Article(id=1317436150525055502, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, issueId=1317436114500170416, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=null, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1751904000000, receivedDateStr=2025-07-08, revisedDate=1758470400000, revisedDateStr=2025-09-22, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1792030855065, onlineDateStr=2026-10-15, pubDate=1789401600000, pubDateStr=2026-09-15, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792030855065, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-15, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792030855065, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792030855065, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1317436114500170416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, year='2026', volume='44', issue='9', pageStart='1793', pageEnd='2016', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1789401600000', pubDateStr='2026-09-15', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792030846476, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792031015367, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1317436822926504829, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, issueId=1317436114500170416, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1317436822926504830, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, issueId=1317436114500170416, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=1890, endPage=1898, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1317436150734770703, articleId=1317436150525055502, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, language=EN, title=Intellectual property governance in the diffusion of artificial intelligence technology——An analysis of open innovation practices based on model distillation, columnId=1309226307540574209, journalTitle=Studies in Science of Science, columnName=Theories and Methods, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
Artificial intelligence model distillation, as a key technology driving lightweight deployment of large models, serves as the core pathway for achieving “AI+” industrial integration. However, during its technological diffusion, it faces governance challenges stemming from inadequate intellectual property system adaptability. AI model distillation refers to the process of transferring knowledge from a pre-trained large teacher model to a lightweight student model through strategies such as softening the output distribution. This achieves model compression, enabling cost-effective and efficient deployment on terminal devices like smartphones and intelligent robots. Model distillation can be categorized into three approaches: soft label distillation, feature map distillation, and relational distillation. These correspond respectively to the distribution probability data output by the teacher model, the feature data input to the teacher model, and the inference process data from input to output within the teacher model. These data may potentially hold intellectual property rights. The distribution probability data output by the teacher model, the feature data input to it, and the inference process data from input to output may constitute works. If student model developers improperly replicate these data through model distillation, they may infringe copyright. If the aforementioned data constitute trade secrets, model distillation may infringe trade secrets by constituting improper means or violating confidentiality obligations. Distillation practices violating user agreements carry risks of breach of contract or unfair competition. Regarding these issues, international practice presents two typical models: the open innovation model, exemplified by DeepSeek, aims to achieve effective information utilization and sharing through open-source intellectual property initiatives, thereby reducing subsequent innovation costs. For copyright protection, it advocates automated, permissive open-source copyright licenses with licensed and restricted content; for trade secret protection, it proposes that open-source initiatives waive trade secret protection for much of the teacher model's data. Regarding unfair competition and breach of contract, it advocates for relatively lenient user agreements to completely exempt model distillation from breach of contract and unfair competition risks. The anti-competition model, exemplified by OpenAI, prohibits distillation through closed-source technology and strict agreements. Regarding copyright protection, it restricts other developers from directly appropriating the trainer model's data through closed-source models. It also supplements copyright protection by limiting other developers' use of model outputs for distillation via user agreements when copyright law rules are ambiguous. For trade secret protection, it safeguards the model's data as trade secrets through closed-source models and expands the scope of trade secret rights by restricting reverse engineering by other developers via user agreements. Regarding unfair competition and breach of contract, user agreements restrict model distillation by other developers, strengthening protection of their intangible competitive advantage—first-mover advantage. Open innovation pathways accelerate technological accessibility, foster innovation ecosystems, control industry standards and regulatory discourse, and counter external technological blockades and competitive pressures. Thus, they better align with China's industrial needs and scientific development patterns. China should cultivate an intellectual property-friendly industrial environment to promote open innovation models. It is recommended that, while respecting open-source agreements, China systematically resolve intellectual property conflicts in technology diffusion by clarifying copyright law rules for model distillation and defining the scope of anti-distillation agreements. This will foster a supportive institutional environment for AI technological innovation.
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模型蒸馏作为人工智能技术扩散的核心技术,在实践中面临知识产权制度适配性不足的治理难题。开发者通过模型蒸馏获取教师模型输出可能构成著作权侵权,通过蒸馏手段提取相关数据可能侵犯商业秘密,而违反用户协议的蒸馏行为则存在违约或不正当竞争风险。针对上述问题,国际实践呈现两种典型模式:以DeepSeek为代表的开放创新范式,通过模型开源与宽松协议降低蒸馏侵权风险;以OpenAI为代表的防止竞争范式,则以技术闭源与严格协议禁止蒸馏行为。基于我国科技创新规律与产业升级需求,建议在尊重开源协议前提下,通过明确模型蒸馏的著作权法规则、限定反蒸馏协议的效力边界,系统化解技术扩散中的知识产权冲突,为人工智能技术创新营造友好制度环境。
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Copyright infringement risks in AI model distillation
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 涉及作品类型 | 1.教师模型输出 | 2.教师模型本身的诸多信息 |
| 模型蒸馏方法 | 前向传播步骤 | 软标签蒸馏方法 | 特征图蒸馏方法 | 关系蒸馏方法 |
| 使用/获取的信息 | 模型输出 | 模型输出分布概率数据 | 模型输入(训练数据集) 特征数据 | (输入-输出) 推理过程数据 |
| 著作权侵权要件一 | 模型输出是否构成作品 | 不属于作品 | 可能属于汇编作品 | 不属于作品 |
| 著作权侵权要件二 | 模型蒸馏使用模型输出是否法定作品利用行为? | | 属于法定作品利用行为 | |
| 著作权侵权要件三 | 模型蒸馏使用模型输出是否属于合理使用? | | 是否属于合理使用? | |
), ArticleFig(id=1317436154111185447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1317436150525055502, language=CN, label=表1, caption=
人工智能模型蒸馏的著作权侵权风险
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 涉及作品类型 | 1.教师模型输出 | 2.教师模型本身的诸多信息 |
| 模型蒸馏方法 | 前向传播步骤 | 软标签蒸馏方法 | 特征图蒸馏方法 | 关系蒸馏方法 |
| 使用/获取的信息 | 模型输出 | 模型输出分布概率数据 | 模型输入(训练数据集) 特征数据 | (输入-输出) 推理过程数据 |
| 著作权侵权要件一 | 模型输出是否构成作品 | 不属于作品 | 可能属于汇编作品 | 不属于作品 |
| 著作权侵权要件二 | 模型蒸馏使用模型输出是否法定作品利用行为? | | 属于法定作品利用行为 | |
| 著作权侵权要件三 | 模型蒸馏使用模型输出是否属于合理使用? | | 是否属于合理使用? | |
), ArticleFig(id=1317436154182488616, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1317436150525055502, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=
Risks of trade secret infringement in AI model distillation
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 涉及商业秘密类型 | 1.教师模型输出 | 2.教师模型本身的诸多信息 |
| 模型蒸馏方法 | 前向传播步骤 | 软标签蒸馏方法 | 特征图蒸馏方法 | 关系蒸馏方法 | | |
| 获取的信息 | 模型输出 | 模型输出分布概率 | 模型输入 (训练数据集)特征 | 模型(输入- 输出)推理过程 | 算法 (如有) | 源代码(如有) |
| 侵犯商业秘密要件一 | (公开访问) 不构成商业秘密 | 可能构成商业秘密 | 可能构成商业秘密 | 可能构成商业秘密 | 构成商业秘密 | 构成商业秘密 |
| 侵犯商业秘密要件二 | | 模型蒸馏是否属于不正当行为或违反保密义务? |
), ArticleFig(id=1317436154287346217, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1317436150525055502, language=CN, label=表2, caption=
人工智能模型蒸馏的侵犯商业秘密风险
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 涉及商业秘密类型 | 1.教师模型输出 | 2.教师模型本身的诸多信息 |
| 模型蒸馏方法 | 前向传播步骤 | 软标签蒸馏方法 | 特征图蒸馏方法 | 关系蒸馏方法 | | |
| 获取的信息 | 模型输出 | 模型输出分布概率 | 模型输入 (训练数据集)特征 | 模型(输入- 输出)推理过程 | 算法 (如有) | 源代码(如有) |
| 侵犯商业秘密要件一 | (公开访问) 不构成商业秘密 | 可能构成商业秘密 | 可能构成商业秘密 | 可能构成商业秘密 | 构成商业秘密 | 构成商业秘密 |
| 侵犯商业秘密要件二 | | 模型蒸馏是否属于不正当行为或违反保密义务? |
), ArticleFig(id=1317436154375426602, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1317436150525055502, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=
Risks of unfair competition and breach of contract in AI model distillation
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 风险类型 | 1.不正当竞争风险 | 2.违约风险 |
| 条件一 | 模型蒸馏导致教师 模型竞争利益受损 | “禁止自动抓取输出”用户协议 | “禁止反向工程”用户协议 | “禁止利用模型输出开发竞争品”用户协议 |
| 条件二 | 模型蒸馏违反商业道德 | 前向传播违反协议 | 模型蒸馏违反协议 | 模型蒸馏违反协议 |
| 保护利益 | 竞争利益扩张 | 著作权扩张 | 商业秘密扩张 | 竞争利益扩张 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317436154450924075, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1317436150525055502, language=CN, label=表3, caption=
人工智能模型蒸馏的不正当竞争和违约风险
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 风险类型 | 1.不正当竞争风险 | 2.违约风险 |
| 条件一 | 模型蒸馏导致教师 模型竞争利益受损 | “禁止自动抓取输出”用户协议 | “禁止反向工程”用户协议 | “禁止利用模型输出开发竞争品”用户协议 |
| 条件二 | 模型蒸馏违反商业道德 | 前向传播违反协议 | 模型蒸馏违反协议 | 模型蒸馏违反协议 |
| 保护利益 | 竞争利益扩张 | 著作权扩张 | 商业秘密扩张 | 竞争利益扩张 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317436154530615852, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1317436150525055502, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=
Comparison of open innovation and anti-competition models
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 知识产权保护模式 | 开放创新模式(DeepSeek) | 防止竞争模式(OpenAI) |
| 模型开源与否 | (部分)模型代码、权重开源 | 减轻侵犯著作权风险 | 模型闭源 | 增加著作权侵权风险 |
| 开源内容 | 模型代码、权重和数据集 |
| 开源协议 | MIT许可证/deepseek许可证 |
| 模型是否属于商业秘密 | 开源模型放弃商业秘密 | 减轻侵犯商业秘密风险 | 闭源模型保护商业秘密 | 增加侵犯商业秘密风险 |
| 用户协议限制蒸馏与否 | 允许模型蒸馏 | 减轻不正当竞争 和违约风险 | 禁止爬取模型输入和输出 | 增加不正当竞争和 违约风险 |
| 禁止反向工程 |
| 禁止利用模型输出进行蒸馏 |
| 输入/输出的知识产权归属 | 归属用户 | 减轻著作权侵权风险 | 归属用户 | 减轻著作权侵权风险 |
| 蒸馏其模型的知识产权风险 | 较小 | 较大 |
), ArticleFig(id=1317436154597724717, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1308397381743640680, articleId=1317436150525055502, language=CN, label=表4, caption=
开放创新与防止竞争模式比较
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 知识产权保护模式 | 开放创新模式(DeepSeek) | 防止竞争模式(OpenAI) |
| 模型开源与否 | (部分)模型代码、权重开源 | 减轻侵犯著作权风险 | 模型闭源 | 增加著作权侵权风险 |
| 开源内容 | 模型代码、权重和数据集 |
| 开源协议 | MIT许可证/deepseek许可证 |
| 模型是否属于商业秘密 | 开源模型放弃商业秘密 | 减轻侵犯商业秘密风险 | 闭源模型保护商业秘密 | 增加侵犯商业秘密风险 |
| 用户协议限制蒸馏与否 | 允许模型蒸馏 | 减轻不正当竞争 和违约风险 | 禁止爬取模型输入和输出 | 增加不正当竞争和 违约风险 |
| 禁止反向工程 |
| 禁止利用模型输出进行蒸馏 |
| 输入/输出的知识产权归属 | 归属用户 | 减轻著作权侵权风险 | 归属用户 | 减轻著作权侵权风险 |
| 蒸馏其模型的知识产权风险 | 较小 | 较大 |
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