Article(id=1152988709273199380, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, issueId=1152988708019098237, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=null, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1721404800000, receivedDateStr=2024-07-20, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1752823529785, onlineDateStr=2025-07-18, pubDate=1745078400000, pubDateStr=2025-04-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1752823529785, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-18, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1752823529785, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752823529785, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1152988708019098237, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, year='2025', volume='43', issue='4', pageStart='427', pageEnd='568', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1752823529485, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1753694474720, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1156641717148312407, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, issueId=1152988708019098237, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1156641717148312408, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, issueId=1152988708019098237, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=561, endPage=568, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1152988709587772181, articleId=1152988709273199380, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, language=EN, title=Effect of uphill transport and membrane fouling on reverse electrodialysis efficiency, columnId=null, journalTitle=Renewable Energy Resources, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The impacts of multivalent ions and organic substances on the energy generation efficiency of Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) devices were investigated in terms of uphill transport and membrane fouling. The results showed that the maximum power density was obtained when the 0.5 mol/L NaCl solutions was used as the feeding solution of the RED device. However, the power densities decreased by 72.45%, 68.82%, and 72.14%, respectively, as the feeding solutions were switched to 0.5 mol/L multivalent salt (MgCl2, CaCl2 and Na2SO4) solutions. By adding organic foulantssodium alginate (SA) into the multivalent salt solutions, the power density was enhanced with the increase of SA concentrations and reached a maximum level with addition of 30 mg/L SA, and then was gradually decreased when SA concentration was further raised. The NaCl solutions exerted minor influences on the adsorption of SA molecules onto cationexchange membranes. In contrast, the mixture of NaCl and MgCl2 obviously exacerbated the adhesion between SA molecules and cationexchange membranes

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文章从逆坡运输和膜污染两个方面对多价离子以及有机物对反电渗析(RED)装置产电效能的影响进行了研究。结果表明:当进料液为0.5 mol/L 的纯 NaCl溶液时,RED装置的功率密度最大;当进料液由 0.5 mol/L 的纯 NaCl溶液变为0.5 mol/L的纯多价盐(MgCl2, CaCl2, Na2SO4)溶液时,RED装置的功率密度分别下降72.45%,68.82%,72.14%;当多价盐有机污染物海藻酸钠(SA)共存时,随着SA含量的增加,RED装置的功率密度先升高后逐渐降低,并在SA含量为30 mg/L时有最大值;纯 NaCl溶液对 SA 吸附于阴离子交换膜的影响最小,NaCl溶液与 MgCl2 的混合溶液对 SA 吸附于阴离子交换膜的影响最大。

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刘贵彩(1984-),男,博士,副教授,研究方向为膜法水处理技术。E-mail:
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refType=null, unstructuredReference=撖博. 二价离子对离子交换膜及反向电渗析电化学特性的影响机理研究[D]. 哈尔滨: 哈尔滨工业大学, 2020., articleTitle=二价离子对离子交换膜及反向电渗析电化学特性的影响机理研究, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1159145726841573885, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, awardId=5180825, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金项目(5180825), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1159145726921265662, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, awardId=51979064, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金项目(51979064), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1159145723867812286, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, xref=1, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1159145723876200895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, companyId=1159145723867812286, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, 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articleId=1152988709273199380, language=CN, label=图 3, caption=不同多价盐溶液与 $\mathrm{{SA}}$ 溶液交互作用对 RED 装置功率密度的影响, figureFileSmall=BdA+/iLe8wegHzWP1V4oHg==, figureFileBig=d5eM6Kor0xP250q9O2FabQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1159145726279537141, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=The specific compositions of multivalent salt solutions fed into in the RED device, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
多价盐种类 1 2 3 4 5
${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 0.5 mol/L NaCl 0.409 mol/L NaCl+ ${0.091}\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ ${0.3}\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$ 0.066 7 mol/L MgCl ${}_{2}$ ${0.1667}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ ${0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$
${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$ 0.5 mol/L NaCl 0.489 mol/L NaCl+ ${0.011}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$ ${0.3}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$ 0.066 7 mol/L CaCl ${}_{2}$ 0.166 7 mol/L CaCl ${}_{2}$ ${0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$
${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ 0.5 mol/L NaCl 0.488 mol/L NaCl+ ${0.012}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ ${0.3}\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$ ${0.0667}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ ${0.1667}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ ${0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$
), ArticleFig(id=1159145726329868790, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=CN, label=表 1, caption=RED 装置中不同多价盐系列进水溶液的具体组分, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
多价盐种类 1 2 3 4 5
${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 0.5 mol/L NaCl 0.409 mol/L NaCl+ ${0.091}\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ ${0.3}\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$ 0.066 7 mol/L MgCl ${}_{2}$ ${0.1667}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ ${0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$
${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$ 0.5 mol/L NaCl 0.489 mol/L NaCl+ ${0.011}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$ ${0.3}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$ 0.066 7 mol/L CaCl ${}_{2}$ 0.166 7 mol/L CaCl ${}_{2}$ ${0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$
${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ 0.5 mol/L NaCl 0.488 mol/L NaCl+ ${0.012}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ ${0.3}\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$ ${0.0667}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ ${0.1667}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ ${0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$
), ArticleFig(id=1159145726392783351, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=Surface tension properties of probe liquids for contact angle measuremen, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
液滴
超纯水 21.8 25.5 25.5 51.0 72.8
二碘甲烷 50.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.8
甲酰胺 39.0 2.3 39.6 19.0 58.0
), ArticleFig(id=1159145726451503608, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=CN, label=表 2, caption=接触角测试溶液的表面张力参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
液滴
超纯水 21.8 25.5 25.5 51.0 72.8
二碘甲烷 50.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.8
甲酰胺 39.0 2.3 39.6 19.0 58.0
), ArticleFig(id=1159145726501835257, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=The surface tension of SA and ion exchange membranes in aqueous solutions, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数
AEM 37.31 0.92 5.68 4.56 41.90 -8.56 -3.35 -11.91
CEM 32.82 4.14 17.36 16.96 49.80 4.35 -3.03 1.32
SA 37.17 0.17 55.19 6.07 43.20 26.26 11.14 37.40
), ArticleFig(id=1159145726564749818, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=CN, label=表 3, caption=SA 和离子交换膜在水溶液中的表面张力, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数
AEM 37.31 0.92 5.68 4.56 41.90 -8.56 -3.35 -11.91
CEM 32.82 4.14 17.36 16.96 49.80 4.35 -3.03 1.32
SA 37.17 0.17 55.19 6.07 43.20 26.26 11.14 37.40
), ArticleFig(id=1159145726615081467, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=The adhesive free energies between ion-exchange membranes and SA molecules under different electrolyte, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
solutions conditions
自由能 CEM 数值 AEM 数值
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{1}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 1.15 -11.9
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{1\mathrm{\;m}}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{f}_{{w}_{1}}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -1.88 -15.25
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{2}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ -0.65 -15.67
$\Delta {G}_{{f}_{{W}_{2}m}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{2}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -3.68 -19.02
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{3}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 0.49 -13.37
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{3}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{3}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -2.54 -16.72
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{4}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 1.69 -12.56
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{4}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{\mathrm{a}}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -1.34 -15.91
), ArticleFig(id=1159145726711550460, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119893612605453, articleId=1152988709273199380, language=CN, label=表 4, caption=不同液体介质条件下阴、阳离子交换膜与 SA 的粘聚力, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
solutions conditions
自由能 CEM 数值 AEM 数值
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{1}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 1.15 -11.9
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{1\mathrm{\;m}}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{f}_{{w}_{1}}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -1.88 -15.25
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{2}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ -0.65 -15.67
$\Delta {G}_{{f}_{{W}_{2}m}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{2}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -3.68 -19.02
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{3}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 0.49 -13.37
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{3}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{3}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -2.54 -16.72
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{4}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$ 1.69 -12.56
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{4}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$ -3.03 -3.35
$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{\mathrm{a}}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$ -1.34 -15.91
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逆坡运输与膜污染对反电渗析效能的影响
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李贤能 1 , 刘贵彩 1 , 刘宇昊 1 , 孙国政 1 , 赵东升 2 , 任潇 1 , 杜加磊 1
可再生能源 | 2025,43(4): 561-568
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可再生能源 | 2025, 43(4): 561-568
逆坡运输与膜污染对反电渗析效能的影响
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李贤能1, 刘贵彩1 , 刘宇昊1, 孙国政1, 赵东升2, 任潇1, 杜加磊1
作者信息
  • 1 济南大学 土木建筑学院 山东 济南 250022
  • 2 南阳师范学院 土木建筑工程学院 河南 南阳 473061

通讯作者:

刘贵彩(1984-),男,博士,副教授,研究方向为膜法水处理技术。E-mail:
Effect of uphill transport and membrane fouling on reverse electrodialysis efficiency
Xianneng Li1, Guicai Liu1 , Yuhao Liu1, Guozheng Sun1, Dongsheng Zhao2, Xiao Ren1, Jialei Du1
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Civil Engineering and Architecture University of Jinan Jinan 250022 China
  • 2 School of Civil Engineering Nanyang Normal University Nanyang 473061 China
出版时间: 2025-04-20
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文章从逆坡运输和膜污染两个方面对多价离子以及有机物对反电渗析(RED)装置产电效能的影响进行了研究。结果表明:当进料液为0.5 mol/L 的纯 NaCl溶液时,RED装置的功率密度最大;当进料液由 0.5 mol/L 的纯 NaCl溶液变为0.5 mol/L的纯多价盐(MgCl2, CaCl2, Na2SO4)溶液时,RED装置的功率密度分别下降72.45%,68.82%,72.14%;当多价盐有机污染物海藻酸钠(SA)共存时,随着SA含量的增加,RED装置的功率密度先升高后逐渐降低,并在SA含量为30 mg/L时有最大值;纯 NaCl溶液对 SA 吸附于阴离子交换膜的影响最小,NaCl溶液与 MgCl2 的混合溶液对 SA 吸附于阴离子交换膜的影响最大。

反电渗析  /  逆坡运输  /  膜污染  /  界面自由能

The impacts of multivalent ions and organic substances on the energy generation efficiency of Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) devices were investigated in terms of uphill transport and membrane fouling. The results showed that the maximum power density was obtained when the 0.5 mol/L NaCl solutions was used as the feeding solution of the RED device. However, the power densities decreased by 72.45%, 68.82%, and 72.14%, respectively, as the feeding solutions were switched to 0.5 mol/L multivalent salt (MgCl2, CaCl2 and Na2SO4) solutions. By adding organic foulantssodium alginate (SA) into the multivalent salt solutions, the power density was enhanced with the increase of SA concentrations and reached a maximum level with addition of 30 mg/L SA, and then was gradually decreased when SA concentration was further raised. The NaCl solutions exerted minor influences on the adsorption of SA molecules onto cationexchange membranes. In contrast, the mixture of NaCl and MgCl2 obviously exacerbated the adhesion between SA molecules and cationexchange membranes

reverse electrodialysis  /  uphill transport  /  membrane fouling  /  interfacial free energy
李贤能, 刘贵彩, 刘宇昊, 孙国政, 赵东升, 任潇, 杜加磊. 逆坡运输与膜污染对反电渗析效能的影响. 可再生能源, 2025 , 43 (4) : 561 -568 .
Xianneng Li, Guicai Liu, Yuhao Liu, Guozheng Sun, Dongsheng Zhao, Xiao Ren, Jialei Du. Effect of uphill transport and membrane fouling on reverse electrodialysis efficiency[J]. Renewable Energy Resources, 2025 , 43 (4) : 561 -568 .
作为海洋可再生能源之一, 盐差能的本质是不同浓度盐溶液混合形成的化学能 [ 1 ] ,由于其清洁可再生又被称为“蓝色能源”。据报道, 全球可利用的盐差能为 ${2.4} \sim {2.6}{\mathrm{{TW}}}$ [ 2 ] 。目前,利用盐差能发电的技术主要有反电渗析法(Reverse Electrodialysis, RED)、渗透压能法、蒸汽压能法 [ 3 ] 。其中, 反电渗析法是获取盐差能的主流技术, 相较于其他技术,其优点是电力直接由盐度梯度产生、产电方式简单、运行稳定、能量密度高、膜污染程度低 [ 4 , 5 ] 。RED 过程是利用离子交换膜的选择透过性, 将溶液中盐差扩散驱使的阴、阳离子分别透过阴、阳离子交换膜向低浓度一侧进行迁移,形成内电流, 再通过电极发生氧化还原反应形成外电流实现发电。目前,该发电技术在实验室小试方面进展顺利,中试阶段也开展了一定研究 [ 6 ] ,工业级规模中尚未实现应用, 发电能量密度低是当前的主要问题。
天然海水和河水中存在着各种多价离子 $\left( {{\mathrm{{Mg}}}^{2 + },{\mathrm{{Ca}}}^{2 + },{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}{}^{2 - }\text{等}}\right)$ ,其中某些离子 $\left( {\text{如}{\mathrm{{Mg}}}^{2 + }}\right.$ , SO ${}_{4}{}^{2 - }$ )可能会与离子交换膜内固定基团结合,使膜电阻增加 [ 7 ] ; 同时,可能出现离子逆坡运输现象 [ 8 ] , 这时 RED 装置内部的单价离子电位降低, 以增加多价离子电动势, 形成电中性运输, 逆坡运输过程中不产生净电流,也不收获能量,由此导致有效电动势降低 [ 9 ]
天然水体中存在的各种有机物会使 RED 装置在运行中出现膜污染现象,导致 RED 装置功率下降 [ 10 ] ,膜污染导致的膜表面电化学特性变化也会使得膜寿命缩短,限制 RED 装置的实际应用。 考虑到 RED 过程中海洋浮游植物产生的藻类有机物会影响膜的性能, 研究中常选用含有丰富游离羟基和羧基官能团,可以形成分子内氢键,并对多价离子有较高吸附力的海藻酸钠(Sodium Alginate, SA)来模拟藻类有机物引起的有机污染。
本文采用 RED 装置处理模拟海水,利用电化学工作站考察不同多价盐 $\left( {{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}}\right)$ 对 RED 电化学特性的影响, 阐释多价离子逆坡运输对反电渗析性能的影响规律与作用机制; 选用 SA 作为有机污染物, 配制氯化钠与多价盐的混合溶液, 将不同浓度 SA 添加至 RED 装置单、双侧, 探究 SA-多价离子共存对 RED 装置功率密度的影响, 揭示有机、无机污染物干扰 RED 装置发电效能的作用规律。
采用国初科技(厦门)有限公司生产的 GCAM-KD 系列均质聚烯烃阴、阳离子交换膜,平均离子交换容量为${1.7}\mathrm{{mmol}}/\mathrm{{kg}}$,面电阻为${0.5} \sim {1.5}$$\Omega \cdot {\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2}$,迁移数$\geq {96}\%$,热收缩率$\leq 1\%$,膜厚度为${40\mu }\mathrm{m}$。实验过程中,使用 GCKLJ-1020 膜组件 (长$\times$宽=0.1m$\times$0.1m),采用的斜流道隔板厚度为${0.72}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$,膜的有效面积为${0.0056}{\mathrm{\;m}}^{2}$(长$\times$$= {0.08}$$\mathrm{m} \times {0.07}\mathrm{\;m}$),膜对数为 5 对。
RED 系统运行流程如下:开启蠕动泵将电极保护液泵入电极通道, 使其在阴、阳极内循环流动;使用两台蠕动泵将浓、淡室进料溶液分别泵入 RED 装置浓、淡室; 将 RED 装置与 P3000A-DX 型电化学工作站相连接, 利用电化学工作站对 RED 产电装置的电化学特性进行数据采集。
本文模拟天然海水和河水盐度, 选择多价盐${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$形成混合溶液,研究多价离子对 RED 装置电化学特性的影响。 5 组配比中保持电解质溶液的浓度不变或总离子强度不变(第 2 组按实际海水配比), 具体组分见表 1
选用 SA 作为典型有机物来模拟 RED 装置运行过程的有机污染。电极保护液为${0.05}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}$${\mathrm{K}}_{3}\mathrm{{Fe}}{\left( \mathrm{{CN}}\right) }_{6},{0.05}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}$${\mathrm{K}}_{4}\mathrm{{Fe}}{\left( \mathrm{{CN}}\right) }_{6}$和 0.25$\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}$$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$组成的混合溶液。溶液采用去离子水配制, 浓、稀侧进水溶液盐度差始终保持为 10 倍,流速为${100}\mathrm{\;{mL}}/\mathrm{{min}}$,溶液温度控制在$\left( {{20} \pm 2}\right) {}^{ \circ }\mathrm{C}$
RED 装置产电性能指标由装置开路电压、电阻及最大功率密度决定。电压采用 OpenCircuit 法进行测试,电阻采用直流方法(CP 法)进行测试。
开路电压是指 RED 装置在不施加电流状态下,离子通过离子交换膜由浓室向淡室运输产生的电压差, 根据 Nernst 方程可以计算出理论开路电压${E}_{\mathrm{{OC}}\mathrm{V}}$
${E}_{\mathrm{{OCV}}} = {2\alpha } \cdot {N}_{\mathrm{m}} \cdot \frac{RT}{ZF} \cdot \ln \left( \frac{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{{HC}}} \cdot {C}_{\mathrm{{HC}}}}{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{{LC}}} \cdot {C}_{\mathrm{{LC}}}}\right)$
式中:$\alpha$为阴、阳离子交换膜的平均选择透过性;${N}_{\mathrm{m}}$为离子交换膜膜对数;$R$为气体常数;$T$为进料溶液平均温度,$\mathrm{K};Z$为溶液中离子价态;$F$为法拉第常数;${\gamma }_{\mathrm{{HC}}},{\gamma }_{\mathrm{{LC}}}$分别为浓、淡水平均活度系数;${C}_{\mathrm{{HC}}}$,${C}_{\mathrm{{LC}}}$分别为浓、淡室盐溶液浓度,$\mathrm{{mol}}/{\mathrm{L}}_{ \circ }$
RED 装置总电阻${R}_{\text{stack }}$由阴、阳离子交换膜电阻,浓、淡水电阻,电极系统电阻组成,其计算式为
${R}_{\text{stack }} = \frac{{N}_{\mathrm{m}}}{A}\left( {{R}_{\mathrm{{CEM}}} + {R}_{\mathrm{{AEM}}} + \frac{{d}_{\mathrm{{HC}}}}{{k}_{\mathrm{{HC}}}} + \frac{{d}_{\mathrm{{LC}}}}{{k}_{\mathrm{{LC}}}} + {R}_{\mathrm{{el}}}}\right)$
式中:$A$为离子交换膜有效面积,${\mathrm{m}}^{2};{R}_{\mathrm{{AEM}}},{R}_{\mathrm{{CEM}}}$分别为阴、阳离子交换膜电阻,$\Omega \cdot {\mathrm{{cm}}}^{2};{d}_{\mathrm{{HC}}},{d}_{\mathrm{{LC}}}$分别为浓、淡料液室厚度,$\mathrm{m};{k}_{\mathrm{{HC}}},{k}_{\mathrm{{LC}}}$分别为浓、淡室溶液电导率,$\mathrm{S}/\mathrm{m};{R}_{\mathrm{{el}}}$为电极电阻,$\Omega$
RED 装置最大功率密度${P}_{\max }$的计算式为
${P}_{\max } = \frac{{E}^{2}}{{4A}{R}_{\text{stack }}}$
式中:$E$为开路电压,$\mathrm{V}$
XDLVO (Extended Derjaguin-Landau-Ver-wey-Overbeek) 理论指出胶体与界面之间的相互作用力是范德华力(LW)、李维斯酸碱平衡力 (AB)和静电作用力(EL)之和。LW 和 AB 由表面张力参数计算求得, 固体的表面张力参数通过已测得的接触角利用杨氏方程进行计算; EL 通过测得的 Zeta 电位值进行计算。
物质总表面张力${\gamma }^{\text{TOT }}$由极性分量${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$和非极性分量${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$组成,${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$由电子受体分量${\gamma }^{ + }$和电子供体分量$\gamma$-组成。
${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{TOT}}} = {\gamma }^{\mathrm{{LW}}} + {\gamma }^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$
${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{AB}}} = 2\sqrt{{\gamma }^{ + }{\gamma }^{ - }}$
测量固体表面张力时,由于其表面几乎无流动性,须测量接触角并使用杨氏方程计算表面张力 [ 11 ]
${\gamma }_{\mathrm{{SG}}} = {\gamma }_{\mathrm{{SL}}} + {\gamma }_{\mathrm{{LG}}}\cos \theta$
式中:${\gamma }_{\mathrm{{SG}}},{\gamma }_{\mathrm{{SL}}}$${\gamma }_{\mathrm{{LG}}}$分别为固-气、固-液和气-液界面的张力;$\theta$为理想的杨氏接触角。
基于 Wenzel 方程对所测接触角进行校正 [ 12 ]
$\cos {\theta }_{\mathrm{W}} = r\cos \theta = \left( {1 + {SAD}}\right) \cos \theta$
式中:${\theta }_{\mathrm{W}}$为实际测量值;$r$为固体表面粗糙度;${SAD}$为所测固体样品表面的面积差异。
通过杨氏扩展方程得到利用接触角计算固体表面张力的方法 [ 13 ]
$\left( {1 + \cos \theta }\right) {\gamma }_{\mathrm{L}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}} = 2\left( {\sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{S}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}{\gamma }_{\mathrm{L}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}} + \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{S}}^{ + }{\gamma }_{\mathrm{L}}^{ - }} + \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{S}}^{ - }{\gamma }_{\mathrm{L}}^{ + }}}\right)$
式中: 下角标$\mathrm{S}$$\mathrm{L}$分别代表固体样品和溶液。
选取纯水、甲酰胺和二碘甲烷作为测试溶液, 进行固体表面接触角测定, 将校正后的接触角代入式 (8) 中,求出分量${\gamma }_{\mathrm{s}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}},{\gamma }_{\mathrm{s}}^{ + }$${\gamma }_{\mathrm{s}}^{ - }$,再将其代入式 (4),(5)中求出${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$,${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$。接触角测试溶液的表面张力参数如表 2 所示。
通过所测的接触角, 利用杨氏扩展方程计算出膜和污染物的表面张力参数, 计算水相介质中这两种物质界面距离为${h}_{0} = {0.158}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$时的界面吸附自由能。
$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm },{h}_{0}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}} = - 2\left( {\sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{w}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}} - \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{f}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}}}\right) \left( {\sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{w}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}} - \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}}}}\right)$
$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm },{h}_{0}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}} = - 2\left\lbrack \begin{array}{l} \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{f}}^{ + }{\gamma }_{\mathrm{m}}^{ - }} + \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{f}}^{ - }{\gamma }_{\mathrm{m}}^{ + }} - \\ \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{w}}^{ + }}\left( {\sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{f}}^{ - }} + \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{m}}^{ - }} - \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{w}}^{ - }}}\right) - \\ \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{w}}^{ - }}\left( {\sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{f}}^{ + }} + \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{m}}^{ + }} - \sqrt{{\gamma }_{\mathrm{w}}^{ + }}}\right) \end{array}\right\rbrack$
式中: 下角标$\mathrm{f},\mathrm{w}$$\mathrm{m}$分别表示污染物、水相介质和膜表面;$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{LW}}},\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$分别为$\mathrm{{LW}}$$\mathrm{{AB}}$自聚自由能。
在水相介质中膜和污染物的两个界面之间的总界面自聚自由能$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$
$\Delta {G}_{\mathrm{{fwm}}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}} = \Delta {G}_{\mathrm{{fwm}}}^{\mathrm{{LW}}} + \Delta {G}_{\mathrm{{fwm}}}^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$
根据上式可以计算出膜与污染物之间的粘附自由能${\left( \Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}\right) }_{ \circ }\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}} > 0$表示膜与污染物之间为排斥力,$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}} < 0$表示膜与污染物之间为吸引力。 界面吸附自由能越小, 膜与污染物间的吸引力越强, 膜越容易被污染物吸附。
为探究天然水体中不同浓度多价离子对 RED 装置产电效能的影响,本文采用 NaCl 与多价盐$\left( {{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}}\right)$混合形成 3 种多价盐体系。利用电化学工作站测得不同浓度下 RED 装置的电压与电阻,根据式 (3) 计算出 RED 装置的功率密度,如图 1 所示。
图 1 可知: 随着多价离子浓度升高, RED 装置的功率密度逐渐下降;当进料溶液为纯$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$时, RED 装置的功率密度最大$\left( {{0.2236}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}}\right)$,为纯多价盐溶液时, 功率密度最小。当多价盐溶液为${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$时, RED 装置的功率密度分别为 0.1500,${0.1364},{0.0537},{0.0616}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$,由纯$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$变为纯${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$时,功率密度下降了${72.45}\%$;当多价盐溶液为${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$时,$\mathrm{{RED}}$装置的功率密度分别为 0.1725, 0.1263,0.0675,0.0697 W$/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$,由纯$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$变为纯${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$时,功率密度下降了${68.82}\%$;当多价盐溶液为${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$时, RED 装置的功率密度分别为 0.2078,${0.1753},{0.0715},{0.0623}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$,由纯$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$变为纯${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$时,功率密度下降了${72.14}\%$。综上所述,在 3 种多价盐溶液中, 对 RED 装置功率密度影响最大的是${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$次之,${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$最小。
RED 装置功率密度下降的原因有: 多价离子的加入使溶液中总体离子价态升高, 由式 (1) 可知, 离子价态越高, RED 装置的产电电压越低; 由于多价离子的扩散系数比Na${}^{ + }$低,在迁移时,阴离子交换膜(AEM)和阳离子交换膜(CEM)会优先吸附多价离子与膜内基团进行结合,降低膜基质传输离子的能力及膜内固定电荷密度, 使离子的传导能力和传输速率下降、膜电阻增大。
针对多价离子对 RED 装置产电效能的影响, 本文以上述功率密度最小的 ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$ 混合液为多价离子代表, 从溶液中离子含量变化阐释多价离子对 RED 装置产电效能的影响。根据 ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 存在料室的不同,设计 3 组试验工况: ① 浓、稀侧均有 ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ ;② 稀侧添加 ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ ;③ 浓侧添加 ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 。使用电化学工作站在 ${25}\mathrm{\;A}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$ 的电流密度下每 ${15}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ 对稀侧出水进行采集,纯 $\mathrm{{NaCl}}$ 水样只检测Na ${}^{ + }$ 含量, ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$ 混合水样检测Na ${}^{ + }$ 和Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 含量。进料溶液为纯 $\mathrm{{NaCl}}$ 时,进水的Na ${}^{ + }$ 含量为 ${120}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$ ; 添加 ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 时,Na ${}^{ + }$ 含量为 ${100}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L},{\mathrm{{Mg}}}^{2 + }$ 含量为 ${20}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$ 。在不同时间段内, 稀侧Na ${}^{ + }$ 与Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 的进、出水含量如图 2 所示。
图 2(a) 可知,在 $0 \sim {270}\mathrm{\;{min}}$ ,稀侧的Na ${}^{ + }$ 出水含量高于浓侧的Na ${}^{ + }$ 进水含量,说明Na ${}^{ + }$ 从浓侧向稀侧顺浓度梯度运输, 此时没有发生逆坡运输现象。由图 2(b)可知: 在 ${45} \sim {90}\mathrm{\;{min}},{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 加入浓侧与稀侧时,进、出水的Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 含量基本一致,说明Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 在逆坡和顺坡两个方向上都发生了迁移;在 135 $\sim {180}\mathrm{\;{min}},{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 仅添加到稀侧时,Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 出水含量明显低于进水含量,说明此时Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 逆浓度梯度从低浓度侧向高浓度侧运移, 即发生了逆坡运输现象(若不发生逆坡运输现象,稀侧Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 的进、出水浓度应保持一致); 在 ${225} \sim {270}\mathrm{\;{min}},{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$ 添加到浓侧时,观察到相反的情况,Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 出水含量大于进水含量 (进水Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 含量为 0 ),说明Mg ${}^{2 + }$ 从浓侧向稀侧顺浓度梯度运输。综上可知, 相较于纯 $\mathrm{{NaCl}}$ 溶液,多价离子的加入使溶液中出现了高价离子的逆浓度坡度迁移, 即出现了多价离子逆坡运输现象,降低了单价离子产生的电位差,导致 RED 装置开路电压降低,同时使Na ${}^{ + }$ 形成的叠加电压不可逆减小, RED 装置产电效能降低。
本文选用 SA 作为典型有机污染物, 探究在单侧、双侧加入不同含量$\mathrm{{SA}}({10},{30},{50},{100}$$\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$),与单价盐溶液$\left( {{0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}}}\right)$和 3 种不同多价盐溶液$({0.409}\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {0.091}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}$${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},{0.489}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {0.011}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},{0.488}$$\mathrm{{mol}}/\mathrm{{LNaCl}} + {0.012}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$) 混合作为进料溶液时, SA-多价离子共存对 RED 装置产电效能的影响规律。RED 装置功率密度的变化如图 3 所示。
结合图 1,3 可知,加入 SA 后, RED 装置的功率密度显著下降。从图 3 可以看出:在 SA 共存条件下,浓室以${0.5}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}}$为进料液时,$\mathrm{{RED}}$装置的功率密度从${0.2236}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$降低至${0.1463} \sim$${0.1609}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$。以${0.409}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {0.091}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}$${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$为进料液时, RED 装置的功率密度从 0.1500$\mathrm{W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$降低至${0.1026} \sim {0.1191}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$; 以 0.489 mol/L$\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {0.011}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$为进料液时,$\mathrm{{RED}}$装置的功率密度从${0.1725}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$降低至${0.1253} \sim {0.1530}$$\mathrm{W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$; 以${0.488}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {0.012}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$为进料液时, RED 装置的功率密度从${0.2078}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$降低至${0.1516} \sim {0.1622}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$
在 SA-多价离子共存条件下, 随着 SA 含量的增加, RED 装置的功率密度先升高后逐渐降低。从图 3 可以看出, 两侧加入与仅在单侧加入 SA 时, RED 装置的功率密度变化趋势类似。以 0.5 mol/L NaCl+SA 为浓室进料液, SA 含量分别为${10},{30},{50},{100}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时, RED 装置的功率密度分别为${0.1521},{0.1698},{0.1593},{0.1525}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$,与未添加 SA 时相比, 功率密度分别下降了 30.9%,${24}\% ,{28.7}\% ,{31.7}\%$。当$\mathrm{{SA}}$含量小于${30}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时, RED 装置的功率密度随着 SA 含量的增加而逐渐升高, 这是因为: 虽然 SA 的添加会对 RED 装置的产电性能产生不利影响, 但由于 SA 沉积物可能具有多孔结构 [ 14 ] ,此时浓侧向稀侧的离子运输通道虽受到阻碍, 但离子扩散受影响较小; 由于 SA 带负电, 在受到水动力效应等其他因素的影响而沉积在 CEM 表面时(SA 与 CEM 膜不发生静电吸引,两者都带负电荷),会促进Na${}^{ + }$$\mathrm{{CEM}}$扩散,帮助$\mathrm{{RED}}$装置功率密度回升; 此时Cl${}^{ - }$$\mathrm{{SA}}$的相互竞争会扩散至 AEM, 但 AEM 与负盐离子的相互作用强于 AEM 与 SA 官能团的相互作用, SA 不会与 AEM 相互结合使 RED 装置功率密度降低。当$\mathrm{{SA}}$含量为${30}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时, RED 装置的功率密度受到的负面影响最小, 此时 SA 沉积物对离子扩散运输的影响较小,促进Na${}^{ + }$$\mathrm{{CEM}}$扩散效果达到最大。当$\mathrm{{SA}}$含量大于${30}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时, RED装置的功率密度逐步下降,并在 SA 含量为${100}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时降至最低,这表明:随着 SA 含量的升高,溶液中的沉积物状态发生改变, 可能由多孔结构转变为致密结构 [ 15 ] ,此时$\mathrm{{SA}}$中含有的Na${}^{ + }$虽然可以弥补部分离子扩散的损失, 但弥补程度不够, 导致离子交换数量及通过离子交换膜的速率降低; 随着 SA 含量的不断升高, AEM 本身具有的正电荷离子基团会将带负电的 SA 聚集在 AEM 表面,使其不能透过膜停留在膜通道中, 此时会占据离子交换位点,降低离子迁移的能力,增大膜电阻。
类似现象也发生在其余 3 种多价盐溶液上。 以${0.409}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {0.091}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$为浓室进料液,当 SA 含量分别为${10},{30},{50},{100}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时, RED 装置的功率密度分别为 0.1117,0.1191, 0.1133,0.1025 W$/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$,与未添加$\mathrm{{SA}}$时相比,功率密度分别下降了${25.5}\% ,{20.6}\% ,{24.4}\% ,{31.6}\%$。相较于$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$溶液,在${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$溶液中,由于Mg${}^{2 + }$的加入使离子价态增高, 装置电压降低, 伴随着逆坡运输现象发生,造成 RED 装置的产电电压不可逆减小,功率密度峰值降低。以${0.489}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$0.011 mol/L${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$为浓室进料液,当$\mathrm{{SA}}$含量分别为${10},{30},{50},{100}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时, RED 装置的功率密度分别为${0.1253},{0.1522},{0.1357},{0.1530}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$,与未添加 SA 时相比,功率密度分别下降了 27.3%,${11.7}\% ,{21.3}\% ,{11.3}\%$。当多价盐溶液为${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$时, RED 装置的整体功率密度略高于多价盐溶液为${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$溶液时,最大功率密度相差${0.1191}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$。 这是由于Mg${}^{2 + }$的相对迁移速率小于Ca${}^{2 + }$,且Mg${}^{2 + }$的水合半径大于Ca [ 16 ] ,降低了其离子的传输速率和导电能力; 同时Ca${}^{2 + }$极易与$\mathrm{{SA}}$中的羧基发生离子间相互作用,交换周围介质中的Na${}^{ + }$,当这些空间被Ca${}^{2 + }$占据时,Ca${}^{2 + }$与多个氧原子发生螯合作用,使 SA 链间结合更紧密, 且 CEM 中固定基团与Ca${}^{2 + }$的作用力大于Mg${}^{2 + }$。以${0.488}\mathrm{\;{mol}}/\mathrm{L}\mathrm{{NaCl}} +$0.012 mol/L${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$为浓室进料液,当$\mathrm{{SA}}$含量分别为${10},{30},{50},{100}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时, RED 装置功率密度分别为${0.1586},{0.1622},{0.1516},{0.1558}\mathrm{\;W}/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$,与未添加 SA 时相比, 功率密度分别下降了 23.6%,${21.9}\% ,{27}\% ,{25}\%$。当多价盐溶液为${\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$时, RED 装置的整体功率密度大于多价盐溶液为${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$时,这是由于Mg${}^{2 + },{\mathrm{{Ca}}}^{2 + }$$\mathrm{{RED}}$装置运行过程中容易在离子交换膜表面或内部形成沉淀造成结垢, CEM 比 AEM 更容易形成无机污染,${\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}{}^{2 - }$不易污染${\mathrm{{CEM}}}_{0}$
综上所述,当盐溶液为$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$与多价离子的混合溶液时, RED 装置的功率密度伴随着 SA 的加入先降低,随着 SA 含量逐渐增高而出现回升,在 SA 含量超过${30}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$时再次减小;当进料液为多价盐溶液时, RED 装置的总体功率密度低于纯$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$溶液为进料液时,说明进料液中加入${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$,${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$,会加剧 RED 装置功率密度的衰减。
采用 XDLVO 理论分析 SA 与阴、阳离子交换膜之间的相互作用能。首先计算不同接触角测试溶液的表面张力参数 (表 2), 然后根据表面张力参数计算结果, 采用杨氏方程计算出阴离子交换膜、阳离子交换膜与$\mathrm{{SA}}$在水溶液中的表面张力参数, 结果见表 3
表 3 可知,对于 AEM 而言,$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$为-11.91, 说明$\mathrm{{SA}}$可以自发吸附于$\mathrm{{AEM}}$上。$\mathrm{{CEM}}$$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$为 1.32 , 说明 SA 不能自发吸附于 CEM 上。对于$\mathrm{{SA}},{\gamma }^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$${37.17},{\gamma }^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$${6.07},{\gamma }^{\mathrm{{LW}}}$远高于${\gamma }^{\mathrm{{AB}}}$,说明 SA 具有较高的非极性, SA 中$\gamma$-大于${\gamma }^{ + }$,说明 SA 为电子供体极性。$\mathrm{{SA}}$的自聚自由能为 37.40 ,说明 SA 之间不能自发吸附。
根据表 3 所示的计算结果, 通过式 (5), (6), (8)~(10)可以计算膜和污染物在相互作用界面距离为${h}_{0} = {0.158}\mathrm{\;{nm}}$时的粘附自由能。表 4 为 4 种不同盐溶液介质条件下阴、阳离子交换膜与$\mathrm{{SA}}$的粘聚力。表中: 下角标${\mathrm{W}}_{1},{\mathrm{W}}_{2},{\mathrm{W}}_{3},{\mathrm{W}}_{4}$分别表示$\mathrm{{NaCl}},\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$溶液,溶液浓度与前节所述一致。
表 4 可知, 两种离子交换膜均为电子供体极性。在 4 种不同盐溶液介质条件下, AEM 的自聚自由能均为负值,且$\Delta {G}_{\mathrm{{fw}},\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}},\Delta {G}_{\mathrm{{fw}},\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}},\Delta {G}_{\mathrm{{fw}},\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}},\Delta {G}_{\mathrm{{fw}},\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$的绝对值均大于$\Delta {G}_{\text{fwm }}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$,说明盐溶液中$\mathrm{{SA}}$会吸附于 AEM,影响阳离子交换膜的产电性能。CEM 的自聚自由能绝对值小于$\mathrm{{AEM}}$,说明在盐溶液中 SA 更易吸附于 AEM 上,加速 AEM 污染,可能导致膜电阻增大,膜离子交换容量下降,功率密度降低。$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{2}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$绝对值最大,$\Delta {G}_{{\mathrm{{fw}}}_{1}\mathrm{\;m}}^{\mathrm{{TOT}}}$绝对值最小,说明在 4 种盐溶液体系下,纯$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$溶液对$\mathrm{{SA}}$吸附于$\mathrm{{AEM}}$上的影响最小,$\mathrm{{NaCl}} + {\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2}$的混合溶液对 SA 吸附于 AEM 上的影响最大, 这与盐溶液为纯$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$时, RED 装置功率密度最大,为$\mathrm{{NaCl}} + \mathrm{{MgCl}}{}_{2}$的混合溶液时, RED 装置功率密度最小相呼应。
①随着多价离子的加入,离子价态升高会使 RED 装置电压减小, 同时由于发生逆坡运输现象,会造成Na ${}^{ + }$ 形成的叠加电压不可逆减小,使 RED 装置的功率密度下降; 不同多价盐对于 RED 装置功率密度的影响为 ${\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2} > {\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4} > {\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2}$
② 不同含量 $\mathrm{{SA}}$$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$ 及多价盐溶液 $\left( {{\mathrm{{MgCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}}\right)$ 混合时,随着 $\mathrm{{SA}}$ 含量的增大, RED 装置的功率密度先增加后减小, 当 SA 含量为 ${30}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$ 时, RED 装置的功率密度最大, SA 含量大于 ${30}\mathrm{{mg}}/\mathrm{L}$ 后, RED 装置的功率密度开始下降。
$\mathrm{{NaCl}}$ 与不同含量 $\mathrm{{SA}}$ 作为进料溶液时, RED 装置的功率密度均大于多价盐溶液 $\left( {\mathrm{{MgCl}}{}_{2}}\right.$ , ${\mathrm{{CaCl}}}_{2},{\mathrm{{Na}}}_{2}{\mathrm{{SO}}}_{4}$ )与 $\mathrm{{SA}}$ 作为进料溶液时。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(5180825)
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(51979064)
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2025年第43卷第4期
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  • 接收时间:2024-07-20
  • 首发时间:2025-07-18
  • 出版时间:2025-04-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-07-20
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国家自然科学基金项目(5180825)
国家自然科学基金项目(51979064)
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    1 济南大学 土木建筑学院 山东 济南 250022
    2 南阳师范学院 土木建筑工程学院 河南 南阳 473061

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刘贵彩(1984-),男,博士,副教授,研究方向为膜法水处理技术。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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