Article(id=1318316534628471431, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, issueId=1318316496934261092, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=null, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1748361600000, receivedDateStr=2025-05-28, revisedDate=1768320000000, revisedDateStr=2026-01-14, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1792240754992, onlineDateStr=2026-10-17, pubDate=1784044800000, pubDateStr=2026-07-15, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792240754992, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-17, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792240754992, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792240754992, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1318316496934261092, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, year='2026', volume='44', issue='7', pageStart='1345', pageEnd='1568', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1784044800000', pubDateStr='2026-07-15', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792240746004, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792240746004, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=1384, endPage=1392, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1318316534829798024, articleId=1318316534628471431, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, language=EN, title=How to resolve ethical controversies in S&T?——Lessons from the ethical consensus of the Asilomar Conference, columnId=1309226307205034609, journalTitle=Studies in Science of Science, columnName=Hot Issues, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The rapid development of emerging technologies is fundamentally redrawing the ethical boundaries of human society, making the achievement of ethical consensus more challenging than ever. While China has prioritized technology ethics through top-level institutional frameworks-such as the Opinions on Strengthening the Governance of Science and Technology Ethics (2022) and the Measures for Ethical Review of Science and Technology (Trial) (2023)-these norms are primarily applicable to the "post-consensus" governance phase. They provide standardized procedures for known risks but often lack efficacy during the "controversy phase," where uncertainty is high and fundamental values clash. Historically, the 1975 Asilomar Conference on recombinant DNA (rDNA) is lauded as the gold standard for resolving such disputes. However, existing scholarship predominantly views it through the lens of the "expert warning" model, overlooking the intricate socio-technical process of building the consensus itself. This study evaluates three traditional consensus modes: the ethical approach of principalism, which often fails in morally pluralistic societies; the technical approach of risk assessment, which is often hamstrung by the Collingridge Dilemma; and the social approach of public participation, which can lead to "over-commitment" or governance chaos. The research identifies that the fundamental difficulties in forming consensus lie in managing technical uncertainty and determining which actors should lead the process.To address these challenges, this research utilizes Actor-Network Theory (ANT) to deconstruct the Asilomar process as a "translation" of interests. Under ANT, humans (scientists, lawyers, and policy-makers) and non-humans (viruses, plasmids, and legal codes) are treated as interconnected "actors" within a heterogeneous network. The formation of consensus began with the transition from individual anxiety to a collective "risk community". Early pioneers like Paul Berg and Robert Pollack identified significant hazards in using the SV40 virus-a known oncogenic agent-within E. coli systems. These technical concerns were not resolved in isolation but were translated into a broader scientific dialogue through the 1973 Asilomar I and Gordon Conferences. A pivotal moment occurred with the publication of the 1974 "moratorium" letter in Science, which called for a temporary halt on specific experiments. This act served as a "problematization" strategy, establishing a "mandatory passage point" for the scientific community. By going public, scientists transformed a localized laboratory concern into a global socio-technical challenge, forcing stakeholders to recognize that the very survival of scientific autonomy depended on addressing public fears regarding biosafety and ethical responsibility.The heart of the consensus process occurred during the 1975 Asilomar II Conference, where technical negotiations initially reached a stalemate. Specialized sub-groups tasked with categorizing risks-focusing on animal viruses, plasmids, and eukaryotes-found that scientific knowledge was insufficient to provide definitive evidence of safety or danger. Scientists were caught in a binary trap: they feared that any admission of risk would lead to permanent government bans, yet they also realized that a failure to self-regulate would invite even harsher external control. The "translation" was ultimately completed when legal experts introduced the "non-human" actor of existing institutional frameworks into the network. Law professor Roger Dworkin clarified that scientists would be held personally and institutionally liable for any laboratory-born harm under existing tort and occupational safety laws. This realization fundamentally altered the interests of the core actors. Scientists understood that "pure autonomy" was no longer a viable option and that a pragmatic, tiered risk-classification system-ranging from minimal to high risk-was the only way to safeguard the future of their research. This flexible consensus allowed for a middle path: prohibiting the most dangerous experiments while providing clear, conditional guidelines for others.The study concludes that the Asilomar consensus was not a static event but a dynamic process that was subsequently institutionalized via the NIH Guidelines for Research Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules (1976). This institutionalization ensured that the consensus remained flexible, with the NIH acting as a "boundary organization" to mediate between science, government, and the public. A key takeaway for contemporary technology governance is the necessity of "expert-led multi-stakeholder participation". This model relies on what Harry Collins describes as "Owl Scientists"-those who possess both the technical proficiency to understand the science and the reflexive capacity to grasp its social and ethical implications. The Asilomar experience demonstrates that institutional constraints are not impediments but necessary conditions for consensus, as they provide the "bottom line" that forces actors toward compromise. Furthermore, the final consensus must remain flexible and dynamic, utilizing categorized management to address scientific uncertainty and allowing for periodic revisions as new knowledge emerges. For China's emerging technology landscape, the lesson is clear: ethical governance must move beyond the mere declaration of abstract principles to the creation of flexible, tiered, and dynamic consensus-building mechanisms that can navigate the profound uncertainties of the controversy phase.

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风险性新兴科技的伦理治理极具挑战,我国虽已出台《关于加强科技伦理治理的意见》等政策,但这些规范多适用于共识形成后的治理阶段,无法有效解决争议阶段的伦理问题。20世纪70年代的阿西洛马会议被认为是化解科技伦理争议的范例,已有研究主要将其成功归因于专家预警模式,忽视了背后的共识形成过程。在分析三种经典的共识模式及局限的基础上,指出了形成共识的难题在于应对不确定性和谁来主导共识过程。通过分析阿西洛马会议伦理共识达成的过程,研究发现,科技伦理共识的形成应由具备反思性的“猫头鹰”科学家专家主导且多方参与,制度约束有利于达成共识,最终的共识方案应具有灵活性。

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和鸿鹏(1987-),男,副教授,E-mail:。

高旖蔚(1993-),女,博士。

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Most ethical analyses to date have been largely consequentialist in nature; they reveal a dual use dilemma, showing that synbio has potential for great good and great evil, possibly more so than any step humanity has taken before. A deontological analysis may help to resolve this dilemma, by evaluating whether synbio is right or wrong in itself. I also assess whether deontology alone is a sufficient methodological paradigm for the proper evaluation of synbio ethics. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.), Reference(id=1318316538088772276, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1318316534628471431, doi=10.1093/jmp/jhr011, pmid=21724971, pmcid=null, year=2011, volume=36, issue=3, pageStart=243, pageEnd=260, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[11], rfOrder=13, authorNames=Engelhardt H T, journalName=Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Engelhardt H T. 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Academic bioethicists can analyze ideas, concepts, and claims necessary to understanding the moral questions raised in health care, assessing the arguments related to these issues, and provide an understanding of the different moral perspectives on bioethical issues. In the clinical setting, bioethicists can provide legal advice, serve as experts on IRBs, mediating disputes, facilitating decision-making and risk management, and clarifying normative issues. 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如何化解科技伦理争议?——阿西洛马会议的伦理共识经验
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和鸿鹏 1 , 高旖蔚 2, 3
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科学学研究 |热点议题 2026 , 44 (7) : 1384 -1392
如何化解科技伦理争议?——阿西洛马会议的伦理共识经验
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高旖蔚(1993-),女,博士。

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和鸿鹏1 , 高旖蔚2, 3
作者信息
  • 1 北京航空航天大学人文与社会科学高等研究院, 北京 100191
  • 2 中国科学院大学, 北京 100190
  • 3 中国科学院科技战略咨询研究院, 北京 100190
作者简介:

和鸿鹏(1987-),男,副教授,E-mail:。

高旖蔚(1993-),女,博士。

How to resolve ethical controversies in S&T?——Lessons from the ethical consensus of the Asilomar Conference
Hong-peng HE1 , Yi-wei GAO2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1 Institute for Advanced Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
  • 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • 3 Institutes of Science and Development, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
出版时间: 2026-07-15
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风险性新兴科技的伦理治理极具挑战,我国虽已出台《关于加强科技伦理治理的意见》等政策,但这些规范多适用于共识形成后的治理阶段,无法有效解决争议阶段的伦理问题。20世纪70年代的阿西洛马会议被认为是化解科技伦理争议的范例,已有研究主要将其成功归因于专家预警模式,忽视了背后的共识形成过程。在分析三种经典的共识模式及局限的基础上,指出了形成共识的难题在于应对不确定性和谁来主导共识过程。通过分析阿西洛马会议伦理共识达成的过程,研究发现,科技伦理共识的形成应由具备反思性的“猫头鹰”科学家专家主导且多方参与,制度约束有利于达成共识,最终的共识方案应具有灵活性。

科技伦理  /  阿西洛马会议  /  专家预警  /  共识机制

The rapid development of emerging technologies is fundamentally redrawing the ethical boundaries of human society, making the achievement of ethical consensus more challenging than ever. While China has prioritized technology ethics through top-level institutional frameworks-such as the Opinions on Strengthening the Governance of Science and Technology Ethics (2022) and the Measures for Ethical Review of Science and Technology (Trial) (2023)-these norms are primarily applicable to the "post-consensus" governance phase. They provide standardized procedures for known risks but often lack efficacy during the "controversy phase," where uncertainty is high and fundamental values clash. Historically, the 1975 Asilomar Conference on recombinant DNA (rDNA) is lauded as the gold standard for resolving such disputes. However, existing scholarship predominantly views it through the lens of the "expert warning" model, overlooking the intricate socio-technical process of building the consensus itself. This study evaluates three traditional consensus modes: the ethical approach of principalism, which often fails in morally pluralistic societies; the technical approach of risk assessment, which is often hamstrung by the Collingridge Dilemma; and the social approach of public participation, which can lead to "over-commitment" or governance chaos. The research identifies that the fundamental difficulties in forming consensus lie in managing technical uncertainty and determining which actors should lead the process.To address these challenges, this research utilizes Actor-Network Theory (ANT) to deconstruct the Asilomar process as a "translation" of interests. Under ANT, humans (scientists, lawyers, and policy-makers) and non-humans (viruses, plasmids, and legal codes) are treated as interconnected "actors" within a heterogeneous network. The formation of consensus began with the transition from individual anxiety to a collective "risk community". Early pioneers like Paul Berg and Robert Pollack identified significant hazards in using the SV40 virus-a known oncogenic agent-within E. coli systems. These technical concerns were not resolved in isolation but were translated into a broader scientific dialogue through the 1973 Asilomar I and Gordon Conferences. A pivotal moment occurred with the publication of the 1974 "moratorium" letter in Science, which called for a temporary halt on specific experiments. This act served as a "problematization" strategy, establishing a "mandatory passage point" for the scientific community. By going public, scientists transformed a localized laboratory concern into a global socio-technical challenge, forcing stakeholders to recognize that the very survival of scientific autonomy depended on addressing public fears regarding biosafety and ethical responsibility.The heart of the consensus process occurred during the 1975 Asilomar II Conference, where technical negotiations initially reached a stalemate. Specialized sub-groups tasked with categorizing risks-focusing on animal viruses, plasmids, and eukaryotes-found that scientific knowledge was insufficient to provide definitive evidence of safety or danger. Scientists were caught in a binary trap: they feared that any admission of risk would lead to permanent government bans, yet they also realized that a failure to self-regulate would invite even harsher external control. The "translation" was ultimately completed when legal experts introduced the "non-human" actor of existing institutional frameworks into the network. Law professor Roger Dworkin clarified that scientists would be held personally and institutionally liable for any laboratory-born harm under existing tort and occupational safety laws. This realization fundamentally altered the interests of the core actors. Scientists understood that "pure autonomy" was no longer a viable option and that a pragmatic, tiered risk-classification system-ranging from minimal to high risk-was the only way to safeguard the future of their research. This flexible consensus allowed for a middle path: prohibiting the most dangerous experiments while providing clear, conditional guidelines for others.The study concludes that the Asilomar consensus was not a static event but a dynamic process that was subsequently institutionalized via the NIH Guidelines for Research Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules (1976). This institutionalization ensured that the consensus remained flexible, with the NIH acting as a "boundary organization" to mediate between science, government, and the public. A key takeaway for contemporary technology governance is the necessity of "expert-led multi-stakeholder participation". This model relies on what Harry Collins describes as "Owl Scientists"-those who possess both the technical proficiency to understand the science and the reflexive capacity to grasp its social and ethical implications. The Asilomar experience demonstrates that institutional constraints are not impediments but necessary conditions for consensus, as they provide the "bottom line" that forces actors toward compromise. Furthermore, the final consensus must remain flexible and dynamic, utilizing categorized management to address scientific uncertainty and allowing for periodic revisions as new knowledge emerges. For China's emerging technology landscape, the lesson is clear: ethical governance must move beyond the mere declaration of abstract principles to the creation of flexible, tiered, and dynamic consensus-building mechanisms that can navigate the profound uncertainties of the controversy phase.

ethics of S&T  /  Asilomar Conference  /  expert warning model  /  consensus mechanism
和鸿鹏, 高旖蔚. 如何化解科技伦理争议?——阿西洛马会议的伦理共识经验. 科学学研究, 2026 , 44 (7) : 1384 -1392 .
Hong-peng HE, Yi-wei GAO. How to resolve ethical controversies in S&T?——Lessons from the ethical consensus of the Asilomar Conference[J]. Studies in Science of Science, 2026 , 44 (7) : 1384 -1392 .
新兴技术的迅猛发展正在重塑人类社会的伦理边界,伦理共识的达成也愈发艰难。我国高度重视科技伦理治理,出台了《关于加强科技伦理治理的意见》(2022年)、《科技伦理审查办法(试行)》(2023年)等顶层制度,以及《新一代人工智能伦理规范》(2021年)等针对特定技术的伦理规范。然而,现行伦理规范和政策主要着眼于“少有争议”的原则性纲领或“专家共识形成后”的规范化操作,如《新一代人工智能伦理规范》提出要“客观认识伦理问题,不低估不夸大伦理风险”[1]。这些应然规范无法解决具体的伦理争议,也就是说,这些政策、规范适用于专家建立共识之后的伦理治理,而无法拓展到伦理争议阶段。在解决风险性新兴科技的伦理争议方面,20世纪70年代针对重组DNA技术召开的“阿西洛马会议”被认为是一次里程碑事件,在科技伦理治理领域具有象征意义。
已有研究指出了阿西洛马会议为科技伦理治理留下重要的思想遗产,如分子生物学家Szybalskiz认为阿西洛马会议成为后来“预防原则”的第一个例子,代表着科学界在平衡科学自身利益和自我约束的一次尝试[2]。科技史研究者Baskin同样认为,阿西洛马会议体现了科学自我监管的成功[3]。国内学者也主要关注阿西洛马会议中专家预警的积极作用[4,5]。但这些研究忽视了阿西洛马会议的整个过程,提供了一种解决科技伦理争议的方式,否则就不能解释这次会议为何能取得成功,因为预警仅仅是开始,不足以解决争议。正如会议的主要组织者、分子生物学家Berg指出的,阿西洛马会议成功的关键是各方迫切想要达成共识[6]。
本文的研究问题是:阿西洛马会议如何促成了伦理共识?阿西洛马会议的经验包括了会前的预警、会中的磋商和会后相关制度的出台等一系列努力,所以本文使用阿西洛马会议非指单一的会议活动。本文将基于行动网络理论视角,厘清从预警到共识的行动者互动过程,提炼伦理共识形成的关键经验,而不是仅将其视为专家预警或预防原则的成功范例,这将为风险性新兴科技的伦理治理提供管窥之见。
关于如何就技术伦理争议达成共识,学界已提出多种解决问题的思路。Beauchamp和Childress提出的四原则框架[7],奠定了伦理学进路中的原则主义模式;美国国会技术评估办公室(OTA)的建立标志着技术评估模式的制度化;丹麦技术委员会[8]开创的共识会议则推动了公众参与模式的发展。这三种有代表性的模式在过去几十年的技术治理实践中得到广泛应用,成为该领域的经典范式。正如OECD所提出的:“技术治理旨在通过原则、行为准则和监管,以及民主参与和技术评估模式,实现共同价值观并保护人权”[9]。
原则主义模式由Beauchamp和Childress在《生命伦理学原则》中系统阐述[7],其核心是通过“四原则框架”(尊重自主、不伤害、有利、公正)凝聚道德共识。该模式采用伦理学理论提出技术发展的指导性原则,通过提炼具有普遍适用性的伦理原则,形成标准化指导框架,在此基础上凝聚共识。其典型形式体现为“原则金字塔”结构:顶端是抽象价值理念,中层为衍生原则,底部则是具体操作规则,这种层级化原则体系通过国际宣言、行业规范等文本形式制度化,成为调和伦理争议的公共话语基准,代表性领域是生命伦理学。生命伦理学中的原则主义模式以“四原则框架”为核心,并通过伦理审查的制度体系,将原则转化为可操作的审查清单,从而构建起关于生命科学研究的行动共识。但面对新兴科技,这一进路的问题是:伦理学能不能比它试图评估的科学更有把握[10]?Engelhardt指出:“在我们生活的这个道德多元化的世界里,生命伦理学基本上无法对实质性的道德问题给出答案,例如关于堕胎、人类胚胎干细胞研究、安乐死等的可允许性”[11]。例如,合成生物学带来的伦理挑战提供了一些经验性证据,证明了当前伦理学方法论的局限性[12]。由此看出,伦理学在解决实际的技术争议中,作用较为有限,伦理争议的解决并不能只依靠伦理学。
技术评估模式兴起于20世纪70年代的美国和欧洲,1972年美国国会通过《技术评估法》,建立了技术评估办公室(OTA)[13],标志着技术评估的制度化。该模式被广泛应用于科学技术风险的评估中,试图用经验性方法将科技风险量化,并以此为依据解决技术的争议性问题。技术评估强烈依赖科学和技术专长,科学家对于风险的判断是主要的政策依据。其中,伦理、法律和社会问题(ELSI)研究是一种被广泛采用的评估研究框架,ELSI研究旨在对技术争议性后果进行评估并提出应对举措。研究者试图预测和管理社会问题,以了解这些影响是什么以及如何解决这些影响,从而最大限度地避免引发伦理争议。但这一方式也面临批评,当社会科学家被要求以一种先发制人的方式提供实际的解决方案来缓解社会争议时,这一行为其实隐含着对技术的支持[14]。ELSI研究在提供实际的政策建议中也存在一些限制,Douglas和Stemerding从他们在完成欧盟第七框架计划(FP7)遇到的挑战出发,认为当前ELSI项目多以批判的角度进入,与创新活动存在割裂[15]。技术评估模式困境的根本原因是关于技术发展及伦理风险的知识匮乏,面对新兴科技的伦理风险,甚至是本领域的科学家也经常是“无知的”,缺乏支撑有效评估的科学证据,限制了技术评估在现实中的应用。有必要考虑一个更透明的伦理审查过程,在这个过程中,研究伦理评估的结果应当反馈给更广泛的相关利益群体。
公众参与模式是指“非专业人士能够参与其中,并对与科学相关的议程设置、决策过程、政策制定和知识生产等施加影响的各种自发的、有组织的情形与活动”[16]。该模式源于20世纪90年代以来科学治理中的“参与式转向”(Participatory Turn)[17]。STS学者系统阐述了公民参与科学决策的必要性,强调科学应服务于公民利益[18]。Cotton指出,面对新兴技术带来的复杂伦理挑战和政治争议,过去20年中出现了从专家主导向参与式治理的转向[19]。20世纪80至90年代,伴随疯牛病、核电、转基因等技术争议的扩大带来的公众信任缺失,西方社会在技术社会化过程中面临日益明显的阻力。科技政策学者开始强调公众意见的必要性,“公众参与”的发展,既是一种研究对象,在许多情况下也是一种研究行动[20]。在政府机构和非政府组织的推动下,围绕技术争议性话题的各种参与活动日益增多,也引发了学术界的广泛关注和积极讨论。但大众媒体难以充分、全面地说明科学争议中涉及的问题[21],公众获取的信息有限,公众参与被认为可能会扭曲争论的方式,从而导致治理混乱。Innes和Booher[22]指出了传统参与式方法的失败,包括不能实现真正参与、信息不对称、交流不完善、无法改善决策等方面,甚至还存在公众相互对立的情况。Stilgoe等人承认,“公众参与似乎是开放科学及其治理的一个必要但不充分的部分”,并承认当下的公众参与实践存在“过度承诺”的缺陷[23]。Irwin也认为,我们必须从正统的科学和技术研究对公众参与和公民科学参与的辩护中走出来[24]。
要言之,上述三种进路在形成伦理共识时,面临两个难题:一是如何应对技术风险的不确定性,即在技术发展早期,无法知晓其社会后果(科林格里奇困境),导致技术评估模式失效。二是伦理学家、技术专家、公众都是参与伦理治理的行动者,但谁是核心行动者?谁来推动、主导共识形成过程?伦理学模式和公众参与模式没有做出正确的选择,导致共识停滞。阿西洛马会议将为解决这两个难题提供一种答案。本文将采用行动者网络理论(Actor-Network Theory,ANT)对阿西洛马会议展开剖析,该理论由Callon和Latour等学者为解释科学行动发展过程而提出[25],ANT打破了“自然-社会”的二元对立,主张将人类与非人要素同等视作“行动者”。根据该理论,达成伦理共识实质上是一场“转译”过程,转译的实现首先要进行问题呈现,核心行动者定义问题,并建立“强制性通道”,使其他行动者意识到必须通过此通道才能实现各自目标;其次是利益赋予,核心行动者通过协调各方利益而对其他行动者的角色界定和功能定位;最后是征募与动员,核心行动者能够代表其群体发声,最终形成稳定的异质网络[26]。本文将阿西洛马会议视为一个由科学家、病原体、法律条文等共同组成的异质行动者网络,分析核心行动者如何通过“转译”过程化解争议并达成共识。
个体科学家是科技前沿的直接参与者,也是最早感知到风险的行动者,在重组DNA研究中,多位科学家率先表达了对该技术的风险担忧。在重组DNA研究早期,SV40病毒和质粒作为关键的非人行动者,其携带的未知风险打破了原有的科学秩序。1972年,美国分子生物学家Berg和他的同事成功创建了首个重组DNA分子,随后出现的三个事件,引发科学界对风险的关注和讨论[27]。最初的担忧来自Berg的SV40病毒研究计划,这种病毒善于将人类细胞转化为恶性细胞[28],Berg计划将其基因植入大肠杆菌,这在微生物学家群体中引发担忧。鉴于大肠杆菌能在人体存活,携带SV40病毒的大肠杆菌很可能会给人类造成危害,遗传学家Pollack敦促Berg停止实验,Berg最终终止了这一计划[3]。第二个事件是1972年美国国家过敏和传染病研究所的科学家Lewis收到了向他索取SV40病毒混合材料样本的请求,正常的科学礼节是科学家应该在发表研究结果后提供样本,但是Lewis认为这种杂交体会产生严重的生物危害。1972年11月,Lewis请教美国国家过敏和传染病研究所(NIAID)主任,询问他应该如何回应索取样本的请求,NIAID的主任和其他一些科学家同意他限制提供样本的做法[29],这引发了如何控制风险的讨论。第三个事件是斯坦福医学院对质粒的研究。1973年斯坦福大学医学院科学家Boyer、Cohen等人利用质粒在大肠杆菌中复制了非洲爪蟾的DNA,首次形成了完整的基因克隆体系。随后他们将含有非洲爪蟾基因的质粒整合到大肠杆菌中,这意味着该方法可以用于任何生物的DNA重组。科学界担忧,一旦涉及人类DNA,可能导致灾难性后果。
当科学家为风险寻求解决方案时,关于风险的知识变得至关重要,但是科学家们发现,他们对重组DNA实验可能产生的风险性质和程度知之甚少,迫切希望从同行那里获得解决问题的办法。于是,个体担忧转变为同行讨论,因为只有通过同行之间的知识共享和交流才可能加深对技术风险的认知,探索应对风险的可能路径,解决技术争议的行动者网络得到拓展。科学家的这种努力体现在两次会议中:第一次是1973年1月的阿西洛马第一次会议,第二次是1973年6月的戈登会议[29]。阿西洛马第一次会议旨在探讨如何解决人们对基因操作技术与日俱增的担忧,近百位来自病毒学、遗传学、生物化学和微生物学等领域的美国科学家参与了讨论。尽管参会科学家未发现任何确凿的证据证明重组DNA技术的风险,但会议还是促成了《生物学研究中的生物危害》[30]报告的发布,这显示了科学共同对待潜在危险时的审慎态度。而在戈登会议上,分子生物学家建议美国国家科学院和医学研究所成立一个委员会,该委员会负责审议重组DNA研究的问题并提出具体的指导方针。这表明科学家自愿、主动承担对实验室人员和公众安全的责任[31]。虽然风险问题引起同行关注,但与会科学家们坚定地认为这项技术在未来一定会发挥实际的用途,并将促进生物学领域的进展。
在阿西洛马第一次会议和戈登会议期间,关于重组DNA技术的争论仅局限于分子生物学界内部。但是在戈登会议结束后,相关问题以公开信形式发表在国际知名期刊,迅速扩大了关注这一问题的群体,也引发了更广泛的争议。根据戈登会议的建议,1974年美国国家科学院成立了一个以Berg为首的研究委员会,负责审查重组DNA带来的潜在危险,半年后Berg在《科学》杂志上公开发表公开信,提出暂停某些实验,由美国国立卫生研究院(NIH)成立咨询委员会对重组DNA危害进行评估,召开一次所有相关科学家的国际会议等建议。美国国家科学院对Berg的公开信表示高度赞同。由于当时没有任何在新兴领域对特定类型的实验实施暂停的先例,即使是致力于建议暂停的专家也不确定其他科学家的反应,所以他们的策略是将担忧传达给更广泛的科学界,以期引起重视。但这也引发了专家之间的分歧,反对这一倡议的科学家主要有两点顾虑:一是担心风险被不必要地传播,对未来的研究造成不利影响;二是担心安全要求的提升,导致研究经费不足以支付额外的隔离设施和安全投入,影响研究产出。
公开信的发表引发媒体、社会公众对重组DNA技术风险的讨论。媒体以“科学家敦促禁止基因研究”等新闻标题报道了重组DNA技术的风险,吸引了社会公众对此问题的关注。
这让身处其中的科学家面临来自内外部的双重压力:在科学界内部,暂停实验的支持者与反对者尚未就技术风险、监管措施达成共识;在科学界外部,公众和政府表达对技术的关切和担忧、媒体对技术风险的大肆渲染等。在这种压力下,多数的实验室自愿暂停了相关实验,但这显然只是权宜之计,只是为形成最终的共识方案争取时间。预警行动的核心功能在于将分散的风险感知转化为集体行动意愿。所以暂停倡议表面上是技术延缓,实则为利益相关者创造了反思性间歇期,通过争议扩大参与边界,将重组DNA技术的伦理问题塑造为“必须优先解决的全球性挑战”,这迫使科学界正视其社会责任,关注这一共同挑战,因为这关乎公众、政府是否还可以信任科学界能否很好地自我管理问题,这为第二次阿西洛马会议的召开提供了必要前提。
1975年2月24日至26日,阿西洛马会议以专家对话的传统方式召开。为了表明会议的中立立场,参会专家不仅包括了美国国内的专家,会议组织者还邀请了来自12个不同国家的60名非美国专家,这样不仅获得了美国本土之外的科学家的洞察力,也尽可能减少外国科学家对美国科学家无限制研究的担忧,增加形成国际共识的可能性[32]。此外,会议组织者还邀请了16名新闻界人士和4名法律界学者参会。
由于科学家在行动者网络中的核心地位,磋商过程更多地体现为一种科学共同体引导下的协商和行动意图转换的过程,但是科学家内部也仍然充满分歧。在风险评估阶段,风险被定义为一个技术问题,技术分类也成为风险分类的依据。虽然早期的技术讨论均未达成共识,但是随着时间推移、更多科学家加入,以技术手段解决问题再次成为阿西洛马会议的首选。当时的技术小组从技术本身出发,根据基因载体的不同类型被分为三个专业小组:动物病毒、质粒-噬菌体和真核生物,这基本上涵盖了当时该技术研究的全部方面。最终他们得出了各自的结论:(1)动物病毒小组建议重组DNA的工作应该按照美国国家癌症研究所用于肿瘤病毒实验室工作的相同实验室指南进行,根据低、中、高三类风险采取不同安全标准[30]。(2)质粒-噬菌体小组将所有rDNA实验分为六类,建议对风险的关注不仅要考虑被操纵的特定基因,还要考虑环境中整体的转基因生物[30]。(3)真核生物小组采用了质粒-噬菌体小组的分类方案进行实验,将大多数重组DNA实验分类为质粒工作组分类中的二至六类,但也提出了一些指导风险评估的原则[29]。
但是各小组报告的内容均受到其他研究方向专家的质疑。动物病毒小组认为大多数病毒实验都属于中度风险类别,但反对者认为在进行任何研究前还需要更多关于风险的数据。当质粒-噬菌体小组提出保护网措施后,其他专家表达了对处理病原微生物经验不足的担忧。在真核生物小组工作报告公开后,科学家意识到现有知识存在严重不足,那些被禁止的实验恰恰是他们最终必须得到答案的实验[29]。有些人不愿意将任何实验定性为危险的,因为他们害怕临时禁令被锁定为永久禁令。有些人则担忧,如果科学家们不能证明他们有能力应对风险,政府将被迫禁止重组DNA研究。也就是说,在现有知识严重不足的情况下,无法在技术层面解决争议,科学共同体难以达成共识[33]。
当会议进行到最后一天的傍晚时,参会人员依旧未能达成任何共识,法律专家将关键的非人行动者——现有法规,带入讨论,这直接改变了核心行动者的态度。法律专家建议依据现有法规,对该技术可能带来的法律后果进行全面评估(而不是停留在技术层面)。他们以假设、演绎等方式,将技术风险可能的法律后果传递给科学家。印第安纳大学法学教授Dworkin指出了重组DNA研究可能涉及的侵权行为、赔偿以及《职业安全和健康法案》等相关内容。他告诉科学家,如果由于防范措施不足,实验结果对他人造成伤害,实验室负责人、实验室及研究机构都要承担法律责任,涉事学校与实验室将被勒令关闭,机构大门会被激进分子包围;NIH会被一系列质问淹没,联邦政府将对此采取严格的措施,而这种谨慎的态度将不仅是针对重组DNA技术,亦针对广义上的生物学研究,在这种背景下制定的管理规范将比科学家的自律标准更加严格[34]。
对此,科学家反应激烈,重新权衡了“未达成共识”与“适度妥协”对研究者和研究活动的可能影响后,回到“科学自治权最大化”的最初目标,开始采取更为谨慎的态度来对待重组DNA实验的讨论,思考潜在风险的评估和安全措施。Berg明确指出,科学家们必须高度重视并拿出解决方案,绝不能告诉公众科学家拿不出建议,这样只能让政府来定夺,这并不是科学家们希望得到的结果[35]。法律专家的介入明确了法律责任的不可逃避性,迫使科学家建立了共识达成的强制性通道,即只有在确保生物安全的前提下,才能维持科学自治。Berg等核心行动者通过将科学进步与风险管控利益转译,成功征募了持不同意见的专家。
法律规范的介入让核心行动者清楚地认识到问题的迫切性,成为推动共识形成的重要动力,而“分类方案”的提出,成为凝聚最大共识的另一个关键的“非人行动者”。正如阿希洛马会议召集人之一Berg后来回忆的那样,“扭转这场辩论的是一项建议,即对各种假定的试验进行风险评价,并按照危险程度采用各种严密的防范标准”[36]。这使得参与者能够将rDNA研究分解为更多和更少危险类型的实验,并根据一系列可能性(包括继续暂停某些实验)而不是完全有或全无的二元性进行思考。最终委员会起草了一份暂停重组DNA实验的会议报告,并得到了几乎所有与会者的同意。报告将实验类型分为四个等级:最低风险、低风险、中风险和高风险;针对不同的实验类型,提出了应遵循的实验分级以及不同的措施。例如,涉及原核生物、噬菌体和细菌质粒的实验,只有在已知能自然交换遗传信息时,才能在极低的安全防范措施下进行;关于动物病毒的实验,通常被认为具有低到中等风险,并且只能在受限的系统中进行。鉴于潜在风险的不确定性,对实验的分级管理建议并不能适用于所有情形。报告只是临时性的指南,代表一种底线的要求,每个研究者都有责任判断在自己的实验中是否需要比建议所说的更高水平的控制力度。在实际操作中,将这些指导原则与专家个体的判断相互补充,意味着共识的执行是灵活的,即使对于潜在高风险实验的禁止要求,随着实验方法的进步和评估证据的完善,也可做出调整。在共识阶段,分歧得到管控,共识得到固化。妥协的结果是形成了一个灵活的、能够维护各方关键利益,但又不突破底线的方案,既禁止、搁置最高风险的研究,又为其他研究提供明确指导或附加研究条件,确保风险保持在可控范围。
阿西洛马会议的共识主要体现了科学家之间的磋商结果,为了巩固会议成果,Berg向NIH提交了建议报告,请求NIH的DNA重组咨询委员会参考报告制定重组DNA研究的准则。在拉图尔看来,“激发了热情的计划很快就被塞进了抽屉,必须有某种东西把兴趣的暂时并置转变成持久的整体”[37]。这就意味着需要对共识进行固化,1976年NIH出台《重组DNA分子研究指南》(以下简称《指南》),要求所有接受其资助的研究项目都必须遵守这一指南。至此,灵活的、倡议性共识转变为有约束力的政策,会议共识得以暂时固化,但之所以说是“暂时”,是因为政策内容是可调整的,此后该政策多次修订,如2019版《指南》指出的“NIH指南永远不会是完整的或最终的,因为所有可能涉及重组或合成核酸分子的实验都无法预见”[38]。NIH作为沟通科学和政府的“边界组织”成为阿西洛马会议后新的核心行动者,它在政策出台过程中,邀请了公共利益团体的代表、科学界各团体的代表以及其他有关方面代表参加讨论,广泛征求制药企业、研究人员、医院、公民团体、公众的意见,确保被固化在政策中的“共识”能够满足相关行动者的目标和利益。当共识得到更广泛的认可,它被固化到新的制度里,成为争议的最终解决方案。最终伦理争议让位于伦理共识,技术前景被再次确认。
技术不确定性导致共识面临两个挑战:一是是否有必要对风险进行治理?技术的潜在风险是否足够严重、迫切,以至于要立即采取行动?二是即使风险治理是必要的,是否有可能在不确定性前提下,对风险进行有效治理?
对于前一个挑战,阿西洛马会议通过构建风险共同体,促成对风险治理必要性的共识。在阿西洛马会议前,通过专家预警,技术风险担忧以连续跃迁的方式扩散,特别是“暂停”公开信的发表,将这一技术问题转化为“技术-社会”问题。其结果是,技术伦理问题被广泛讨论,触发更广争议的形成,成为关涉科学共同体形象和公众对科学信任的重大问题,此时解决争议成为无法回避的选项,这成为推动共识形成的一种内在动力,也意味着在更大范围内进行协商的必要性。
对于后一个挑战,阿西洛马会议提供具有灵活性的方案,促成对风险治理可能性的共识。灵活性体现为分类治理和动态治理。分类治理是根据已知的科学信息,将技术伦理风险划分为不同等级和采取对应措施,避免非此即彼的对立;动态治理是指形成的共识不是一劳永逸的,而是处于动态的变化过程,随着技术发展,进行调整或修订,如那些被暂时禁止的研究,可能随着风险认知的清晰而被解禁。分类治理和动态治理为“暂停”与“发展”的二元对立开辟了一条中间道路,避免走向科技伦理治理的死胡同,成为协调不同立场,达成共识的出路。
公众参与科学在欧洲的失败表明公众过度参与决策进程无法实现治理目标,其深层原因是非专业参与行为稀释了专业性,即Collins指出的“公众过度参与导致了决策的技术性不足”[39]。依此类推,伦理专家、政治家主导的共识进程都会面临类似问题。阿西洛马会议的经验是由专家主导科技伦理共识的磋商,科学家作为核心行动者解决了Collins提出的决策技术性不足问题。但是这种参与模式需要满足以下几个条件。
第一,专家主导的多方参与。传统的科学社会契约要求科学家自我监管,但是伦理问题的风险外溢,使得单一的专家自治不再有效,这意味着需要新“科学的社会契约”的内容。在阿西洛马会议召开之前,科学家之间的交流、研讨并未产生共识,技术专家不得卷入与其他行动者的相互协商和博弈过程。尽管不同行动者的目标不同,如科学家的目标是维持“科学自治权”、公众的目标是“避免公共健康风险”,但是他们必须立足于“避免重组DNA技术潜在危害”的基本要求,即Callon提出的“强制性通道”[26]。由于对重组DNA技术“潜在危害”的解释高度依赖专家知识,科学家在行动者网络中占据了特殊地位。以Berg为代表的关键科学家,通过对其他行动者的意图、目标进行转换,实现利益互嵌,确保这个为达成共识而组成的行动者网络不会因冲突而崩溃,促成可供讨论的共识方案。例如,科学家通过强调该技术对人类健康的积极意义以及主动预警风险的行动,来回应公众对公共健康风险的关注,成为其利益代言人。
第二,具有反思性的专家群体。传统的专家决策具有技术官僚特征,对其反思促成了公众参与科学,但是如何同时避免“技术官僚”和“专业不足”,既吸引多方参与,又维持专家主导?以Berg为代表的科学家在科学不确定性、价值冲突中找到了平衡之道,他们表现出高度的专业性,同时理解问题的社会属性,积极发表公开信,动员其他行动者参与到共识过程中,Collins将这类科学家称为“猫头鹰”科学家[40],即同时具备反思能力和专业知识的专家。阿西洛马会议的经验为解决公众参与、传统咨询委员会的缺陷,提供了新洞见。
第三,制度约束作为必要条件。在磋商过程中,分歧和利益显性化,为了避免磋商停滞、共识难产,关键是如何妥协。阿西洛马会议的经验是必须有制度约束,明确行动者不可突破的底线,如已有法规以强制力的形式保护技术未来可能危害的公共利益。对核心行动者来说,如果无法达成共识,继续开展研究将是一场无法承担后果的冒险,妥协成为最优选择。从这一点来看,保护消极利益(通过免除事故的发生而避免减少利益)似乎比协调积极利益(争取得到的直接利益)更有可能促成共识的形成。不论是共识措施中的法规,还是NIH出台的最终制度,都揭示了非人行动者在伦理共识中发挥着不可替代的作用,相较于人类行动者,这些制度措施有更强的约束力。
  • 北京市社会科学基金项目(24ZXC011)
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  • 接收时间:2025-05-28
  • 首发时间:2026-10-17
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  • 收稿日期:2025-05-28
  • 修回日期:2026-01-14
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    1 北京航空航天大学人文与社会科学高等研究院, 北京 100191
    2 中国科学院大学, 北京 100190
    3 中国科学院科技战略咨询研究院, 北京 100190
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