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This review systematically summarizes recent advances in filmwise and dropwise condensation under microgravity, elucidating two-phase heat transfer mechanisms and gravitational influence patterns. For condensing heat transfer in tubes, gravity-independent criterion numbers (Bond number, Froude number, etc.) are used to determine whether gravity affects heat transfer, and the effect of gravity can be attenuated by increasing the mass flow rate of the vapor and reducing the tube diameter. In microgravity environments, dropwise condensation can be achieved through vapor flow acceleration combined with functional surfaces and air-blowing techniques for condensate removal. Current experimental studies on microgravity condensation remain limited due to challenges in obtaining sustained microgravity conditions. The paper emphasizes the necessity of conducting long-term condensation experiments utilizing orbital platforms like the China Space Station and International Space Station to address data reproducibility issues, investigate gravity-dependent mechanisms, and provide theoretical foundations for space two-phase thermal management systems.

, authors=Shuai GUO, Yechao QIN, Xin WANG, Bo XU, Zhenqian CHEN, authorsList=Shuai GUO, Yechao QIN, Xin WANG, Bo XU, Zhenqian CHEN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=null, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1281687976438645155, articleId=1281687972533748102, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, language=CN, title=微重力下冷凝及传热研究进展, columnId=1281687940136940017, journalTitle=空间科学学报, columnName=研究论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

综述微重力下膜/滴状冷凝的研究进展, 揭示两相流传热机理及重力影响规律. 对于管内冷凝, 可采用重力无关准则数(Bond数与Froude数等)判断重力是否影响传热, 通过增加蒸汽质量流速和减小管径减弱重力影响, 分析微重力冷凝下传热关联式以指导工程设计. 对于滴状冷凝, 在微重力环境下可通过提高蒸汽流速、使用功能性表面结合气流吹扫去除冷凝液滴, 实现持续滴状冷凝. 当前微重力冷凝实验研究的发展因缺少长期连续微重力环境而受到限制, 需借助中国空间站和国际空间站开展长时间冷凝传热实验, 以弥补可重复实验数据的不足, 探索重力作用机制, 为空间两相换热系统提供理论支撑.

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郭帅 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院博士研究生, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下液滴动力学及冷凝传热研究. E-mail:

陈振乾 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院教授, 博士生导师, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下流体传热及强化技术、系统热控技术. E-mail:

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Microgravity Science and Technology, 2009, 21(1): 15-22, articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1281687984714007064, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=55, rfOrder=60, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=LIANG R Q, CHEN Z. Dynamics for droplets in normal gravity and microgravity[J]. 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Langmuir, 2023, 39(1): 64-74, articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1281687976723857828, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1281687976732246437, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, companyId=1281687976723857828, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1281687976740635046, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, companyId=1281687976723857828, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=东南大学能源与环境学院 南京 211189)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1281687978552574410, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=Flow pattern distribution of two-phase condensation flow in horizontal pipe, figureFileSmall=brFazg8LBV8PPMN+TUbw6A==, figureFileBig=NDp+QW4WuxWm3KEIMv6t1A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687978615488971, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=图1, caption=水平管道内冷凝两相流流型分布[8], figureFileSmall=brFazg8LBV8PPMN+TUbw6A==, figureFileBig=NDp+QW4WuxWm3KEIMv6t1A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687978791649740, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Change of flow pattern in pipe under different gravity conditions, figureFileSmall=apEzf5kYz3Gw2sqkvjSHWA==, figureFileBig=G27z9L1fmD/HdUOcBqHn/g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687978858758605, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=图2, caption=不同重力条件下管内流型变化[9], figureFileSmall=apEzf5kYz3Gw2sqkvjSHWA==, figureFileBig=G27z9L1fmD/HdUOcBqHn/g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687978913284558, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=Flow pattern visualizations under different gravity levels, figureFileSmall=NlI4C+P4AbCDa/Tn0P7YdQ==, figureFileBig=/MAqH9XB6nT8JtGnxDV1IQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687978984587727, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=图3, caption=不同重力水平下的可视化流型[12], figureFileSmall=NlI4C+P4AbCDa/Tn0P7YdQ==, figureFileBig=/MAqH9XB6nT8JtGnxDV1IQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687979047502288, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=Liquid-vapor interfaces inside round tubes under different gravitational accelerations, figureFileSmall=v5jjUvGVwJthTqS+sT4teQ==, figureFileBig=bfY6+CsqW/TREIOAM+1KJw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687979122999761, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=图4, caption=不同重力情况下圆管内的气液界面[14], figureFileSmall=v5jjUvGVwJthTqS+sT4teQ==, figureFileBig=bfY6+CsqW/TREIOAM+1KJw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687979194302930, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=Partition diagram of dominant forces in gas-liquid two-phase flow, figureFileSmall=eOavhGsfRi+PCk8QvWlURw==, figureFileBig=GR1V231B6waEUp9paP53qw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687979257217491, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=图5, caption=气液两相流动中的主导作用力分区[20], figureFileSmall=eOavhGsfRi+PCk8QvWlURw==, figureFileBig=GR1V231B6waEUp9paP53qw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687979315937748, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Fig.6, caption=ENCOM-2 Project fin film condensation experiment setup, figureFileSmall=WMkjH+9UemDCupATKozAOA==, figureFileBig=1c4VYM8MMMct0558356pOw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687979404018133, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=图6, caption=ENCOM-2项目翅片膜状冷凝实验装置[33], figureFileSmall=WMkjH+9UemDCupATKozAOA==, figureFileBig=1c4VYM8MMMct0558356pOw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1281687979458544086, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Main contents and conclusions of the simulation of condensation in tubes under microgravity condition

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
研究类型研究对象研究工质及条件主要结论文献
VOF模拟内径1 mm圆形微通道工质: R134 a
G = 100, 800 kg·m–2·s–1
 低质量流速时, 产生偏心环流, 管道上部传热效果远优于底部; 高质量流速时, 重力的影响可忽略不计[13]
VOF模拟内径3.78 mm水平光滑圆管工质: R410 A
G = 307~720 kg·m–2·s–1
g = 0~9.81 m·s–2
 低流速时重力显著提高传热系数, 高流速时重力影响减弱; 零重力下质量传递率显著降低, 液膜分布更均匀[14]
VOF模拟内径0.25~4 mm水平
光滑圆管
工质: R410 A
G = 400~1000 kg·m–2·s–1
 传热系数和压降随质量流速增加、管径减小而增大; 小通道底部液膜堆积, 微通道中均匀分布, 重力效应可忽略[15]
三维瞬态VOF模型内径1~2 mm水平圆管工质: Neon
G = 20~187 kg·m–2·s–1
饱和温度: 34.5~37.5 K
壁温: 29~32 K
 重力对低温工质冷凝影响显著, 零重力下界面波动增强传热; 小直径管抑制重力分层效应, 液膜分布更均匀; 质量流速增加可削弱重力影响[17,18]
), ArticleFig(id=1281687979534041559, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

微重力条件下管内冷凝模拟的主要内容及结论

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
研究类型研究对象研究工质及条件主要结论文献
VOF模拟内径1 mm圆形微通道工质: R134 a
G = 100, 800 kg·m–2·s–1
 低质量流速时, 产生偏心环流, 管道上部传热效果远优于底部; 高质量流速时, 重力的影响可忽略不计[13]
VOF模拟内径3.78 mm水平光滑圆管工质: R410 A
G = 307~720 kg·m–2·s–1
g = 0~9.81 m·s–2
 低流速时重力显著提高传热系数, 高流速时重力影响减弱; 零重力下质量传递率显著降低, 液膜分布更均匀[14]
VOF模拟内径0.25~4 mm水平
光滑圆管
工质: R410 A
G = 400~1000 kg·m–2·s–1
 传热系数和压降随质量流速增加、管径减小而增大; 小通道底部液膜堆积, 微通道中均匀分布, 重力效应可忽略[15]
三维瞬态VOF模型内径1~2 mm水平圆管工质: Neon
G = 20~187 kg·m–2·s–1
饱和温度: 34.5~37.5 K
壁温: 29~32 K
 重力对低温工质冷凝影响显著, 零重力下界面波动增强传热; 小直径管抑制重力分层效应, 液膜分布更均匀; 质量流速增加可削弱重力影响[17,18]
), ArticleFig(id=1281687979605344728, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Condensation heat transfer correlations for annular flow

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
关联式适用工质及管道尺寸文献
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}{D}_{{\mathrm{h}}}}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0274{{Pr}}_{{\mathrm{f}}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.6792}{x}^{0.2208}\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}} $R134 a多通道Dh = 1.46 mm[26]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}{D}_{{\mathrm{h}}}}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0152\;(1+0.6{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.8})\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.77} $R134 a多通道Dh = 0.80, 1.11 mm[27]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}D}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0152\;(-0.33+0.83{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.8})\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.77} $R410 A, R410 A/油D = 1.6, 4.18 mm[28]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}D}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=25.084\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.258}{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{-0.495}P_{{\mathrm{R}}}^{-0.288}{\left(\dfrac{x}{1-x}\right)}^{0.266} $R134 a, R404 AD = 0.31~3.30 mm[29]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}D}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0055{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{1.37}\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.7} $R134 a, R236 fa, R1234 ze(E)多通道Dh = 1.45 mm[30]
), ArticleFig(id=1281687979680842201, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

环状流冷凝传热关联式

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
关联式适用工质及管道尺寸文献
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}{D}_{{\mathrm{h}}}}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0274{{Pr}}_{{\mathrm{f}}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.6792}{x}^{0.2208}\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}} $R134 a多通道Dh = 1.46 mm[26]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}{D}_{{\mathrm{h}}}}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0152\;(1+0.6{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.8})\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.77} $R134 a多通道Dh = 0.80, 1.11 mm[27]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}D}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0152\;(-0.33+0.83{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.8})\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.77} $R410 A, R410 A/油D = 1.6, 4.18 mm[28]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}D}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=25.084\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.258}{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{-0.495}P_{{\mathrm{R}}}^{-0.288}{\left(\dfrac{x}{1-x}\right)}^{0.266} $R134 a, R404 AD = 0.31~3.30 mm[29]
$ \dfrac{{h}_{{\mathrm{tp}}}D}{{k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}}=0.0055{Pr}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{1.37}\dfrac{{\phi }_{{\mathrm{g}}}}{{X}_{tt}}\text{Re}_{{\mathrm{f}}}^{0.7} $R134 a, R236 fa, R1234 ze(E)多通道Dh = 1.45 mm[30]
), ArticleFig(id=1281687979739562458, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=

Comparison of enhanced condensation heat transfer techniques under microgravity

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
方法类型代表技术传热强化效果重力敏感性工程复杂度适用场合
表面润湿改性超疏水/超亲水涂层小型航天器热控表面
多孔结构强化金属泡沫/烧结毛细芯空间站两相流体回路
微纳沟槽结构V型槽/螺旋沟槽较高高热流密度冷凝器
电场强化脉冲电场辅助冷凝精密电子设备冷却
离心力辅助旋转冷凝器航天器可旋转部件热控
振动/超声波扰动压电致动器高频振动较低小型设备局部强化
), ArticleFig(id=1281687979806671323, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1281212996840067084, articleId=1281687972533748102, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

微重力下强化冷凝传热技术对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
方法类型代表技术传热强化效果重力敏感性工程复杂度适用场合
表面润湿改性超疏水/超亲水涂层小型航天器热控表面
多孔结构强化金属泡沫/烧结毛细芯空间站两相流体回路
微纳沟槽结构V型槽/螺旋沟槽较高高热流密度冷凝器
电场强化脉冲电场辅助冷凝精密电子设备冷却
离心力辅助旋转冷凝器航天器可旋转部件热控
振动/超声波扰动压电致动器高频振动较低小型设备局部强化
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微重力下冷凝及传热研究进展
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郭帅 , 秦业超 , 王鑫 , 许波 , 陈振乾
空间科学学报 | 研究论文 2026,46(2): 348-361
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空间科学学报 |研究论文 2026 , 46 (2) : 348 -361
微重力下冷凝及传热研究进展
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郭帅 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院博士研究生, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下液滴动力学及冷凝传热研究. E-mail:

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郭帅 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院博士研究生, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下液滴动力学及冷凝传热研究. E-mail:

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陈振乾 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院教授, 博士生导师, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下流体传热及强化技术、系统热控技术. E-mail:

"}, bioImg=xRmxA2bu1yDa1cCvisQwQA==, bioContent=

陈振乾 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院教授, 博士生导师, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下流体传热及强化技术、系统热控技术. E-mail:

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郭帅 , 秦业超, 王鑫, 许波, 陈振乾
作者信息
  • 东南大学能源与环境学院 南京 211189
作者简介:

郭帅 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院博士研究生, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下液滴动力学及冷凝传热研究. E-mail:

陈振乾 男, 现为东南大学能源与环境学院教授, 博士生导师, 主要研究方向为常/微重力环境下流体传热及强化技术、系统热控技术. E-mail:

Review of Progress in Condensation and Heat Transfer Research in Microgravity
Shuai GUO , Yechao QIN, Xin WANG, Bo XU, Zhenqian CHEN
Affiliations
  • School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189
出版时间: 2026-03-15 doi: 10.11728/cjss2026.02.2025-0028
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综述微重力下膜/滴状冷凝的研究进展, 揭示两相流传热机理及重力影响规律. 对于管内冷凝, 可采用重力无关准则数(Bond数与Froude数等)判断重力是否影响传热, 通过增加蒸汽质量流速和减小管径减弱重力影响, 分析微重力冷凝下传热关联式以指导工程设计. 对于滴状冷凝, 在微重力环境下可通过提高蒸汽流速、使用功能性表面结合气流吹扫去除冷凝液滴, 实现持续滴状冷凝. 当前微重力冷凝实验研究的发展因缺少长期连续微重力环境而受到限制, 需借助中国空间站和国际空间站开展长时间冷凝传热实验, 以弥补可重复实验数据的不足, 探索重力作用机制, 为空间两相换热系统提供理论支撑.

微重力  /  空间站  /  膜状冷凝  /  滴状冷凝  /  强化冷凝

This review systematically summarizes recent advances in filmwise and dropwise condensation under microgravity, elucidating two-phase heat transfer mechanisms and gravitational influence patterns. For condensing heat transfer in tubes, gravity-independent criterion numbers (Bond number, Froude number, etc.) are used to determine whether gravity affects heat transfer, and the effect of gravity can be attenuated by increasing the mass flow rate of the vapor and reducing the tube diameter. In microgravity environments, dropwise condensation can be achieved through vapor flow acceleration combined with functional surfaces and air-blowing techniques for condensate removal. Current experimental studies on microgravity condensation remain limited due to challenges in obtaining sustained microgravity conditions. The paper emphasizes the necessity of conducting long-term condensation experiments utilizing orbital platforms like the China Space Station and International Space Station to address data reproducibility issues, investigate gravity-dependent mechanisms, and provide theoretical foundations for space two-phase thermal management systems.

Microgravity  /  Space station  /  Film condensation  /  Droplet condensation  /  Enhanced condensation
郭帅, 秦业超, 王鑫, 许波, 陈振乾. 微重力下冷凝及传热研究进展. 空间科学学报, 2026 , 46 (2) : 348 -361 . DOI: 10.11728/cjss2026.02.2025-0028
Shuai GUO, Yechao QIN, Xin WANG, Bo XU, Zhenqian CHEN. Review of Progress in Condensation and Heat Transfer Research in Microgravity[J]. Chinese Journal of Space Science, 2026 , 46 (2) : 348 -361 . DOI: 10.11728/cjss2026.02.2025-0028
近年来, 随着航空航天技术的飞速发展和空间站的建造步入正轨, 如何实现高效可靠且轻量化的热控系统一直是当前载人航天和空间站技术发展亟待解决的科学难题[1]. 为提升热控系统的换热性能以及电子器件的散热极限, 开发具有更优等温性的气液两相相变换热系统, 实现小回路低质量流速下的高效能量输运, 对于航天器热管理、空间流体管理以及生命保障系统研制等具有重要作用.
受重力变化的影响, 空间环境下的传热问题与地面传热过程不同. 在流动冷凝和沸腾相变过程中, 重力加速度的大小和方向强烈影响着不同密度下液相和气相的空间分布[2]. 随着重力缺失, 惯性、黏性与界面张力之间的平衡被打破, 相间相互作用机制发生变化[3]. 关于空间两相流动与传热研究, Hu等[4]提出了关于微重力环境下的研究技术路线. 微重力实验研究的开展受限, 其主要借助抛物线飞行、落塔、探空火箭、中国空间站、国际空间站等实验平台. 在诸多微重力实验平台中, 抛物线飞行实验应用最为广泛, 其可安装大型实验架并进行人工操作, 尽管不能完全模拟失重环境, 但是数据重复性好. 在绝热条件下, 已有多项实验和理论研究探讨了不同重力条件对两相流特征的影响.
对于微重力环境的管内流动冷凝, 其流动行为及传热现象需要不同的特征时间, 但是长期的微重力实验环境难以实现. 由于空间站对实验装置的各种限制(装置尺寸、质量、功率等), 空间冷凝实验较少, 大多只能进行微重力池沸腾研究. 除此之外, 关于管外表面冷凝, 研究多集中于常重力环境下的强化冷凝传热. He等[5]实验研究了三种不同增强形状的双面水平管外壁面的冷凝换热特性, 其增强几何形状分别为细鳍阵列、矩形凸平台阵列和T形柱阵列, 可以达到强化传热的效果, 而关于微重力环境下的管外表面冷凝研究较少.
表面冷凝传热主要分为膜状冷凝和滴状冷凝两种形式. 关于膜状冷凝的研究, 由于微重力环境难以实现, 现主要通过抛物线飞行和落塔实验进行, 即使有关研究是在卫星上进行实验的, 但其实验时间很短, 只有有限的信息可用于表征流体流动行为和微重力环境中的冷凝传热. 与膜状冷凝相比, 滴状冷凝具有更高的传热性能, 整体传热系数可提高至少3倍[6]. 空间冷凝过程较难实现滴状冷凝的原因是工作介质表面张力过低, 而且微重力环境下重力缺失引起的冷凝液滞留限制了滴状冷凝的持续高效运行. 因此, 需要利用微重力空间系统中滴状冷凝的优点, 开发其他实验方法来去除液滴.
本文基于微重力条件下现有的实验和数值研究, 涵盖管内冷凝、增强表面冷凝和微重力滴状冷凝, 分析微重力条件下冷凝换热研究面临的问题与未来发展方向.
蒸汽管内流动冷凝过程中, 初期冷凝液量较少或管内壁为超疏水表面时, 蒸汽在管内部发生滴状冷凝, 随着冷凝量的逐渐增加, 冷凝模式也从滴状冷凝变为膜状冷凝, 生成环状液膜附着在管内壁, 使得传热恶化. 为研究重力对界面行为和流动冷凝传热的影响, 在地面实验中通过改变管道倾角进行了大量实验和理论研究[6,7]. 关于水平管内冷凝两相流的流型, Palen等[8]进行了分析, 在不同质量流率下, 其流型演变有所不同 (见图1), 除了质量流率影响流型演变之外, 管径大小也会对其产生影响. 在地面实验中, 当出现波状流和层状流时, 受重力作用影响, 冷凝液向下汇集, 使得管道顶部形成一层薄薄的冷凝液膜, 相比之下, 顶部有利于换热. 当出现塞状流与弹状流时, 液相会零星或完全覆盖通道内周, 增加局部热阻, 导致冷凝传热恶化. 在这种情况下, 可以通过增加质量流速使得液膜减薄, 进而提高冷凝传热系数.
Mangini等[9]在抛物线飞行实验期间, 研究了一种新型热管在不同重力条件下的性能. 热管内径3 mm, 材料为铝, 填充工质为FC-72, 并在蒸发器处弯曲成5个U型; 设置可视化窗口, 用于观察流动情况. 图2给出了可视化结果, 发现在没有重力的情况下, 两相流动不会发生分层, 其演变为块状流和塞状流, 这对界面结构特征、液膜厚度以及冷凝传热都有直接影响.
Lee等[10]利用抛物线飞行实验研究了FC-72在微重力条件下的环状冷凝. 该实验测量了FC-72在内径为7.94 mm圆管内的局部传热系数, 并观察了流型分布. 分别研究了在微重力、月球重力和火星重力环境下, 质量流速为129~341 kg·m–2·s–1, 饱和温度为60~63.4℃的情况. 研究发现在微重力条件下, 冷凝液膜的流动行为及冷凝换热对FC-72的质量流速非常敏感. 当质量流速较低时, 管的一侧厚度加厚, 出现偏心环流, 蒸汽入口处冷凝传热系数最大, 沿蒸汽流动方向减小; 当质量流速增大后, 管内环状液膜减薄. 空间环境重力缺失, 蒸汽质量流速的增大, 可减弱重力的影响.
此后, Berto等[11]利用抛物线飞行实验研究了重力对圆管内流动冷凝的影响. 实验选用工质为HFE-7000, 通道内径3.4 mm, 质量流速70~170 kg·m–2·s–1, 并选用可视化装置. 在微重力条件下观察到环形流动, 而在常重力和超重力条件下则出现了分层流动. 在微重力条件下, 饱和温度与壁面温差增大, 传热系数减小. 值得注意的是, 微重力条件下测量的传热系数与常力条件下的差值在高质量流速(170 kg·m–2·s–1)下可以忽略不计, 而在小质量流速(70 kg·m–2·s–1)下可以达到20%, 证实了Lee等[10]的实验结论.
在第70次欧空局抛物线飞行实验期间, Berto等[12]进行了HFE-7000在变重力环境下圆管(内径3.38 mm)内的冷凝实验, 实验中测量了液膜厚度变化、局部传热系数, 并观察了流型变化. 与Azzolin等[1]的研究发现一样, 相对于常重力环境, 微重力条件对传热是不利的. 在质量流速分别为30和50 kg·m–2·s–1时, 常重力条件下的传热系数比微重力条件下分别提高52%~77%和33%~56%. 这是因为在重力作用下, 通道顶部的冷凝液会向管道底部汇集, 出现偏心环流, 顶部液膜厚度薄, 底部液膜厚度厚, 所以顶部传热热阻较小, 底部较大. 冷凝传热主要发生在圆管顶部的薄膜区域, 而底部对整体传热的贡献微乎其微. 然而从可视化流型图3中可以看出, 在微重力条件下, 不会出现偏心环流, 而是出现液膜厚度均匀的环流, 导致横截面平均传热系数减小. 但是通过增大工质质量流速, 可以减弱微重力对冷凝换热的恶化影响. 随着质量流速的增大, 作用在液膜上的剪应力使得液膜厚度减薄, 减小传热热阻, 进而促进冷凝传热.
微重力冷凝实验研究大多利用抛物线飞行实验开展, 存在冷凝时间较短的缺陷. 但是实验均认同质量流速是调控液膜分布与传热的关键因素. HFE-7000在低质量流速下对重力更敏感, 而FC-72的偏心环流现象在较大管径中更显著. 在微重力环境下, 可以通过增大蒸汽质量流速以增大剪切应力来克服冷凝传热的不利影响. 此外, 在微重力环境中, 冷凝液可以通过多孔介质吸附力、离心力、电磁力和毛细管力等方式进行有效去除. 虽然这些力是去除冷凝水和增加冷凝传热的可行方案, 但是目前已有的实验和数值研究有限, 需要开展进一步研究.
流体体积法(VOF)已被广泛应用于管内冷凝模拟研究, 用于追踪冷凝过程中的气液界面. Riva等[13]采用VOF方法对R134 a在内径1 mm圆形微通道内两种不同质量流速的冷凝过程进行稳态模拟, 分别为常重力情况通道水平放置、垂直放置(蒸汽向下流动冷凝)和无重力情况. 根据质量流速的不同采用两种不同计算方法: 第一种方法适用于低质量流速 (G = 100 kg·m–2·s–1), 假设液相内为层流, 气相内为湍流; 第二种方法适用于高质量流速 (G = 800 kg·m–2·s–1), 采用低雷诺数SST k-ω模型考虑液膜中的湍流. 研究发现, 质量流速为100 kg·m–2·s–1时, 冷凝过程由重力主导, 管内上部冷凝液在重力作用下排至底部, 产生偏心环流, 导致管道上部传热效果远优于底部. 此外, 与垂直放置相比, 水平放置的传热系数要高得多. 质量流速为800 kg·m–2·s–1时, 重力的影响可以忽略不计, 因为冷凝膜几乎均匀地分布在管内圆周上.
此后, Li等[14]模拟研究了常重力/微重力条件下, 工质R410 A在内径3.78 mm水平圆管内的冷凝换热特性. 图4给出了不同重力条件下的气液界面, 可以看出重力效应导致顶部液膜较薄, 底部液膜较厚. 除无重力(0g)情况之外, 管内顶部的液膜厚度随质量流速的增加而增加, 底部的液膜厚度则随重力的减小而减小. 如图4(b)(d)所示, 当忽略重力作用时, 界面为完全轴对称的环形流动. 在较高的质量流速下, 剪切力更明显, 并且在所有情况下气液界面几乎是对称的.
Zhang等[15]对R410 A在内径0.25~4 mm水平圆管内冷凝过程的传热和压降特性进行了数值研究. 研究发现重力对换热系数的影响仅在较低质量流速和较大管径时才明显, 此时会出现分层流态或从环状流向分层流的转变. 忽略重力效应时, 无论管道直径和质量流速如何变化, 都可以获得环状流. 这种情况下, 通道上部液膜越薄, 重力效应越有利于提高换热系数. 除圆管内冷凝模拟研究之外, Li等[16]采用VOF方法和SST k-ε模型模拟研究了重力、表面张力对R134 a在水平方形微小通道内冷凝传热的影响. 结果显示冷凝首先在通道的角落出现, 然后在表面张力的作用下, 凝结被拉伸, 直至覆盖整个通道边界. 重力对液膜分布及传热的影响取决于通道长度. 在短通道中, 重力的影响不明显, 通道内液膜分布相通, 近似为圆形. 相反在长通道中, 液体在重力作用下向底部收敛, 底部液膜厚度明显高于顶部, 使得传热恶化. 当无重力时, 管内液膜分布均匀.
He等[17,18]模拟研究了蒸汽质量流速、圆管尺寸及重力效应对水平管内氖冷凝过程传热性能及截面气液分布的影响. 发现管内冷凝液膜分布决定了重力对换热性能的影响. 当质量流速G = 20 kg·m–2·s–1且干度在0.19~0.98范围内时, 冷凝换热系数与重力无关; 当质量流速G = 40 kg·m–2·s–1时, 随着干度变化, 冷凝换热呈现出重力无关 (x > 0.96)、强化换热 (x = 0.16~0.96) 和恶化换热 (x < 0.16) 三种状态. 此外, Wen等[19]使用相同方法模拟研究了工质R1234 ze(E)管内凝结过程, 该模拟中圆管内径为0.493~4.57 mm, 研究发现表面张力通过增强液膜与壁面之间的热对流来提高传热性能, 这种作用仅在微通道中表现明显. 与表面张力的影响相反, 在直径小于1 mm的微通道中, 重力效应可以忽略不计, 而在大通道中, 重力效应对换热系数有重要影响. 重力对液膜分布和速度场都有影响, 可以强化传热也可使得传热恶化.
值得注意的是, VOF方法在微重力冷凝模拟中能够通过界面重构与湍流模型耦合, 模拟常重力/微重力下冷凝流型的复杂演变, 包括塞状流、弹状流等非稳态流型. 模拟结果与实验结果高度一致, 证实了其在揭示重力–表面张力–剪切力耦合机制中的有效性. 表1汇总了微重力条件下管内冷凝模拟的主要内容及结论, 模拟研究的核心结论与实验结果高度一致. 质量流速和管径是影响重力效应的关键参数. 此外, 模拟研究进一步揭示了界面动力学细节 (例如液膜厚度分布、剪切力与表面张力的竞争), 弥补了实验可视化的局限性. 不同模拟之间的差异主要体现在工质热力学特性(例如R134 a与氖气的相变行为)、通道几何形状 (圆管、方形管等)及湍流模型适用性 (低质量流速层流假设与高质量流速湍流修正). 未来需结合实验数据优化多尺度模型, 重点关注微重力–表面张力–湍流的耦合机制, 以及非圆截面通道的工程应用场景. 需要注意的是, 模拟研究是指导实践的辅助手段, 仍需利用现有的微重力实验平台(落塔、抛物线飞行、空间站等)进行广泛充分的实验研究, 扩大关于管内冷凝的实验数据库, 验证数值模拟研究的准确性和可靠性.
上述研究均发现通过减小管径和增加质量流速可以减弱重力对冷凝传热的影响. 从根本上讲, 在流动和换热过程中, 惯性力、表面张力和重力相互作用的结果决定了重力对换热过程的促进或抑制作用. 气液两相流动重力无关性准则常用Bond数 (Bo)和Froude数 (Fr)准则, 其中Bond数表征重力与表面张力的相对大小, Froude数表征惯性力与重力的相对大小. 当流量较小时, 惯性力较小, 使用Bond数判断是否重力相关; 反之流量较大时, 表面张力可忽略, 通过Froude数判断是否重力相关. 基于此, Du等[20]绘制了气液两相流动中的主导作用力分区, 如图5所示, 分为重力 (GDR)、表面张力 (SDR)和惯性力 (IDR) 三个区域. 表面张力和惯性力主导区构成了重力无关区.
Zhao等[21]研究了变重力条件下管内流动的冷凝过程, 结合冷凝过程中气液两相流动可视化流型及稳定结果, 通过分析实验数据, 提出不同条件下重力无关准则如下:
$ Bo=\frac{\left({\rho }_{\text{L}}-{\rho }_{\text{G}}\right)g{D}^{2}}{\sigma }\leqslant B{o}_{\text{cr}},\;\;B{o}_{\text{cr}}=1.5\sim 6 , $
$ Fr=\frac{{U}_{\text{SG}}}{\sqrt{\left({\rho }_{\text{L}}-{\rho }_{\text{G}}\right)gD/{\rho }_{\text{G}}}}\geqslant F{r}_{\text{cr}},\;\;F{r}_{\text{cr}}=0.54\sim 2.2 . $
式中, ρGρL分别为气液相密度, g为重力加速度, D为管内径, σ为表面张力, USG为蒸汽流速, 下角标cr表示临界.
从上述准则可以看出, 选取适当的管径和蒸汽流速, 可以减弱重力对冷凝传热的影响. Zhao等[21]提出的重力无关准则已成功应用于2019年底发射的实践二十号卫星(SJ-20)低温环路热管设计.
Nema[22]考虑气相重力影响, 提出一个简便公式用于计算临界Bond数, 有
$ B{o}_{\text{cr}}={\left(\frac{{\rho }_{\text{L}}}{{\rho }_{\text{L}}-{\rho }_{\text{G}}}-\frac{\pi }{4}\right)}^{-1} . $
Baba等[23]基于混合流速与混合密度, 定义了新的Froude数, 即
$ Fr=\frac{G}{\sqrt{{\rho }_{\text{m}}\left({\rho }_{\text{L}}-{\rho }_{\text{G}}\right)gD}} , $
$ {\rho }_{\text{m}}=\frac{1}{x/{\rho }_{\text{G}}+(1-x)/{\rho }_{\text{L}}} . $
式中, G为质量流速, ρm为平均密度, x为干度.
计算得到不同的临界参数, 临界Bond数Bocr = 0.31, 临界Froude数Frcr = 4. Du等[24]整合了微重力环境下多相热流体过程中关于重力无关性的研究成果, 发现Bocr大致在1~10内, 最大值约为40, 最小值约为0.1.
除常用Bond数和Froude数准则外, Brendel等[25]整理并比较了两相热流体系统中的13种重力无关准则, 这些准则可以根据临界热流密度(CHF)、两相流型、传热系数等进行分类. 需要注意的是, 大多数准则没有经过独立实验反复检验, 因此其普遍性尚不清楚. 上述准则只涵盖在运行期间的重力独立性, 均未讨论启动过程的重力独立性.
除此之外, 微重力冷凝关联式是描述在微重力环境下, 冷凝过程中各参数之间关系的数学表达式. 其对于预测微重力下冷凝性能、优化冷凝器设计以及指导航天器等空间设备的热控系统设计具有重要意义. 在常规重力环境下, 已建立了许多描述冷凝过程的关联式, 例如Nusselt数 (Nu)与Reynolds数 (Re)之间的关系式. 近年来, 有研究团队尝试通过数值模拟与实验验证相结合的方法, 建立适用于微重力环境的冷凝关联式. 表2给出了环状流冷凝传热关联式. 这些研究虽然还处于起步阶段, 但是已取得一些初步成果, 为未来的研究和应用奠定了基础.
根据表面形貌与冷凝液体润湿状态的不同, 蒸汽冷凝过程可以分为膜状冷凝和滴状冷凝两种基本类型. 膜状冷凝与滴状冷凝的本质差异源于表面张力、重力、惯性力及表面特性的协同作用. 膜状冷凝发生时蒸汽在表面凝结形成一层连续且薄而均匀的液膜, 热量通过这层液膜传递, 导致效率相对较低. 相反, 滴状冷凝发生时蒸汽凝结成离散而不断增大的小液滴, 自由滚动或聚集, 直到脱落, 此过程显著减小了热阻, 大大提高了冷凝效率. 膜状冷凝发生时, 冷凝液能润湿壁面形成连续液膜, 其本质是液体表面张力与固体表面能的竞争结果. 当其比值小于1时, 液膜易铺展发生膜状冷凝. 同样固体表面的粗糙度(如沟槽、纳米结构)通过改变接触角(θ)影响润湿性. 疏水表面(θ>90°)更易形成滴状冷凝, 而亲水表面(θ<90°)倾向于膜状冷凝. 蒸汽流速也影响着冷凝模式, 低蒸汽流速下往往形成层流液膜, 增大蒸汽流速后通过剪切力减薄液膜或引发液滴脱落, 进而强化冷凝传热效果.
冷凝过程中液膜分布对传热有很大的影响, 有研究对冷凝过程中的液膜变化进行了实验与模拟. Nebuloni等[31]理论预测了常重力/微重力下冷凝液膜分布随时间的变化模型, 考虑了冷凝液体与管壁接触界面的表面张力、曲率压力、重力和剪切应力对液膜的影响, 在此基础上, 给出R134 a蒸汽在常重力/微重力条件下圆管(1 mm直径)、方形管(1 mm边长)和等边三角形(1 mm边长)中冷凝液膜的预测结果. Wang等[32]通过地面实验发现在重力作用下垂直表面的传热大于水平表面, 这是因为重力可以把液膜从冷凝表面吸走.
Bortolin等[33]基于失重飞机对微重力强化冷凝器(ENCOM-2)进行了翅片膜状冷凝实验(见图6), 测量在不同冷却温度下沿曲线轴对称翅片的膜厚, 实验工质为HFE-7100, 冷凝表面为15 mm高的翅片. 实验发现液膜厚度的局部最小值存在于冷凝液膜的共轭区和翅片底部. 此外, Glushchuk等[34]在失重飞机上进行了单圆柱表面冷凝实验, 认为在低重力下圆柱角落的冷凝换热最为显著. Kundan等[35]利用国际空间站的无芯热管研究高过热表面的膜状冷凝, 发现表面越热, 凝结的水蒸气越多.
微重力环境下, 冷凝液所受重力牵引作用显著减弱, 能够形成更为均匀铺展的液膜. 尽管整体分布均匀, 但是液膜厚度在某些特定区域存在局部最小值. 这是该区域的流体动力学条件、表面张力效应以及冷凝表面几何形状共同作用的结果. 表面特征的局部变化增加了液膜厚度分布的复杂性, 使其出现波动. 微重力环境下, 表面张力、黏性力和惯性力在液膜内部与表面之间达到一种动态平衡状态, 共同维持液膜的稳定性. 这种平衡状态的微小变化对液膜的厚度和分布产生显著影响. 除此之外, 冷凝表面的物理化学性质(粗糙度、润湿性、化学组成等)在微重力环境下对液膜的形成和分布具有更大的影响. 这些性质的变化导致液膜与冷凝表面之间的相互作用发生变化, 进而影响液膜的厚度和传热性能. 微重力环境下的膜状冷凝过程对外部扰动(例如气流波动、温度梯度)较为敏感. 这些扰动可能破坏液膜的稳定性, 导致液膜厚度的波动和变化, 并出现液膜非稳定现象, 使得微重力下膜状冷凝更加复杂.
滴状冷凝比膜状冷凝拥有更高的传热效率, 而表面更新速率是制约滴状冷凝传热效率的主要因素. 在常重力环境下, 超疏水表面的固液黏附作用较弱, 冷凝液滴在合并后弹跳脱离表面, 通常可分为4个阶段, 即液桥形成生长-固体壁面反作用力引起液滴加速运动-合并液滴跳离表面-空气摩擦弹跳液滴引起减速运动. 表面张力、黏性力和惯性力三者的协同作用影响着液滴合并过程[36]. 研究发现大多冷凝液滴合并后释放的表面能无法克服固液黏附功, 进而钉扎在表面. 随着表面润湿性的增强, 液滴在合并后由自发弹跳变为钉扎在固体表面, 这主要是由固液间的黏附力增加引起的. 冷凝液滴在实际合并过程中存在尺寸不匹配的问题, 大量研究表明尺寸不匹配液滴的合并会导致能量转换效率下降, 甚至钉扎在表面. 基于此, Yuan等[37]定义了弹跳势, 研究了液滴合并数量、分布及半径比对能量转换效率的影响. 当弹跳势低于0.1时, 液滴合并后出现钉扎现象. Peng等[38]在微结构超疏水表面上研究不同尺寸液滴的合并弹跳行为, 研究结果表明, 不同尺寸的液滴合并会降低能量转换效率, 但是可以通过改变表面微结构来克服此缺点.
随着制造工艺的进步, 研究制备了低表面能功能性冷凝表面, 并结合环境扫描电镜和高速摄像机对冷凝液滴的动态演化进行了大量实验研究. 研究表明采用浸涂技术可将含氟涂层的厚度降到约780 nm. 与铜表面相比, 其热流密度和传热系数分别提升26%和15%. Kim等[39]的研究认为, 将体积分数10%的多壁碳纳米管(CNTs)加入到铁粉中制备复合涂层, 该涂层作为冷凝表面时传热效果最佳, 传热系数可增强1.6倍. 但是在高过冷度时CNTs涂层易形成钉扎的液滴, 传热性能大幅恶化. Wang等[40]论述了利用复杂的微纳结构和亲/疏水性质对微液滴进行局部调制和强化冷凝传热的原理及应用, 讨论了在各种影响因素作用下, 液滴在功能表面上的跳跃和定向迁移等固液界面相互作用机理, 总结了现有的适用于各种功能表面的水滴凝结理论模型, 以及用于增强传热的涂层和功能表面的制备技术. 近期Zhao等[41]利用激光烧蚀和表面改性技术制备了不同结构间距的超疏水表面, 研究液滴在不同结构上的连续回弹过程, 发现了回弹次数的黄金分割现象. 对于小间距微结构表面, 小的固液接触面积加剧了液滴与表面接触的动压力, 增大了液滴铺展和收缩的横向阻力, 增强了液滴在表面上的钉扎效应并导致液滴的不完全回弹. 对于黄金区的中等间距微结构表面, 低结构密度削弱了液滴在表面上的钉扎效应, 减少了液滴在连续回弹过程中的能量耗散, 大大提高了液滴的连续回弹次数. 建立的液滴连续回弹次数与Weber数和结构间距的关联映射可为超疏水结构设计提供依据, 有望为航空航天领域实现表面防冰、自清洁、高效热管理和液滴控制等启发新型策略.
为实现持续的滴状冷凝, 关键是要去除冷凝液滴, 及时更新冷凝表面. 地面滴状冷凝实验通常是在垂直表面进行的, 蒸汽在表面冷凝形成液滴, 一些特殊表面液滴合并后发生弹跳, 后在重力作用下掉落; 一些液滴合并后重力超过表面黏附力, 液滴滑落表面, 实现表面更新以维持滴状冷凝. 液体去除对重力的依赖可能会限制滴状冷凝在低重力环境中的潜在应用, 重力会以不同的方式影响滴状冷凝, 具体取决于表面特性和蒸汽条件.
如前所述, 重力通常被用来移除最大的液滴, 从而降低临界半径. 超过临界半径时, 液滴滑动离开表面, 达到清洁表面的目的, 促进新的小液滴成核. 冷凝液滴越大, 传热热阻越大, 传热效果减弱, 因此临界半径的减小可以提高冷凝传热系数. Wang等[42]结合冷凝实验和格子玻尔兹曼(LBM)数值模拟分析了倾角对临界半径和传热系数的影响. 结果发现, 与90°倾角(即垂直方向)相比, 30°倾角液滴临界半径增大了50%; 与水平表面相比, 90°倾角传热效率提高72.4%. Bahrami等[43]对微/纳米结构表面上的滴状冷凝进行数值研究, 发现表面在重力场中的方向对液滴大小分布起着重要作用. 由于液滴在滴状冷凝过程中会发生振荡, Sakakeeny等[44]通过数值模拟确定, 当接触角较大时, 重力对振荡频率的影响尤为显著. Li等[45]采用LBM方法对微柱阵列粗糙结构表面进行了滴状冷凝模拟, 发现随着表面疏水性的增强, 液滴的成核位置从柱底上升至顶部, 液滴润湿状态由Wenzel态变为Cassie态. Wang等[46]采用混合热 LBM方法首次计算了微结构表面的冷凝传热系数, 发现冷凝液滴的合并和脱落行为将导致平均热流密度随时间的变化而局部波动.
对于膜状冷凝和滴状冷凝, 重力都起着重要作用, 因此地面实验与空间实验结果会存在较大差异. 例如, 膜状冷凝发生时, 重力的影响使得垂直表面生成的液膜沿重力方向流动并积聚. 在微重力条件下, 气液界面呈波状, 液相波动明显并沿蒸汽流动方向传播. 重力作用减小时, 增加蒸汽流速可明显增强冷凝传热性能. 重力条件下垂直表面滴状冷凝时, 一部分液滴发生合并弹跳, 后在重力作用下掉落; 部分液滴聚集后, 重力超过表面黏附力, 液滴滑落表面, 实现表面更新以维持滴状冷凝. 反之在重力缺失或较小的环境下, 液滴保持圆球形, 利用微结构表面液滴动态行为与润湿性的关系, 实现液滴的调控. 具体而言, 在疏水/超疏水表面, 液滴悬浮于微结构顶部, 接触面积小而附着力低, 合并后更易通过表面能释放实现高效弹跳; 而在亲水/超亲水表面, 液滴填充微结构间隙, 液滴扎钉在微结构表面.
与常重力环境不同的是, 合并弹跳的液滴由于重力缺失不会重新落到冷凝表面, 会沿弹跳方向运动, 在此条件下需要借助外力手段, 例如通过气体吹扫来收集弹跳液滴, 加快更新表面. 另外, 基于Marangoni效应也可设计非对称微结构表面, 进一步促进液滴的定向移动, 实现冷凝表面的更新.
微重力环境下强化滴状冷凝, 可通过加快蒸汽流速, 带走冷凝表面的液滴来更新表面, 使滴状冷凝持续进行. 另外可制造特殊表面使其发生滴状冷凝, 进一步促使其发生合并弹跳, 液滴一旦脱离表面, 则会悬浮在空间中, 通过吹扫可轻易排除弹跳液滴, 加快表面更新. 随着微纳制造技术的发展, 越来越多的功能性表面(表面涂层、微纳结构、仿生与浸油等)用于强化冷凝传热. Bonner[47]制造了一种润湿性梯度表面, 使冷凝液滴接触角产生差异, 导致液滴向润湿性增强区域移动, 使液滴定向移动更新表面. 液滴的定向迁移防止了冷凝液滴聚集形成液膜, 促进了冷凝传热. Wang等[48]采用LBM方法也发现了润湿梯度表面液滴定向迁移的现象. 研究发现重力对液滴运动的影响具有条件性: 当 Bond数低于0.0126 时, 液滴运动主要由表面梯度驱动的毛细力主导, 重力影响可忽略; 当Bond数高于0.0126时, 重力的切向分量显著削弱了液滴迁移能力. 微重力环境(Bond数趋近于0)可最大化润湿梯度的定向驱动力效能, 为空间流体操控提供理论依据. Mancio等[49]的实验表明, 与未经处理的表面相比, 径向润湿梯度水平表面在瞬态过程中的传热系数提高了2~3.4倍. Xu等[50]通过分子动力学方法研究了重力对具有润湿梯度的复合V形表面上水滴凝结的影响, 认为随着重力水平的增加, 凝结速率也随之增大.
当表面为微纳结构表面时, 液滴存在润湿(Wenzel状态)、混合润湿、不润湿(Cassie状态)三种状态. Miljkovic等[51]研究表明, 部分湿润状态的液滴传热速率比处于不润湿状态的液滴高4~6倍. Xu等[52]开展了微重力环境下滴状冷凝传热的相关研究, 建立了液滴在阵列微结构表面上的润湿状态转换模型, 发现微重力条件有利于液滴从Wenzel态转变为混合润湿态或Cassie态, 便于液滴的排出; 采用LBM方法研究了单个液滴在阵列微结构表面的接触角和润湿状态变化, 结果显示重力场的变化引起液滴形态的变化, 重力的增加使得液滴从混合润湿态转变为Wenzel态, 但是液滴在Cassie态几乎不受重力场变化的影响.
当在超疏水微纳结构表面发生滴状冷凝时, 两个相近的液滴会发生合并弹跳. 在微重力条件下, 弹跳液滴悬浮在空中, 可利用气体吹扫排除更新表面. 在模拟研究方面, Baghel等[53]对常重力/微重力条件下液滴在润湿性梯度表面的运动进行研究, 指出液滴在无重力环境下的移动速度、合并弹跳与地面实验不同, 微重力条件下脱落速度较低, 随液滴尺寸的增大而减小. Pu等[54]在双交错网格系统中采用水平集法与动网格法耦合研究了微重力条件下包含相变的两相流, 结果表明, 常重力和微重力条件下液滴合并过程不同, 常重力条件下的冷凝时间比微重力条件下要长得多. Liang等[55]对液滴在常重力条件下的变形动力学和微重力条件下的热毛细迁移进行了数值研究, 发现Marangoni数的取值对液滴移动速度有明显的影响. 实验研究方面, Mukherjee等[56]利用超疏水性纳米柱表面进行冷凝液滴合并弹跳实验. 研究发现与水平情况相比, 表面倾角为45°时, 传热系数提高了40%; 倾角为90° (垂直)时, 传热系数增大了1倍. 微柱除了影响液滴行为之外, 其热导特性也对冷凝传热产生关键影响. 一方面, 微柱结构可等效为微型翅片, 一定程度上增大表面积提升了换热面积, 有效强化了冷凝传热. 另一方面, 微柱与基底的接触热阻是关键设计参数, 其会显著影响整体热导性能: 若微柱材料导热系数显著高于工质(例如金属微柱), 且与基底形成良好的冶金结合, 可降低接触热阻; 反之, 若微柱材料存在界面缺陷或孔隙率较高(例如多孔涂层), 则可能引入额外热阻. 因此, 微柱结构的热导优化需综合考虑材料导热性能、界面接触质量及几何参数(例如高度、间距), 在冷凝液滴脱落效率与热阻控制间取得平衡, 最大化强化冷凝传热. Brutin等[57]借助抛物线飞行实验研究了微重力条件下液滴界面的形状, 分别分析了去离子水、HFE-7100和FC-72在两种加热表面PTFE和铝的接触角及液滴界面行为. 研究发现常重力条件下接触角随液滴的增大而增大, 最后达到稳定值; 微重力条件下液滴接触角几乎是恒定的, 这与常重力下的实验结果不同. Bonab等[58]实验研究了微重力条件下的液滴弹跳运动, 认为研究微重力环境下冷凝液滴的脱落过程是强化滴状冷凝的关键, 并提出以重力作为液滴去除技术在空间环境中是不可行的, 冷凝热交换器可使用气流来去除冷凝液滴.
综上所述, 目前缺乏有关微重力环境(例如抛物线飞行、空间站)中滴状冷凝的实验研究, 相关模拟研究揭示了微重力环境下冷凝液滴动力学机理, 但仍需通过实验进行指导验证. 除探寻长期稳定的功能性表面涂层外, 还需要进一步探索微重力环境下滴状冷凝的机制以及液滴去除方式, 为空间站利用滴状冷凝强化传热提供指导.
在微重力环境中, 重力驱动液膜/液滴流动及排出机制失效, 冷凝过程主要依赖表面张力、剪切力及相间作用力. 因此, 亟须发展低重力敏感性、高界面调控能力的新型强化方法. 根据作用原理, 强化传热方法可分为被动式(表面润湿改性、多孔结构强化和微纳沟槽结构)与主动式(外场强化), 表3列出了强化传热技术及相关应用场景, 为空间热管理系统的优化提供理论参考.
被动强化方法部分已进行实践应用, 其中表面改性的重力适应性最优, 但是提升幅度受接触角滞回效应限制; 其余两种被动方法对重力敏感, 但其传热强化效果明显. 相比被动强化技术, 主动强化技术的工程复杂性明显提高, 能耗较高, 但对重力无依赖性, 传热强化效果显著适用于严格微重力场景(例如空间站、深空探测器), 应用主动强化技术需综合考虑能量消耗与传热收益. 微重力冷凝强化需结合任务需求选择技术路线: 短期任务优先选择被动式改性方法, 长期驻留系统可探索低功耗主动控制. 未来须突破空间适应性材料与智能化热控算法, 支撑深空探测任务的热安全需求.
随着航天事业的快速发展, 机载电子、电气设备功率不断增长, 空间热控系统变得越来越复杂, 热控系统的可靠性和效率变得尤为重要. 因此, 需要研发新型高效的热控设备, 确保航天器在各种极端环境下可靠运行, 同时降低对冷却和散热系统的能源消耗, 从而推动航天技术的持续发展. 相比单相换热系统, 气液两相流系统在等温特性上表现更优异. 在小系统质量和回路流量条件下, 气液两相流系统展现出卓越的高能量传输能力, 这使得其在未来先进载人航天系统中具有广阔的应用前景.
尽管过去几十年微重力下冷凝及传热研究已取得重大进展, 但是在未来的发展和应用中仍存在如下亟待解决的问题.
(1)现有微重力平台(落塔、探空火箭、抛物线飞行等)微重力阶段持续时间有限, 导致冷凝传热实验可能无法获得可靠的稳态实验数据, 迫切需要利用空间站开展长时间稳定的微重力冷凝实验, 利用获得的实验数据开展微重力冷凝关联式研究, 用以指导工程设计.
(2)关于重力对冷凝影响的理论及经验知识大多通过在重力环境下改变方向进行实验获得, 无法完全消除重力影响, 不足以准确指导空间站设计, 微重力下冷凝需要长时间的稳态传热数据和流动可视化, 这些可以通过空间实验实现.
(3)关于微重力下的膜状冷凝, 需要通过进一步的实验评估重力对冷凝传热的影响, 尤其是当质量流速较低时, 其在微重力环境下的传热系数会受到很大影响. 此外, 现有冷凝传热系数和液膜厚度是在不同的温差(饱和温度与壁面温度差值)下获得的, 而未在微重力环境下对冷凝器整体性能进行评估.
(4)未来需重点探索微重力下滴状冷凝的动态润湿性表面调控(例如电润湿响应涂层、光热驱动形变结构), 结合空间站实验与抛物线飞行微重力模拟, 量化液滴成核-合并-脱离的动力学机制. 针对航天器小型化需求, 探索开发被动式复合强化结构(超疏水–亲水分区表面、毛细–蒸发协同芯体), 建立主/被动联合评分模型, 并纳入传热系数、系统质量及可靠性等多维度权重, 为相变热控模块的轻量化设计提供实验依据.

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doi: 10.11728/cjss2026.02.2025-0028
  • 接收时间:2025-02-25
  • 首发时间:2026-07-08
  • 出版时间:2026-03-15
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  • 收稿日期:2025-02-25
  • 修回日期:2025-05-22
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    东南大学能源与环境学院 南京 211189
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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