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This article first introduces the composition, properties, hazards and current treatment status of antibiotic mycelial residues, and provides an overview of the definition, principles and control parameters of hydrothermal technology. The harmless treatment effects of hydrothermal technology in removing residual antibiotics, resistance genes and stabilizing heavy metals in antibiotic mycelial residues are then discussed. The article also explores the resource utilization of hydrothermally treated mycelial residues, including their applications as feedstock for anaerobic digestion, fertilizer, solid fuel, biooil and biochar. Finally, suggestions are proposed based on current research gaps and future prospects are outlined to offer insights for the development and broader application of hydrothermal technology in treating antibiotic mycelial residues.

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文章首先介绍了抗生素菌渣的组成、性质、危害和处理现状,总结了水热技术的定义、原理以及控制参数;然后阐述了水热技术在去除菌渣中残留抗生素、抗性基因和稳定重金属方面等的无害化作用,讨论了水热后的菌渣作为厌氧发酵原料、肥料、固体燃料、生物油和生物炭的资源化应用;最后根据当前研究存在的不足,提出了若干建议并展望了未来的前景,以期为水热技术处理抗生素菌渣的发展与推广应用提供参考。

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宋英今(1972-),女,博士,副教授,研究方向为有机固废厌氧消化与好氧发酵等。E-mail:
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样品 工业分析 /% 元素分析 / 文献
挥发分 灰分 固定碳 C H S
青霉素菌渣 82.67 6.38 10.95 49.70 7.67 27.16 8.23 0.86 [ 3 ]
泰乐菌素菌渣 75.99 13.86 10.15 44.70 7.43 26.11 7.25 0.65 [ 3 ]
链霉素菌渣 83.16 12.76 1.74 38.02 5.88 38.29 5.31 0.27 [ 4 ]
杆菌肽菌渣 88.72 6.86 2.16 44.17 6.67 31.78 6.37 0.57 [ 4 ]
头胞菌素 C 菌渣 89.75 6.21 1.99 48.33 7.43 28.90 8.47 1.34 [ 4 ]
土霉素菌渣 74.49 10.89 12.92 44.71 5.04 30.71 7.81 0.51 [ 4 ]
小麦秸秆 80.70 9.37 9.93 42.95 5.64 40.51 0.76 0.78 [ 5 ]
猪粪 61.78 21.63 16.59 40.07 5.35 37.26 2.51 0.74 [ 6 ]
稻壳 84.58 0.97 14.46 47.56 6.60 45.24 0.56 0.04 [ 3 ]
木屑 77.53 3.66 18.86 45.68 6.06 43.78 0.65 0.17 [ 3 ]
), ArticleFig(id=1154428757076075188, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1154428733659275804, language=CN, label=表 1, caption=常见菌渣和典型生物质的工业分析与元素分析, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
样品 工业分析 /% 元素分析 / 文献
挥发分 灰分 固定碳 C H S
青霉素菌渣 82.67 6.38 10.95 49.70 7.67 27.16 8.23 0.86 [ 3 ]
泰乐菌素菌渣 75.99 13.86 10.15 44.70 7.43 26.11 7.25 0.65 [ 3 ]
链霉素菌渣 83.16 12.76 1.74 38.02 5.88 38.29 5.31 0.27 [ 4 ]
杆菌肽菌渣 88.72 6.86 2.16 44.17 6.67 31.78 6.37 0.57 [ 4 ]
头胞菌素 C 菌渣 89.75 6.21 1.99 48.33 7.43 28.90 8.47 1.34 [ 4 ]
土霉素菌渣 74.49 10.89 12.92 44.71 5.04 30.71 7.81 0.51 [ 4 ]
小麦秸秆 80.70 9.37 9.93 42.95 5.64 40.51 0.76 0.78 [ 5 ]
猪粪 61.78 21.63 16.59 40.07 5.35 37.26 2.51 0.74 [ 6 ]
稻壳 84.58 0.97 14.46 47.56 6.60 45.24 0.56 0.04 [ 3 ]
木屑 77.53 3.66 18.86 45.68 6.06 43.78 0.65 0.17 [ 3 ]
), ArticleFig(id=1154428757143184055, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1154428733659275804, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=Optimal parameter ranges under different hydrothermal treatments of AMRs, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数 热水解 水热碳化 水热液化
应用 预处理 制备燃料 制备生物炭 制备生物油
温度/℃ 70~160 200~240 180~250 260~300
时间/h 0.5~2 0.5~4 0.5~6 2~4
含固率 1/10 左右 $1/5 \sim 1/3$ $1/{15} \sim 1/5$
催化剂 酸碱催化剂 盐类、酸类、金属氧化物、 沸石 碱金属盐或 沸石
), ArticleFig(id=1154428757185127098, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1154428733659275804, language=CN, label=表 2, caption=抗生素菌渣不同水热处理下最佳参数范围, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数 热水解 水热碳化 水热液化
应用 预处理 制备燃料 制备生物炭 制备生物油
温度/℃ 70~160 200~240 180~250 260~300
时间/h 0.5~2 0.5~4 0.5~6 2~4
含固率 1/10 左右 $1/5 \sim 1/3$ $1/{15} \sim 1/5$
催化剂 酸碱催化剂 盐类、酸类、金属氧化物、 沸石 碱金属盐或 沸石
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水热技术处理抗生素菌渣的研究进展
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周腾 , 宋英今 1, 2 , 颜蓓蓓 1, 2 , 陶俊宇 3 , 穆兰 3 , 裴乐庚 1 , 曾雅美 1 , 陈冠益 1, 2, 3
可再生能源 | 2024,42(11): 1420-1430
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可再生能源 | 2024, 42(11): 1420-1430
水热技术处理抗生素菌渣的研究进展
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周腾, 宋英今1, 2 , 颜蓓蓓1, 2, 陶俊宇3, 穆兰3, 裴乐庚1, 曾雅美1, 陈冠益1, 2, 3
作者信息
  • 1 天津大学 环境科学与工程学院 天津 300072
  • 2 天津市生物质废物利用重点实验室 天津市生物质燃气油技术工程研究中心 天津市有机废物安全处置与能源利用工程研究中心 天津 300072
  • 3 天津商业大学 环境能源+X 创新实验室 天津 300134

通讯作者:

宋英今(1972-),女,博士,副教授,研究方向为有机固废厌氧消化与好氧发酵等。E-mail:
Research progress on the hydrothermal treatment of antibiotic mycelial residues
Teng Zhou, Yingjin Song1, 2 , Beibei Yan1, 2, Junyu Tao3, Lan Mu3, Legeng Pei1, Yamei Zeng1, Guanyi Chen1, 2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Environmental Science and Engineering Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
  • 2 Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Bio Gas, Oil Technology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center for Organic Wastes Safe Disposal and Energy Utilization Tianjin Key laboratory of Biomass Wastes Utilization Tianjin 300072 China
  • 3 Interdisciplinary Innovation Lab for Environment and Energy Tianjin University of Commerce Tianjin 300134 China
出版时间: 2024-11-20
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文章首先介绍了抗生素菌渣的组成、性质、危害和处理现状,总结了水热技术的定义、原理以及控制参数;然后阐述了水热技术在去除菌渣中残留抗生素、抗性基因和稳定重金属方面等的无害化作用,讨论了水热后的菌渣作为厌氧发酵原料、肥料、固体燃料、生物油和生物炭的资源化应用;最后根据当前研究存在的不足,提出了若干建议并展望了未来的前景,以期为水热技术处理抗生素菌渣的发展与推广应用提供参考。

水热技术  /  抗生素菌渣  /  热化学处理  /  无害化  /  资源化

This article first introduces the composition, properties, hazards and current treatment status of antibiotic mycelial residues, and provides an overview of the definition, principles and control parameters of hydrothermal technology. The harmless treatment effects of hydrothermal technology in removing residual antibiotics, resistance genes and stabilizing heavy metals in antibiotic mycelial residues are then discussed. The article also explores the resource utilization of hydrothermally treated mycelial residues, including their applications as feedstock for anaerobic digestion, fertilizer, solid fuel, biooil and biochar. Finally, suggestions are proposed based on current research gaps and future prospects are outlined to offer insights for the development and broader application of hydrothermal technology in treating antibiotic mycelial residues.

hydrothermal technology  /  antibiotic mycelial residues  /  thermochemical treatment  /  harmlessness  /  resource utilization
周腾, 宋英今, 颜蓓蓓, 陶俊宇, 穆兰, 裴乐庚, 曾雅美, 陈冠益. 水热技术处理抗生素菌渣的研究进展. 可再生能源, 2024 , 42 (11) : 1420 -1430 .
Teng Zhou, Yingjin Song, Beibei Yan, Junyu Tao, Lan Mu, Legeng Pei, Yamei Zeng, Guanyi Chen. Research progress on the hydrothermal treatment of antibiotic mycelial residues[J]. Renewable Energy Resources, 2024 , 42 (11) : 1420 -1430 .
中国是抗生素生产和使用大国,2019 年抗生素产量约为 21.8 万 $\mathrm{t}$ ,其中 ${80}\%$ 以上的抗生素通过微生物发酵法制得 [ 1 ] 。抗生素菌渣是提取抗生素后剩余的微生物发酵残余物, 营养成分非常丰富,含水率一般在 79%~92%。每生产 1t 抗生素, 会产生 $8 \sim {10}\mathrm{t}$ 菌渣,因此我国抗生素菌渣的年产量可达数百万吨 [ 2 ] 。由于菌渣残留少量抗生素,堆放到环境中易传播抗性基因和产生耐药性强的 “超级细菌”, 2008 年抗生素菌渣被列入国家危险废弃物名录。目前,一般采用焚烧和填埋法处理抗生素菌渣,这两种方法不仅成本高昂,而且会造成严重的资源浪费。因此, 如何合理有效地资源化处理抗生素菌渣成为制药行业面临的十分严峻的问题。
抗生素菌渣资源化处理的目标是在保证安全性的前提下, 通过简单经济的方式将菌渣转化为高价值产品。但抗生素菌渣含水率高、脱水困难、 残留抗生素的特点,导致其资源化处理十分困难。 水热技术凭借反应速度快、能量产率高、绿色清洁等优势成为当前生物质转化的热点技术。特别的是, 水热技术对于生物质原料的含水率没有限制, 具备良好的脱水性能;另外,在高温高压的水热环境下, 大部分特征污染物易被去除, 这对于处理抗生素菌渣有独特的优势。水热技术已经被试用于各种抗生素菌渣的无害化处理与资源化利用, 水热后的菌渣能够用作固/液体燃料、生物炭、肥料等高值化产品,或者耦合厌氧消化和堆肥。
目前,鲜有文章详细介绍水热技术处理抗生素菌渣的作用原理和深度应用。基于此,本文阐述了抗生素菌渣的基本性质、危害和处理现状,介绍了水热技术的定义、原理、优势以及控制参数, 对水热技术在处理菌渣过程中的无害化作用和水热处理后菌渣的资源化途径进行了深入讨论, 以期为水热技术的发展与推广应用提供参考。
抗生素菌渣(Antibiotic Mycelial Residues, AMRs)主要由抗生素产生菌的菌丝体、剩余培养基、抗生素残留、其他代谢产物和无机盐等组成 [ 3 ] 表 1 列举了不同抗生素菌渣的工业分析和元素分析结果。
表 1 可知, 抗生素干基菌渣中挥发分含量较高,一般为 75%~90%,其中有机物主要为蛋白质和糖类化合物,粗蛋白含量在 30%~50%(干基)。抗生素菌渣组成元素以 $\mathrm{C},\mathrm{O},\mathrm{N},\mathrm{H}$ 为主, $\mathrm{C}/\mathrm{N}$ 普遍大于 $6,\mathrm{\;N},\mathrm{\;S}$ 含量明显高于常见的生物质废弃物 [ 1 ] 。抗生素菌渣 N 含量为 ${1.21}\%\sim {8.47}\%$ ,高于秸秆(0.49% 1.96%)和畜禽粪便(2.41% 2.53%); 抗生素菌渣 S 含量为 0.13%~1.34%,高于秸秆 (0.48%~0.78%) 和畜禽粪便 (0.52%~0.74%) [ 1 ] 。另外,抗生素干基菌渣具有与低阶煤相当的热值。邹书娟 [ 4 ] 对 6 种抗生素菌渣进行了热值分析,发现干基菌渣的平均热值可达 ${18.7}\mathrm{{MJ}}/\mathrm{{kg}}$ ,小于标准煤的燃烧热值 $\left({{29.26}\mathrm{{MJ}}/\mathrm{{kg}}}\right)$ ,大于褐煤的燃烧热值 (8.38~16.76 MJ/kg)。
抗生素菌渣的危害主要有以下几个方面。第一,残留抗生素。菌渣中的残留抗生素进入环境后, 其直接毒性会威胁周围生物的健康; 另外, 残留抗生素会促使微生物产生耐药性。第二,抗性基因。抗性基因会通过基因水平转移的方式在环境中传播,易造成抗性基因的突变以及富集,进而引发一系列的生物安全问题。第三, 重金属。抗生素生产过程中往往会使用一些重金属添加剂, 如锌、 铁、钴、锰等, 以此提高微生物发酵效率和抗生素的提取率。虽然在抗生素生产过程中添加的重金属较少,但还是会存在部分菌渣重金属含量超标的情况。根据邹书娟 [ 4 ] 的检测结果,林可霉素、土霉素、青霉素菌渣中某些重金属超标,进入环境后难以稳定, 可能会通过食物链进入人体, 引起蓄积性中毒。第四,恶臭气体。抗生素菌渣含有较高含量的有机质和水分, 导致菌渣在堆放过程中极易二次发酵并产生含吡啶和吡咯等化合物的恶臭气体,造成严重的环境污染,甚至危害人类健康。
因为抗生素菌渣属于危废, 所以菌渣资源化利用的前提是将菌渣无害化处理。近年来,研究者们在菌渣处理和资源化利用方面进行了多种探索,开发了焚烧、热解、填埋、厌氧消化、好氧堆肥、 固态发酵等方法, 但这些方法都很难同时兼顾资源化和无害化。例如,焚烧技术能够彻底地实现菌渣减量化、无害化,但菌渣特殊焚烧的处理费用高达 3000 元/t。和焚烧类似, 热解气化仍需要进行干化脱水,成本较高。安全填埋技术可解决菌渣潜在的生物安全性问题,但由于菌渣含水率过高,会占用大量土地资源,大多填埋场不愿意接收。厌氧消化、好氧堆肥、固态发酵等生物法处理菌渣具有操作简单、处理成本低等特点, 但菌渣中残留的抗生素对微生物有一定的抑制作用, 还会诱导产生大量的耐药菌, 增加抗性基因在环境中传播和转移的风险。
造成上述困难的原因主要有两个: 第一是菌渣的含水率高, 且大部分水分以结合水的形式存在于菌渣的超胶体结构中,难以被机械脱除;第二是菌渣中存在残留的抗生素、抗性基因、重金属等特征污染物, 普通的生物发酵法不仅无法将其有效去除, 并且可能带来更大的环境安全风险。因此,发展一种经济、高效的抗生素菌渣无害化和资源化处理技术具有重要的意义。
水热技术一般以过热水作为反应介质和反应物,在高温和高压作用下,生物质发生水解、溶解、 氧化等反应,最终转化成水热炭或生物油等产品。 具体的水热处理工艺如 图 1 所示。
水热技术具有能量回收率高、反应速度快、无需脱水、产物分离效率高等优点。水的临界压力为 ${22.1}\mathrm{{MPa}}$ ,临界温度为 ${374}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,当水的温度和压力超过临界点时, 称为超临界水。相比常温液态水, 亚/超临界水在氧化、水解等过程中具有特殊性质,亚/超临界水的密度、粘度和介电常数降低,离子积常数增大, 从而提高水分子和溶质分子扩散速度, 增强非极性物质的溶解, 提高催化剂的催化能力,加快化学反应速率。水热技术使用的过热水为温度高于 ${100}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 并且在饱和蒸气压下的亚临界和超临界水 [ 7 ] 。当前,水热技术被广泛应用于生物质的无害化处理和其进一步的资源化利用。
图 2 为水热处理过程中水的相图。
图 2 可知, 不同的温度和压力会让水处于不同的状态, 水的性质也会有极大的变化, 这也直接决定了目标产物的组成。根据水热操作参数和目标产物的不同, 可将水热技术分为热水解 (Thermal Hydrolysis, TH)、水热碳化(Hydrothermal Carbonization, HTC)、水 热 液 化 (Hydrothermal Liquefaction, HTL)、水 热 气 化 (Hydrothermal Gasification, HTG) 几大类, 它们在水的相图中都有对应的区域。热水解往往作为生物处理过程的预处理,反应温度为 ${70}\sim {170}{}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,压力小于 $1\mathrm{{MPa}}$ , 后续衔接厌氧消化、好氧堆肥等技术。热水解的主要目的是破坏生物质的结构, 释放并水解其中有机物, 提高可生物降解性。水热碳化一般发生在 180~250 °C,压力为 1~4 MPa,生成的水热炭能够作为固体燃料、土壤肥料、催化剂、储能材料或吸附剂的前驱体。水热液化是一种将生物质转化为生物油等高附加值产物的热化学转化过程, 反应温度一般为 ${260}\sim {370}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,反应压力为 ${4.6}\sim {21}{\mathrm{{MPa}}}^{\left( 8\right)}$ 。 水热气化技术是一种高效率制氢技术, 反应温度为 ${374}\sim {700}{}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,压力为 ${22.1}\sim {35}\mathrm{{MPa}}$ ,水能作为溶剂和反应物参与反应,提高能源转化效率 [ 9 ] 。目前, 对抗生素菌渣研究较多的是热水解、水热碳化和水热液化,菌渣水热气化这方面的研究还比较少。
水热反应包括多个化学反应过程, 大致可分为解聚过程和缩聚过程。解聚过程包括结构崩解、 水解、脱水和脱羧等反应;缩聚过程包括缩合、聚合和芳构化等反应。笔者以其他生物质的水热反应过程和机理作为参考,结合菌渣的性质,绘制了抗生素菌渣水热技术的大致反应过程图 (图 3)。 相较于其他生物质, 菌渣的蛋白质、淀粉和脂肪的含量更高。在低温初始阶段,水热反应主要破坏了菌渣絮凝体结构和细胞壁, 并释放了细胞内的蛋白质、多糖、脂质等大分子有机物; 接着大分子有机物发生水解,生成有机小分子,期间主要是蛋白质水解生成氨基酸,其次是淀粉水解生成葡萄糖和果糖;之后,水解产物继续发生脱水、脱羧等反应,大量的氨基酸脱羧生成有机酸、胺类物质等, 同时单糖和低聚糖脱水生成醛类、酮类等。当温度进一步上升, 水热反应进入缩聚过程, 脱水脱羧产物以及酚类化合物的高活性化学键重新结合, 发生缩合、聚合、芳构化等反应,生成水热炭和生物油。气相主要由脱羧、脱羟基和脱甲烷等反应生成,主要成分包括 ${\mathrm{H}}_{2},{\mathrm{{CH}}}_{4},\mathrm{{CO}}$${\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$
反应温度、反应时间、固液比、催化剂等因素是决定水热产物性质的关键参数, 且各个参数之间可能存在交互作用, 需要通过条件优化模型确定最佳的水热反应条件。
反应温度是水热技术最重要的控制参数, 它决定了水热反应速度以及产物的种类、性质和产率, 确定最佳反应温度是水热处理成功的关键。以热水解为例, 不同物质发生水解反应所需温度也有所不同, 例如蛋白质和氨基酸在 150 ${}^{c}$ C时就出现明显水解,纤维素和半纤维素发生水解反应的温度为 ${180}\sim {220}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 。由于菌渣中纤维素含量较少,粗蛋白含量较多,所以其水解温度比纤维素类生物质的水解温度更低,一般为 70~160 ${}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 。另外,反应温度和反应时间的相互作用很强, 一般来说低温对应更长的反应时间,高温对应短的反应时间。葡萄糖在 ${150}{}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下需要数小时才能完成的水解和脱羟基反应,在 270 ℃时仅需几秒即可完成 [ 10 ]
水热反应时间能很大程度影响产物的性质, 反应时间从几分钟到几小时不等。Song S [ 11 ] 研究了水热反应时间 $\left({2 \sim {160}\mathrm{\;{min}}}\right)$ 对大观霉素菌渣厌氧消化产气量的影响, 结果表明: 菌渣中有机物的降解率随着反应时间的延长而增大, 甲烷产量也随之增大;但随着反应时间的继续延长, 有机物慢慢重新聚合, 降解率增加缓慢甚至停止; 当反应时间为 ${120}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ 时,甲烷产量达到最大,较空白组增加了 16.1%。反应时间也决定了抗生素菌渣的处理周期和能耗, 所以在选择最佳反应时间时应综合考虑, 在保证处理效率的情况下选择更短的反应时间。
固液比也会对水热过程造成一定的影响。不同水热预处理类型也有各自适宜的固液比,热水解和水热液化更偏好低固液比,而碳化反应需要较高的固液比。Aragón-Briceño C I [ 12 ] 研究发现,随着含固率的增加( 2.5%~30.0%),水热炭产量和热值均随之增加。Malins K [ 13 ] 研究了污泥 (干基) 和水的质量比(1:0~1:15)对水热液化后生物油产率的影响, 结果表明, 质量比越小, 生物油产率越高, 当质量比为 1:15 时,生物油产量、能量回收率和总转化率最高,分别为 53.9%,70.1% 和 76.9%。
催化剂在水热过程中起到非常关键的作用。 在水热碳化过程中,添加酸类、盐类和金属氧化物等催化剂能够提高水热炭产率和热值,提高脱氧、 脱氮效率,改善水热炭孔隙结构和官能团数量等。 Lei Q [ 14 ] 使用 $5\%$$7\%$ 柠檬酸催化橘皮废料的微波水热碳化,对比未催化的水热炭,酸辅助下的水热炭产率增加约 30%。在水热液化过程中,添加碱金属盐或沸石等催化剂能够抑制焦炭形成, 同时提高液态产物产率 [ 15 ]
以上 4 个水热参数对菌渣的作用规律类似, 笔者根据现有研究总结了抗生素菌渣在不同水热处理下的最佳参数范围 [ 15 - 17 ] ,如 表 2 所示。
抗生素残留是菌渣中最主要的污染物, 大部分抗生素的热稳定性较差,高温下 $\left({ >{100}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}}\right)$ 易分解失效,水热技术能够较彻底地将其去除。Cai C [ 18 ] 利用水热技术处理红霉素菌渣,结果表明,随着反应温度的升高,红霉素含量逐渐降低,当反应温度为 ${180}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时,红霉素去除率达到 ${90.1}\%$ 。Wang B [ 19 ] 对青霉素菌渣进行水热预处理,结果表明,在 100 ${}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下水热处理 ${120}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ 后,能降解其中 ${98}\%$ 的青霉素, 处理完的菌渣施用于土壤后, 青霉素残留在 $4\mathrm{\;d}$ 内完全降解。有学者研究了抗生素水热处理的中间产物和生物毒性, 发现抗生素降解产物的抑菌性同样明显降低。Gong P [ 20 ] 的研究表明,在 150 ${}^{o}$ C, ${150}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ 的水热条件下,土霉素和其毒性中间体的去除率达到了 99.12%, 并且土霉素相关的抗菌活性在水热处理后基本消失。
对于某些具有热稳定性的抗生素, 如卡那霉素、妥布霉素、庆大霉素和林可霉素等,普通的水热条件难以将其去除,可通过添加酸、碱等来破坏其分子结构从而促进水解。Song S [ 11 ] 发现,碱性条件下的水热处理会让大观霉素更加容易去除,而酸性条件会使其变成难降解的化合物, 这是因为大观霉素的羰基双键结构极不稳定, 很容易受到亲核体(如羟基阴离子)的攻击。Wang M [ 21 ] 研究了酸性水热预处理对林可霉素的去除效果, 结果表明,在反应温度为 ${160}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,停留时间为 ${157.2}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ , ${\mathrm{H}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ 浓度为 ${0.53}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}$ 的条件下,林可霉素去除率达到了 98.3%。
抗生素菌渣中的菌丝残体里往往富含抗性基因(Antibiotics Resistance Genes, ARGs),这些抗性基因在环境中会通过基因的水平转移向其他微生物传播。可移动遗传因子(Mobile Genetic Elements, MGEs) 是基因水平转移的重要媒介, 它包括质粒、转座子、整合子、基因组岛和噬菌体等。水热预处理能够通过水解断键破坏 ARGs 和 MGEs 等基因的分子结构,降低 $\mathrm{{ARGs}}$$\mathrm{{MGEs}}$ 的丰度, 从而减少抗性基因富集和转移的风险。Wang Y [ 22 ] 研究发现, 对抗生素菌渣进行水热处理(反应温度为 ${140}\sim {180}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ) 后, ${16}\mathrm{{SrRNA}}$ 和总 $\mathrm{{ARGs}}$ 的绝对丰度下降了 2.4~5.2 个数量级。Gong P [ 23 ] 研究发现, 经过水热预处理后, 土霉素菌渣中 ARGs 和整合子的潜在宿主菌减少,抑制了基因的水平转移,减少了土霉素菌渣堆肥产品施用过程中 $\mathrm{{ARGs}}$ 传播的风险。Wang B [ 19 ] ${100}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下水热处理 $2\mathrm{\;h}$ 后的青霉素菌渣施用于土壤,并利用高通量 qPCR 方法对土壤中的 50 种 ARGs 和 3 种 MGEs 进行了全面调查,结果表明,水热处理后的菌渣不会造成土壤中 ARGs 的多样化和富集。
DNA 分子在酸性溶液和强碱性溶液中结构不稳定,所以酸性或强碱 $\left({\mathrm{{pH}}> {12}}\right)$ 环境下的水热处理更有助于抗性基因的去除。Song S [ 11 ] 对大观霉素菌渣进行碱性条件下的水热预处理(反应温度和时间分别为 ${90}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$$2\mathrm{\;h}$ ),结果表明: $\mathrm{{pH}}- {12}$ 和 pH-13 实验组中 ${16}\mathrm{{SrRNA}}$ 、总 ARGs 和总 MEGs 的绝对丰度显著降低;弱碱环境 $\left({\mathrm{{pH}}\leq {12}}\right)$ 下水热处理后的菌渣的抗性基因的丰度并未明显降低, 这是因为带负电的磷酸基团与OH ${}^{-1}$ 会形成排斥作用从而阻碍 DNA 水解。Wang M [ 24 ] 研究发现,酸性条件下的水热处理(反应温度为 ${160}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,反应时间为 ${240}\mathrm{\;{min}},{\mathrm{H}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ 浓度为 ${0.6}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}$ ) 能有效降低 $\mathrm{{ARGs}}$$\mathrm{{MGEs}}$ 的丰度 ${1.02}\sim {4.14}$ 个数量级, ${16}\mathrm{{SrRNA}}$ 反映的细菌总生物量 (以干重计)由 ${1.27}\times {10}^{9}$ 个降低到 ${4.47}\times {10}^{5}$ 个。
水热技术能对菌渣中重金属起到很好的稳定作用,其作用机理包括沉淀、络合、结晶等。在水热过程中, 沉淀与络合作用可使重金属转变为相对稳定的结构, 并以残渣态在固相产品中积累, 有利于实现重金属的稳定化;另外,水热处理中不同金属离子和Ca ${}^{2 +},{\mathrm{{PO}}}_{4}{}^{3 -}$ 等更容易在固体-液体界面处发生结晶化反应, 且形成的晶体化学稳定性较好 [ 1 , 24 ] 。Wang M [ 24 ] 研究了林可霉素菌渣在 ${160}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下水热处理 $4\mathrm{\;h}$ 后重金属的分布情况,结果表明,水热反应后大部分重金属以残渣态的形式被转移入固相中, 这大大降低了重金属的迁移性和生物可利用性; 他还基于风险评价指数(Risk Assessment Code, RAC)评价了水热前后菌渣中的重金属风险级别,结果表明, $\mathrm{{Fe}}$$\mathrm{{Zn}}$ 从鲜菌渣中的低环境风险降到无环境风险, Cu 从鲜菌渣中的高环境风险降低到低环境风险。目前,对于水热技术稳定抗生素菌渣中重金属的研究还比较少, 需要更多的研究提供理论支撑。
抗生素菌渣直接进行厌氧消化,存在消化速率慢、发酵时间长、产气量低等问题,原因是其中的发酵残渣和菌丝体具有坚硬的絮状结构和细胞壁,阻碍了厌氧消化水解阶段的进行。水热预处理能够促进菌渣结构的崩解, 增强有机质的溶解和释放, 有利于微生物的使用, 进而提高菌渣的厌氧消化效率。不过菌渣的水热预处理温度不会太高, 一般在 ${70}\sim {160}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,因为过高的温度会导致美拉德反应的加剧和更多难降解物质的产生, 不利于微生物的生长。Li C [ 25 ] 研究了水热处理对抗生素菌渣厌氧消化生产沼气的影响, 结果表明, 在 120 ${}^{c}$ C,60 min 的优化水热处理条件下,化学需氧量 (COD)溶解率达到 12.3%,沼气和甲烷产量(均以单位质量的挥发性固体计)达到峰值, 分别为 446 $\mathrm{{mL}}/\mathrm{g}$${290}\mathrm{\;{mL}}/\mathrm{g}$ ,甲烷产量比未处理菌渣高出约 3 倍。Song S [ 26 ] 通过水热处理(反应温度为 ${120}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ) 提高大观霉素菌渣厌氧消化的沼气产量, 结果表明, 水热处理组的沼气总产量较未处理组 (289.9 $\mathrm{{mL}}/\mathrm{g}$ )增加了 ${27.6}\%$ ,这与大观霉素的去除和有机物的增溶有关。Wang Y [ 27 ] 对水热处理后的红霉素菌渣进行微生物群落分析,结果表明,水热处理后的菌渣中某些水解酸化菌和甲基型产甲烷菌的相对丰度较空白组有所增加。
考虑到高温带来的高能耗问题,有学者提出, 可在水热过程中添加适量的碱来降低水热预处理的温度, 进而降低处理成本。碱有利于破坏细胞壁和细胞膜,从而增加胞内聚合物质的溶解和释放。 Li C [ 28 ] 将抗生素菌渣的 $\mathrm{{pH}}$ 值调至12,并在 ${80}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下水热处理 ${60}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ ,在此条件下,甲烷产量高达 231 $\mathrm{{mL}}/\mathrm{g}$ ,这与 ${120}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下的水热实验组的甲烷产量相当,证明了低温碱性水热处理抗生素菌渣更为经济和方便。Zhong W [ 29 ] 发现,与未经预处理的链霉素菌渣相比,进行碱性水热预处理 $(\mathrm{{NaOH}}$ 和总固体的质量比为 $1 :{10}$ ,反应温度为 ${70}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,反应时间为 $2\mathrm{\;h}$ )的链霉素菌渣的甲烷产率提高了 22.08%~ 23.20%,挥发性固体的去除率为 64.09%,并且总氮和总挥发性脂肪酸的积累较少。
水热处理后的抗生素菌渣可掺杂其他有机废弃物进行混合堆肥。堆肥时加入适量的水热处理后的菌渣能降低堆肥的碳氮比,延长嗜热阶段的时间,缩短整体的堆肥周期,平衡植物营养素(包括氮、磷、锌)的含量,但添加过多的菌渣有可能导致种子发芽率的降低以及抗性基因的富集。Ren J [ 30 ] 尝试将水热处理后的青霉素菌渣用于堆肥,当青霉素菌渣的添加比例(质量比)在 42%以下时 (其余为等量牛粪和小麦秸秆的混合物),能保证将其转化为安全的有机肥料。Gong P [ 31 ] 研究发现, 虽然水热预处理没有改变土霉素菌渣堆肥的腐熟度, 但明显缩短了堆肥周期, 降低了土霉素菌渣堆肥的潜在风险。另外, 菌渣水热炭本身就是一种很好的土壤改良剂,也可直接作为肥料施用于土壤。 Gong P [ 32 ] 的研究揭示了碱性水热处理后的青霉素菌渣对土壤性质的影响, 当青霉素菌渣的施肥比为 ${0.25}\%$ 时,显著提高了土壤的 $\mathrm{{pH}}$ 值和有效钾的含量,改善了土壤性能,并且对土壤中微生物和酶没有抑制作用, 不会引发抗生素耐药性风险。
抗生素菌渣富含各种营养成分和菌丝残体, 热值与低阶煤相当, 但因其脱水困难和高含氮而难以直接作为固体燃料进行使用。经水热处理后, 抗生素菌渣的沉淀、脱水及干燥性能得到明显改善,热值显著提高。张光义 [ 33 ] 研究发现,水热处理 (反应温度为 ${200}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,反应时间为 ${30}\sim {60}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ )可将抗生素菌渣转化为脱水性好(含固率为 52%~ 55%,固体回收率为 65%~75%)、热值高(热值为 ${13.8}\mathrm{{MJ}}/\mathrm{{kg}}$ )和含氮量低 (氮脱除率为 ${45.2}\%$ )的固体生物燃料。其进一步研究 [ 34 ] 表明,与未加工的抗生素菌渣相比,水热处理得到的固体燃料能在燃烧过程中降低 20%~30%的氮排放,主要原因是轻挥发分中的氮以氨基酸或氨氮的形式进入液相而被去除。Ma D [ 35 ] 的研究表明:抗生素菌渣水热处理后得到的固体生物燃料的热值可达到 ${26.5}\mathrm{\;{kJ}}/\mathrm{g}$ ,远高于传统干燥法制备的抗生素菌渣的热值(仅为 ${19.3}\mathrm{\;{kJ}}/\mathrm{g}$ );此外,当水热处理温度为 ${200}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 时,抗生素菌丝渣的氮含量从原干燥菌丝渣中的 7.7% 降至 5.6%。
许多研究者采用共水热碳化法来进一步降本增效, 即用两种不同的原料一起进行水热处理, 以生产改性固体燃料。与单水热碳化法相比,共水热碳化法在生产优质固体燃料方面具有一些额外优势, 例如, 两种原料之间可产生积极的相互作用, 进一步提高能量密度; 可提高有害/无用元素 (如氮、氯、硫和灰分成分)的去除率。Zhan H [ 36 ] 研究发现,在 ${240}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下对抗生素菌渣进行水热碳化时,添加 25%~50%的褐煤进行共水热可得到高质量的固体燃料(热值为 ${24}\sim {25}\mathrm{{MJ}}/\mathrm{{kg}}$ ,燃烧时间长,火焰稳定),并为系统带来良好的脱氮效果(含氮量降为 1.4%~2.0%)。
抗生素菌渣水热液化制备高热值生物油是一项极具应用前景的技术。Hong C [ 37 ] 研究了青霉素发酵残渣水热液化过程中影响生物油产量的因素,结果表明,在反应温度为 ${300}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ ,停留时间为 ${174}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ ,总固体含量为 ${18}\%$ 的最佳反应条件下, 生物油产率达到了 25.91%。郑子轩 [ 38 ] 的研究表明,抗生素菌渣在 ${260}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下水热处理 ${135}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ 后, 生物油产率最高(28.01%)。尽管菌渣水热处理后得到的生物油具有较高热值,但与石油燃料相比, 仍有一些不足之处, 例如高氧、氮含量以及高黏度等,这使得它不适合直接用作燃料。因此,在菌渣水热液化的过程中需要加入酸、碱、沸石分子筛等催化剂,来提高生物油的产率和热值,以及脱氧、 脱氮的效率。郑子轩 [ 38 ] 研究了 6 种酸碱催化剂对抗生素菌渣水热液化的效果,结果表明:在 ${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{CO}}}_{3}$$\mathrm{{NaOH}}$ 的催化作用下,生物油产率较大,分别为 ${36.06}\%$${36.31}\%$ ,并且碱催化的脱氮效果要优于酸催化; 当 ${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{CO}}}_{3}$$\mathrm{{NaOH}}$ 的添加量为 8%(质量分数,下同)时,生物油中含氮化合物的质量分数达到最低 $\left({{29.12}\%}\right)$ ; 当 ${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{CO}}}_{3}$$\mathrm{{NaOH}}$ 的添加量为 ${10}\%$ 时,对氧的脱除效果均较好,分别为 ${32.12}\%$${29.02}\%$ ,此时产生的生物油的热值达到最大,分别为 ${33.3},{34.7}\mathrm{{MJ}}/\mathrm{{kg}}$ 。Hong C [ 39 ] 研究了均相催化剂(有机酸和碱性催化剂)和异相催化剂(沸石分子筛)对青霉素菌渣水热液化产生物油的影响, 结果显示: 异相催化剂的效果更为明显,添加 5%(质量分数,下同)的异相催化剂 MCM- 48 后,产油量达到了 36.44%;添加 3%的 MCM-48 后,生物油热值达到石油水平(42 MJ/kg)。
近年来, 通过水热碳化技术制备功能性生物炭越来越受到国内外专家的重视。相较于常规的热解制炭(400~700 °C),水热制炭具有反应温度低( $<$ 350 °C)、炭化产率高、无需干燥、能耗低等优势, 且得到的水热炭灰分低、稳定性好、吸附能力强、含氮、氧官能团丰富。抗生素菌渣富含淀粉、蛋白质等,并且含水率高,非常适合通过水热技术制炭。根据应用领域不同,在水热制炭时加入合适的添加剂,可以获得不同特征的菌渣水热炭。例如: 添加含碳化合物, 能够增加水热炭的碳元素, 提高炭微球以及含氧官能团数量;添加无机铁盐,能够让水热炭形成多种纳米结构,并负载大量铁元素。 赵志瑞 [ 40 ] 研究了不同温度、不同添加剂(氯化钠、 柠檬酸和硝酸铁)对青霉素菌渣水热碳化产物特征的影响,结果表明: 在 210 ℃时,水热炭产率较高;3 种添加剂在水热系统中作为表面稳定剂存在, 并促进了水热碳化产物形成相应的纳米复合物。
与热解炭相比,水热炭存在少孔和低比表面积的问题, 若要对菌渣水热炭进行应用, 还需要进一步的改性处理。酸性、碱性等化学改性手段是目前应用最为广泛的水热炭改性方法, 改性之后的菌渣水热炭孔数增多、比表面积增大,改性之后的水热炭可用作重金属、有机物、 ${\mathrm{{CO}}}_{2}$ 吸附剂、土壤改良剂、固态燃料、电极材料及催化剂等。Hu J [ 41 ] 通过水热碳化法结合活化法制备了青霉素发酵残渣 N 自掺杂多孔碳并研究了其电化学性能,结果表明,在 ${600}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$ 下,以 $\mathrm{{KOH}}$${\mathrm{{ZnCl}}}_{2}$ 为活化剂制备的分层多孔碳超级电容器在电流密度为 ${1.0}\mathrm{\;A}/\mathrm{g}$ 时的比电容分别为 ${160.3}\mathrm{\;F}/\mathrm{g}$${209.2}\mathrm{\;F}/\mathrm{g}$ 。陈丙彤 [ 42 ] 以泰妙菌渣为原料,利用 “水热碳化+KHCO ${}_{3}$ 改性”工艺制备多孔吸附炭材料,所得产物对Pb ${}^{2 +}$ 和Cd ${}^{2 +}$ 的最大吸附量分别达到了 ${289}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{g}$ 和 186 mg/g。
本文对水热技术处理抗生素菌渣的各个方面进行了综述, 包括抗生素菌渣的性质和处理难点、 水热技术的特点和原理、水热技术对抗生素菌渣无害化方面的作用以及水热处理后菌渣的资源化途径。总的来说, 抗生素菌渣因为其含水率高并且残留抗生素的特点成为非常棘手的危险废物,但同时它也是一种宝贵的资源。水热技术契合抗生素菌渣含水率高、脱水性差的特点,并能凭借过热水的特殊性质, 去除或稳定菌渣中残留抗生素、抗性基因、重金属等特征污染物, 大大降低抗生素菌渣的危害性。水热处理后的菌渣也能够变成厌氧消化原料、肥料、生物油、固态燃料、生物炭等优质产品, 从而进行高值化利用。
虽然水热技术在处理菌渣上有独特的优势, 但仍存在一些问题。就菌渣水热处理的研究现状, 笔者提出一些研究的建议: ①利用好水热处理后菌渣安全性和可生化性高的特点, 耦合其他资源化技术, 开发更多具有高利用价值的产品; ②对水热反应过程的动力学、反应机理和传质、传热规律做更加深入的研究, 多进行中等规模的尝试, 为大型工业化应用提供理论指导;③设计开发连续性的水热反应釜,节约间歇水热处理所耗费的时间, 提高技术经济性; ④水热废液属于高浓度有机废水, 探究菌渣水热废液的有效处置技术同样非常重要。随着菌渣水热处理研究的不断深入和完善, 相信在不远的将来, 水热技术能够彻底解决药厂抗生素菌渣处理压力大的难题。
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(52370147)
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2022YFD1601104)
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  • 接收时间:2023-10-22
  • 首发时间:2025-07-22
  • 出版时间:2024-11-20
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  • 收稿日期:2023-10-22
基金
国家自然科学基金面上项目(52370147)
国家重点研发计划项目(2022YFD1601104)
作者信息
    1 天津大学 环境科学与工程学院 天津 300072
    2 天津市生物质废物利用重点实验室 天津市生物质燃气油技术工程研究中心 天津市有机废物安全处置与能源利用工程研究中心 天津 300072
    3 天津商业大学 环境能源+X 创新实验室 天津 300134

通讯作者:

宋英今(1972-),女,博士,副教授,研究方向为有机固废厌氧消化与好氧发酵等。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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