。但是,生物炭的石墨化度和其孔结构之间存在相互制约的关系。一方面, 高温碳化能够提高生物炭的石墨化度, 但同时会令部分孔隙结构发生坍塌, 导致生物炭的比表面积减小,不利于电解液离子的扩散和传输;另一方面,丰富的孔隙结构可以提供较高的比表面积, 缩短离子运输距离, 但同时会降低生物炭的石墨化度,不利于电子的运输。因此,为提高炭材料的电化学性能,应合理设计炭材料的结构, 平衡石墨化度与孔隙结构的关系, 优化离子扩散和电子转移路径。
综上所述, 目前, 提高生物炭电化学性能的技术主要有: 通过提高生物炭的比表面积和调节生物炭的孔径分布及孔隙结构, 平衡生物炭的电荷吸附和传输能力, 进而提升生物炭的物理吸附电荷能力; 通过缺陷工程向生物炭表面掺杂杂原子, 改善生物炭的表面化学性质, 提高生物炭表面浸润性并通过快速的氧化还原反应为生物炭提供额外赝电容,进而提升生物炭的化学吸附电荷能力。
生物炭的孔隙会被热解过程中生成的焦油或无定形碳堵塞,导致生物炭的比表面积普遍较低。 生物炭需进行活化,激活被杂质堵塞的孔隙结构, 由此才能具有高比表面积。活化是指将生物炭的孔隙结构进一步拓展改造,形成发达孔隙的过程。 目前,普遍认为活化过程主要包含 3 个阶段,即造孔、扩孔、再造孔 [ 13 ] 。生物炭表面的缺陷位点可促进热解炭与活化剂反应生成 $\mathrm{{CO}},{\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$${\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}$ 等, 并生成新的缺陷位点, 新的缺陷位点继续参与反应, 使生物炭表面形成以微孔为主的孔隙结构, 此阶段为造孔阶段;伴随活化反应的加剧,生成的孔隙结构进一步扩展, 使得微孔逐步转化为介孔和大孔,此阶段为扩孔阶段;活化反应继续进行到第三阶段, 新的微孔产生速度要小于介孔和大孔的生成速度,即第二阶段的扩孔效应要强于第一阶段的造孔效应, 导致生物炭的比表面积及微孔容积会逐渐减小。活化的方式一般分为物理活化和化学活化,物理活化采用水蒸气或二氧化碳作为活化剂,化学活化采用碱(KOH)、盐(ZnCl2)、酸 $\left({{\mathrm{H}}_{3}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}}\right)$ 等作为活化剂。
水蒸气活化生物炭反应是吸热反应, 该反应需要在 ${800}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 以上才能进行 [ 14 ] 。附着在生物炭表面的水蒸气高温分解为 ${\mathrm{H}}_{2}$${\mathrm{O}}_{2}$ ,生成的 ${\mathrm{O}}_{2}$ 和原料表面的 $\mathrm{C}$ 反应生成 $\mathrm{{CO}}$ 逸出,反应消耗的 $\mathrm{C}$ 逸出后留下了缺陷位点,形成了丰富的孔隙结构。上述反应的反应式如下所示:
$\mathrm{C}+ {\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}\rightarrow {\mathrm{H}}_{2}+ \mathrm{{CO}}$
$\mathrm{C}+ 2{\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}\rightarrow 2{\mathrm{H}}_{2}+ {\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$
$\mathrm{{CO}}+ \mathrm{O}\rightarrow {\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$
活化反应生成的 ${\mathrm{H}}_{2}$$\mathrm{C}$ 不发生反应,但是会被生物炭吸附,进而堵塞生物炭的缺陷位点,最终影响生物炭的活化效果。同时,反应生成的 CO 不影响反应继续进行,反而会进一步和生物炭表面的O原子反应生成 $\mathrm{{CO}}$ ,导致生物炭表面产生更多的缺陷位点进而形成丰富的孔隙结构。
在二氧化碳活化生物炭反应中, $\mathrm{C}$${\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$ 的反应速率比与水蒸气反应的速率慢, 并且该反应需要在 ${800}\sim {1100}{}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 的高温下进行 [ 15 ] 。有关的反应式如下所示:① $\mathrm{{C}}+ {\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}\rightarrow \mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{O}\right)+ \mathrm{{CO}},\mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{O}\right)\rightarrow \mathrm{{CO}}$ , $\mathrm{{CO}}+ \mathrm{C}\rightarrow \mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{{CO}}\right)$ ; ② $\mathrm{C}+ {\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}\rightarrow \mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{O}\right)+ \mathrm{{CO}},\mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{O}\right)\rightarrow {\mathrm{{CO}}}_{0}$ 其中: $\mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{O}\right)$ 表示活性氧粒子附着在碳上; $\mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{{CO}}\right)$ 表示 CO 附着在碳上。
以上反应式包含两种观点, 第一种观点认为 ${\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$$\mathrm{C}$ 的反应为不可逆反应,反应生成的活性氧粒子中间体附着在生物炭表面,并与 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子进一步反应生成 CO, 而生成的 CO 吸附于生物炭占据缺陷位点阻碍反应继续进行; 第二种观点认为 ${\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$$\mathrm{C}$ 的反应为可逆反应,生成的 $\mathrm{{CO}}$ 达到一定浓度时, 该可逆反应达到平衡状态, 宏观上表现为反应停止。已有研究证明, 可通过调节活化时间来控制生物炭的比表面积和孔结构, 但具体的反应机理还需进一步研究。因此,加快反应速度、缩短反应周期、降低反应能耗是影响物理法活化技术进一步发展的关键因素。
关于 $\mathrm{{KOH}}$ 活化生物炭的机理研究较多,目前普遍认为,生物质在 300~600 ${}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时会发生分子交联或者缩聚反应,导致挥发分大量析出 [ 16 ] 。在生物炭活化过程中,加入 $\mathrm{{KOH}}$ 能降低活化反应温度, 同时抑制热解过程中焦油的生成, 提高生物炭产率。 $\mathrm{{KOH}}$ 通过与原料中的 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子反应使得碳骨架中出现缺陷位点, 使生物炭表面形成丰富的孔隙结构,进而得到高比表面积的生物炭。Qiu Z [ 17 ] 以水稻秸秆为原料, 以 KOH 为活化剂, 得到了比表面积高达 ${2790.4}{\mathrm{\;m}}^{2}/\mathrm{g}$ 的生物炭,在 $1\mathrm{\;A}/\mathrm{g}$ 的电流密度下,该生物炭的比电容高达 ${205}\mathrm{\;F}/\mathrm{g}$ ,表现出了优异的电化学性能。
${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 被认为是一种强路易斯酸,对纤维素具有腐蚀性,同时也是一种脱水剂 [ 18 ] 。Zn ${}^{2 +}$ 的电子结构式是 18 电子层,因此Zn ${}^{2 +}$ 具有较高的有效电荷。同时,Zn ${}^{2 +}$ 存在空轨道(4s4p),所以 ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 给电子对和接受电子对的能力要强于其他无机盐, 因此, ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 对生物炭的活化效果在盐类活化剂中效果最佳 [ 19 ] ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 的活化温度为 ${400}\sim {520}{}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,在反应过程中能够抑制生物质热解过程中焦油的产生并提升炭产率。Lin F [ 20 ] 研究发现: 加入 ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 的生物质能够在 ${400}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时形成缩聚炭结构, 去除生物质表面残留的 ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 后,会在表面留下丰富的微孔结构;当活化温度为 ${500}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时,活化反应加剧, ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 的造孔效应加剧,生物炭的比表面积和孔隙率得到进一步提高; 当活化温度高于 ${600}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时, ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 达到沸点,活化反应进一步加剧, 会严重破坏生物炭的孔隙结构, 导致生物炭比表面积下降。因此,当采用 ${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 作为活化剂时,选择合适的活化温度是制备高比表面积生物炭的关键。
不同于 $\mathrm{{KOH}}$${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 在前期就能够在生物炭表面蚀刻造孔, ${\mathrm{H}}_{3}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 是通过抑制类石墨微晶片层的形成, 导致生物炭内部碳层发生堆叠从而产生扭曲或者缺陷;同时, ${\mathrm{H}}_{3}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 与生物炭中的大分子形成一种无机-有机复合体,将多余的 ${\mathrm{H}}_{3}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 冲洗去除后,会留下缺陷位点,此时生物炭就会产生丰富的微孔结构 [ 21 ] 也能和纤维素分子发生酯化反应,同样会产生丰富的微孔,这些微孔的存在能显著提高生物炭的比表面积。Cheng J [ 22 ] 以棉花茎为前驱体,以 ${\mathrm{H}}_{3}{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}$ 为活化剂,制备了比表面积高达 ${1342.93}{\mathrm{\;m}}^{2}/\mathrm{g}$ ,比电容高达 ${338}\mathrm{\;F}/\mathrm{g}$ 的生物炭。
综上所述, 生物炭虽然具有较高的比表面积和丰富的孔隙结构, 但是, 这些孔隙结构和其本身孔径的分布往往十分复杂, 反而会影响生物炭的电化学性能。因此, 通过对生物炭孔径分布和孔隙结构进行合理调控, 令无序的孔隙结构向有序结构转变, 是改善其电化学性能的关键。有研究表明,通过改变活化方式、活化剂用量、活化温度,活化时间等方式, 可对生物炭的孔径分布和孔隙结构进行定向调控, 由此获得电化学性能优异的生物炭材料。
一些生物质衍生炭材料的比表面积及电化学性能如 表 1 所示。
不同于传统活化方法制备的无法精确控制孔径分布及孔隙结构的生物炭, 通过模板法制备的生物炭能够定向调控其孔径分布及孔隙结构。自 Sonobe N [ 27 ] 在 1988 年第一次通过模板法成功制备多孔炭材料后,模板法已经被认为是定向制备孔隙结构发达的多孔炭的最有效技术。模板法能够提供一个有限的反应空间供材料反应, 按照使用模板的不同, 模板法可以划分为硬模板法和软模板法两种类型。硬模板法一般采用高分子薄膜作为模板, 软模板法则采用表面活性剂分子聚集而成的胶团、囊泡等作为模板。
硬模板法可为材料提供只能从开口进入内部的静态孔道。硬模板法通常存在 4 个步骤:制备模板、引入碳源、高温烧结和去除模板。目前,研究人员已经发现和制备出了许多优异的模板材料, 例如介孔 ${\mathrm{{SiO}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{NaCl}}}_{2},\mathrm{{ZnO}}$ 和沸石等 [ 28 ] 。通过这些模板合成的多孔炭材料能够有效防止材料发生团聚反应,并能够精确控制材料的形貌结构。但是, 通过这些模板合成的多孔炭通常只具有丰富的介孔结构,微孔结构调控能力不足。目前,已经有学者将生物质 (如花生壳、核桃壳、厨余垃圾、蛋清、海藻等)作为碳源制备多孔生物炭 [ 29 ] 。经过高温烧结后, 生物炭均表现出了超高的比表面积和规整的介孔结构。目前,通常采取酸洗或者碱洗去除模板, 但这种方法容易破坏材料的孔隙结构并引入杂质。在不破坏生物炭孔隙结构的前提下, 简单高效地去除残余模板, 仍然是硬模板法面临的挑战之一。
与硬模板法不同, 软模板法提供的反应空间是一个处于动态平衡的空腔, 材料可以通过空腔内部向外扩散。用于软模板法的胶团通常分为阴、 阳离子表面活性剂和非离子表面活性剂三类。通常认为, 离子表面活性剂有利于微孔或小介孔的形成,非离子表面活性剂有利于介孔形成。Jin J [ 30 ] 将 Pluronic F127 作为胶团, 以间苯二酚和甲醛作为碳源制备的多孔炭具有高比表面积和发达的介孔结构,且电化学性能优异。Meng X [ 31 ] 将水作为胶团,通过真空冷冻干燥技术,以壳聚糖作为碳源制备了性能优异的生物炭基电极材料, 该材料的比表面积高达 ${2787.47}{\mathrm{\;m}}^{2}/\mathrm{g}$ ,在 ${0.5}\mathrm{\;A}/\mathrm{g}$ 的电流密度下,比电容高达 ${253}\mathrm{\;F}/\mathrm{g}$ 。相较于硬模板法,软模板法的模板制取简单, 模板去除时不易破坏材料结构。但是, 由于软模板法的模板通常为胶体, 会受到其自身极性、 $\mathrm{{pH}}$ 值、电负性和离子强度等因素的影响,导致分散度较差。
综上所述, 虽然基于模板法能够定向调控生物炭的介孔结构, 但由于调控效果直接由模板决定, 因此仍有以下问题需要解决: ①模板法对材料的微孔结构调控能力不足,目前开发的模板对材料的介孔结构有着极强的调控能力, 但对于能够决定材料电化学性能的微孔结构的调控能力较弱;②模板法有较大的限制,如硬模板难于去除、 软模板受限制因素较多。
缺陷工程技术是指在碳材料的碳骨架中引入新的缺陷位点, 以改善材料的原子排列结构, 该技术是调控碳材料表面物化性质的有效途径之一。 缺陷工程根据缺陷区域可以分为点缺陷、线缺陷和面缺陷。点缺陷指的是由单个原子错位或者大小变化引起的缺陷; 线缺陷是指原子行列发生错位引发的缺陷; 面缺陷是指原子界面发生错位引发的缺陷 [ 32 ] 。缺陷工程最常用的技术是杂原子掺杂。杂原子掺杂是指在碳骨架中引入不同类型的杂原子(例如 $\mathrm{N},\mathrm{O},\mathrm{S},\mathrm{P},\mathrm{{Cl}}$$\mathrm{{Br}}$ 等),杂原子会取代部分 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子的位置 [ 33 ] 。由于这些原子的原子半径和电负性不同于 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子,所以可以改变多孔炭的孔径大小和电子云形状, 也可以丰富材料表面含杂原子官能团的种类和数量, 进而优化多孔炭的物理性质和表面化学活性,如提高材料导电性和表面浸润性, 并通过协同作用改善材料的电化学性能。
生物炭杂原子掺杂技术已被广泛证明可以明显改善生物炭的电化学性能 [ 34 ] ,主要体现在以下几点: ①杂原子可以通过在生物炭中制造更多的缺陷位点, 提高生物炭的比表面积, 进而使生物炭产生更多有效的电化学活性位点; ②杂原子的电负性不同于 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子,可以吸引或者排斥碳骨架中的 C 原子进行电荷再分配,调整生物炭的电子云形状,从而提高生物炭的电化学活性和导电性; ③ 杂原子可以在生物炭的表面形成多种亲水基团, 能够改善生物炭表面浸润性, 从而提升材料与电解质离子的有效接触面积, 增加材料的有效双电层面积;④杂原子可以在生物炭的表面与碳原子结合形成官能团,这些官能团可以与电解质离子发生高度可逆的氧化还原反应产生法拉第赝电容,法拉第赝电容比容量更高,能够显著提高材料的电化学性能。
$\mathrm{N}$ 原子来源广泛,掺杂手段简单,是目前应用最广泛的掺杂原子。与 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子相比, $\mathrm{N}$ 原子的原子半径与之近似,所以当生物炭掺杂 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子后,生物炭的晶格产生的畸变较小。 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子的最外电子层存在一对孤对电子,所以 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子的电负性要高于 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子,这也导致生物炭掺杂 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子后, $\mathrm{C}$ 原子与 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子结合产生的电子云更偏向 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子。此时生物炭中的 C 原子具有更高的正电荷密度,能显著改善生物炭的物理化学性能, 如提高材料的导电性和亲水性,同时增强材料的化学稳定性 [ 35 ] $\mathrm{N}$ 原子掺杂到生物炭内部后, 以基团形式存在, 包括氨基、亚硝基、吡咯氮、吡啶氮和石墨氮。这些基团可以分为两种类型, 一种是以表面官能团化学键形式存在的化学氮, 一种是与碳骨架直接相连的结构氮。其中,氨基和亚硝基以官能团形式存在,吡咯氮、吡啶氮和石墨氮则以物理结构形式存在。化学氮主要通过氧化还原反应提升生物炭的表面浸润性,并且提供法拉第赝电容;结构氮通过贡献电子影响生物炭的物化性质和电化学性能, 具体表现为结构氮能够进行电子的化学吸/脱附并改善生物炭的亲水性,提高生物炭的电导率,例如吡咯氮和吡啶氮能产生法拉第赝电容, 而石墨氮则能促进电子的快速转移 [ 36 ] 。Zhang Y [ 37 ] 提出了一种 $\mathrm{N}$ 掺杂多孔炭的合成手段,制备出的 $\mathrm{N}$ 掺杂多孔炭具有更高的电导率、更大的比表面积和丰富的介孔, $\mathrm{N}$ 掺杂多孔炭的比电容较掺杂 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子前提升了 50%。
除去 $\mathrm{{Fe}}$ 元素外, $\mathrm{O}$ 元素是地球上含量最高的元素, 0 元素具有来源广泛、掺杂手段简单的特点,是一种重要且极具前景的掺杂元素。O 原子在元素周期表中与 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子相邻,最外电子层存在两对孤对电子,电负性高于 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子。 $\mathrm{O}$ 元素与 $\mathrm{C}$ 元素属于同周期元素,其族数高于 $\mathrm{C}$ 元素, $\mathrm{O}$ 原子的原子半径要稍大于 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子。因此,生物炭掺杂 $\mathrm{O}$ 原子后, 生物炭内部晶格会发生轻微畸变并产生部分缺陷位点, 从而改善生物炭的孔隙结构和物化性质 [ 38 ] 。在生物炭中, $\mathrm{O}$ 原子主要以 $\mathrm{C}- \mathrm{O}- \mathrm{C}$ , $-\mathrm{{COOH}},\mathrm{C}= \mathrm{O},\mathrm{C}- \mathrm{{OH}}$ 等官能团的形式存在,其中碳氧单键可以有效提高生物炭的表面浸润性, 使其与电解质离子充分接触并降低阻抗; 碳氧双键通过快速氧化还原反应提供法拉第赝电容, 提高生物炭的比电容。Li X R [ 39 ] 研究发现,过量掺杂 $\mathrm{O}$ 原子会堵塞生物炭的孔隙结构, 影响生物炭的电化学性能。综上所述,适量的O原子掺杂能够有效提高生物炭的电化学性能。
$\mathrm{P}$ 元素是自然生命体的重要组成元素,同时被认为是最有前途的掺杂原子之一。 $\mathrm{P}$ 原子是 $\mathrm{N}$ 原子的同族不同周期元素,与 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子相比, $\mathrm{P}$ 原子具有更大的原子半径 $(\mathrm{P},\mathrm{C}$ 原子的原子半径分别约为 ${107},{73}\mathrm{{pm}})$ ,因此,生物炭掺杂 $\mathrm{P}$ 原子后,生物炭会产生更大的缺陷位点。掺杂的 $\mathrm{P}$ 原子在赋予生物炭较高比表面积的同时, 对生物炭的孔径分布和孔隙结构进行了调整。掺杂的 $\mathrm{P}$ 原子在生物炭中主要以 $\mathrm{C}- \mathrm{P}- \mathrm{O},\mathrm{C}- \mathrm{O}- \mathrm{P},{\mathrm{C}}_{3}- \mathrm{P}= \mathrm{O},{\mathrm{C}}_{3}- \mathrm{P}$ 等官能团的形式存在 [ 40 ] 。其中, ${\mathrm{C}}_{3}- \mathrm{P}= \mathrm{O}$ 结构最为稳定, 可以增强生物炭的稳定性和亲水性, 能够有效改善生物炭在水系电解质中的电化学性能。Meng X [ 31 ] 采用微波热解法制备了 $\mathrm{P}$ 掺杂的多孔生物炭,有效提高了生物炭电极材料的电化学性能, 制备出的 $\mathrm{P}$ 掺杂生物炭的比表面积高达 ${1858.2}{\mathrm{\;m}}^{2}/\mathrm{g}$ ,在 $1\mathrm{\;A}/\mathrm{g}$ 的电流密度下,比电容高达 ${297.1}\mathrm{\;F}/\mathrm{g}$ ,经过 30 000 次循环后,电容保持率达到 94.9%。
$\mathrm{S}$ 原子同样是一种常见的掺杂原子。 $\mathrm{S}$ 原子是O原子的同族不同周期元素,与 $\mathrm{C}$ 原子相比, $\mathrm{S}$ 原子具有更大的原子半径和更高的电负性, 因此, 生物炭掺杂 $\mathrm{S}$ 原子后产生的缺陷位点要大于 $\mathrm{N},\mathrm{O}$$\mathrm{P}$ 原子 [ 41 ] $\mathrm{S}$ 原子常以硫醚、噻吩、砜基、氧化硫等形式存在生物炭之中,这些含 $\mathrm{S}$ 官能团可以有效改善生物炭的表面化学特性, 其中砜基和氧化硫含有 0 元素, 可以在噻吩硫的辅助下发生高度可逆的氧化还原反应, 从而增加生物炭的法拉第赝电容 [ 42 ] 。Shah S S [ 43 ] 采用 $\mathrm{S}$ 掺杂技术制备出了含 $\mathrm{S}$ 多孔生物炭,在 $1\mathrm{\;A}/\mathrm{g}$ 的电流密度下,其比电容高达 ${230}\mathrm{\;F}/\mathrm{g}$ ,经过 10000 次循环后,电容保持率为 94%, 生物炭的电化学性能得到显著提高。
综上所述, 缺陷工程虽然能够有效改善生物炭的物化性质, 但局限于现有技术, 仍有一系列问题需要解决:①缺陷位点难以控制。现有技术无法在微观上对生物炭特有位置掺杂杂原子;②已经形成的缺陷位点稳定性弱。附着在生物炭上的杂原子稳定性较差,容易脱落失活;③难以区分单个缺陷位点对电化学的贡献。生物炭自身存在许多杂原子, 新掺杂的杂原子与之前杂原子相互交联影响,难于区分单个原子对电化学性能的贡献。
近年来, 为实现生物炭兼具高比表面积和良好的导电性,研究人员做了许多研究。Yoon S B [ 44 ] 研究发现,高温下( 2 500~3 000 °C )的碳化能够有效提高生物炭的石墨化度, 但是, 高温也促使生物炭的孔隙结构发生坍塌, 导致其比表面积显著减小。Krivoruchko O P [ 45 ] 研究发现,当 $\mathrm{{Fe}},\mathrm{{Co}}$$\mathrm{{Ni}}$ 作为催化剂时,可在低于 1000 ℃的温度下促使炭材料产生石墨化结构, 催化剂可使石墨化温度降低到 ${600}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 。这一催化过程的发现使得非石墨化前驱体转化为石墨化碳成为可能, 从而扩大了其适用范围, 并为生物炭在较低温度下生成大量石墨化结构提供了理论基础。Liu Y [ 46 ] 以生物质基活性炭为碳源,在 $\mathrm{{Ni}}$ 基催化剂的辅助催化作用以及较低的碳化温度 $\left({{800}\sim {1000}\mathrm{℃}}\right)$ 下将活性炭转化为多孔石墨化碳,其比表面积仅减小原活性炭比表面积的 1/5。
综上所述, 提高生物炭的电化学性能, 需要合理设计生物炭的结构, 平衡石墨化度与孔结构的关系,优化离子扩散和电子转移路径。
随着“双碳”战略的提出, 中国正处于迈入低碳时代的关键期。新能源的蓬勃发展,对清洁、高效的储能系统也提出了更高的要求, 作为一种新型的高效储能装置, 超级电容器发展前景十分广阔。
电化学性能优异的生物炭需要具备高比表面积、层次分明的孔隙结构、良好的导电性和丰富的表面基团。通过活化后, 生物炭的比表面积得到极大提高, 高比表面积在为电解质离子的吸附和脱附提供活性位点方面起着重要作用。基于模板法得到的层次分明的孔隙结构可以提高生物炭比表面积的利用率, 层次分明孔隙结构可为电解质离子的快速传输提供通道, 在降低生物炭的内阻方面发挥着重要作用。基于缺陷工程技术,生物炭表面掺杂的杂原子可以提高生物炭电极材料的浸润性和比电容, 杂原子的引入可以进一步提高生物炭电极材料的电化学性能。基于低温催化技术,能够制备出高比表面积和高石墨化度的生物炭, 使其在保证高比电容的同时导电性良好。
目前,有关提升生物炭电极材料电化学性能的研究已经取得了一定的成就, 但是, 依然存在一些问题,未来的研究方向应集中在以下几个方面。 ①超高比表面积生物炭制备:基于优化生物炭制备原料、多种调控技术联合制备兼具规则孔隙结构的高比表面积生物炭。②制备性能优异的模板: 基于便于去除且性能优异的模板, 定向制备孔隙结构层次分明且发达的生物炭。③寻找优异的催化剂:制备兼具高比表面积和导电性的生物炭,在保证比电容的同时提高其电化学性能。④研发定向掺杂杂原子技术:基于定向掺杂杂原子,改善生物炭的物化性质, 确定单个原子对电化学性能的贡献。
通过对超级电容器的进一步研究,开发新的工艺技术, 超级电容器未来会逐渐替代并淘汰一些高污染储能产业,并被广泛运用到新能源汽车、 航天、新型智能电网等行业。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(52176195)
  • 辽宁省“兴辽英才计划”项目(LYC200512)
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  • 接收时间:2023-06-07
  • 首发时间:2025-07-22
  • 出版时间:2024-11-20
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  • 收稿日期:2023-06-07
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国家自然科学基金项目(52176195)
辽宁省“兴辽英才计划”项目(LYC200512)
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    1 沈阳航空航天大学 能源与环境学院 辽宁 沈阳 110136
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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