Article(id=1249065614510330276, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, issueId=1249065613306569569, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000080, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1746633600000, receivedDateStr=2025-05-08, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1749398400000, acceptedDateStr=2025-06-09, onlineDate=1775730049015, onlineDateStr=2026-04-09, pubDate=1759248000000, pubDateStr=2025-10-01, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1775730049015, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-04-09, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1775730049015, creator=13041195026, updateTime=1775730049015, updator=13041195026, issue=Issue{id=1249065613306569569, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, year='2025', volume='45', issue='5', pageStart='1', pageEnd='182', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1775730048728, creator=13041195026, updateTime=1775730148042, updator=13041195026, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1249066029947757306, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, issueId=1249065613306569569, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1249066029951951611, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, issueId=1249065613306569569, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=78, endPage=92, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1249065614728434087, articleId=1249065614510330276, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, language=EN, title=Research progress in microstructure,defects and mechanical properties of IN718 superalloy thin wall fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, columnId=1249065614292231012, journalTitle=Journal of Aeronautical Materials, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

IN718 superalloy is extensively utilized in the aerospace and nuclear industries due to its outstanding oxidation resistance, heat-corrosion resistance, good structural stability, fatigue performance and safety reliability. It is one of irreplaceable materials for the hot-end components of next-generation advanced aircraft engines. Recently, laser powder bed fusion(LPBF) technology has developed as an innovative rapid prototyping technique, transcending the limitations of traditional shaping methods and structural designs. This technology has realized one-step laser near-net shaping of complex thin-walled structures, demonstrating substantial application potential. However, during the laser additive manufacturing process, the thin-walled surfaces are exposed to high laser input energy, which can readily induce warping, deformation, and even cracking, significantly impacting the service performance of these structures. To address these challenges, this work provides an overview of the working principle and recent advancements in LPBF technologies. It systematically analyses the multi-scale microstructural evolution and precipitation phase behavior of IN718 superalloy thin wall fabricated by LPBF. Special emphasis is placed on the initiation, propagation mechanisms and mitigation strategies for metallurgical defects, including optimized thin-walled structural designs, laser forming process parameters and alloy composition. In addition, the strengthening mechanisms underlying the mechanical properties of IN718 superalloy thin wall at both room and high temperatures are analyzed and discussed. Finally, the work summarizes the existing challenges such as insufficient critical performance under harsh conditions and future development directions of superalloy thin wall fabricated by LPBF, including establishment of laser forming process databases specialized for superalloy thin wall, investigation of solidification defect formation and novel control strategies in superalloy thin wall fabricated by LPBF, and optimization of the chemical composition design for high-performance superalloy thin-walled components.

, correspAuthors=Haijun SU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Journal of Aeronautical Materials. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Peixin YANG, Haijun SU, Yinuo GUO, Chuanteng HUO, Wenbo ZHOU, Mingdie HE, Wenchao YANG, Lin LIU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1249065617836413420, articleId=1249065614510330276, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, language=CN, title=激光粉末床熔融成形IN718高温合金薄壁组织、缺陷及力学性能研究进展, columnId=1249065614468391782, journalTitle=航空材料学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

IN718高温合金因其优异的抗氧化性和抗热腐蚀性、良好的疲劳性能、组织稳定性及安全可靠性等综合性能,广泛应用于航空航天、核工业等领域,是新一代先进航空发动机热端构件不可替代的材料之一。激光粉末床熔融(laser powder bed fusion,LPBF)技术作为近年来发展迅速的新型快速成形技术,突破传统成形技术和结构设计束缚,实现复杂薄壁构件的一步激光近净成形,展现出广阔的应用前景。然而在激光增材制造成形过程中,薄壁表面的激光输入能量较大,易出现翘曲变形和裂纹,严重影响其服役性能。针对以上问题,本工作概述LPBF技术的工作原理及研究动态,系统分析LPBF成形IN718高温合金薄壁的跨尺度微观组织演化特征及析出相演变行为,重点梳理缺陷萌生和扩展机制,从优化结构设计、激光成形工艺参数、合金成分等多方面对缺陷抑制进行归纳,分析探讨IN718高温合金薄壁室温与高温力学性能的强化机制。最后,总结LPBF成形高温合金薄壁存在严苛环境下关键性能不足等问题并展望未来发展方向,其中包括:建立适合高温合金薄壁的激光成形工艺数据库;研究LPBF成形高温合金薄壁凝固缺陷形成及调控新方法;优化高性能高温合金薄壁构件材料化学成分。

, correspAuthors=苏海军, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
苏海军(1981—),男,博士,教授,研究方向为先进定向凝固技术与理论及新材料,联系地址:陕西省西安市碑林区友谊西路127号西北工业大学(710072),E-mail:
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articleId=1249065614510330276, language=CN, label=图8, caption=LPBF成形IN718高温合金薄壁激光工艺参数 (a)不同激光功率和扫描速度下成形质量[67];(b)预热基板温度对成形质量的影响[70], figureFileSmall=qz1FZpubSnBp7DUN9sB7oA==, figureFileBig=5lKVhLvU//7OqGpLWg5cjw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1249065626455708513, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, articleId=1249065614510330276, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Precipitation phases of IN718 superalloy[1440-41]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PhaseCrystal structureChemical formulaLattice parametersSolution temperature/ ℃
a/nmb/nmc/nm
LavesHexagonal,C14AB2(MgZn20.4750-0.49500.4500-0.48001163[40]
MCCubic,B1(Nb/Ti)C0.4300-0.47001260-1305[41]
δOrthorhombic,D0aNi3Nb0.51140.62440.45301020[41]
γ′′BCT,D022Ni3Nb0.36240.7406910-940[14]
γ′FCC,L12Ni3(Al,Ti,Nb)0.3561-0.3568850-910[14]
), ArticleFig(id=1249065626661229412, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, articleId=1249065614510330276, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

IN718高温合金的析出相[1440-41]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PhaseCrystal structureChemical formulaLattice parametersSolution temperature/ ℃
a/nmb/nmc/nm
LavesHexagonal,C14AB2(MgZn20.4750-0.49500.4500-0.48001163[40]
MCCubic,B1(Nb/Ti)C0.4300-0.47001260-1305[41]
δOrthorhombic,D0aNi3Nb0.51140.62440.45301020[41]
γ′′BCT,D022Ni3Nb0.36240.7406910-940[14]
γ′FCC,L12Ni3(Al,Ti,Nb)0.3561-0.3568850-910[14]
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激光粉末床熔融成形IN718高温合金薄壁组织、缺陷及力学性能研究进展
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杨培鑫 1, 2 , 苏海军 1, 2, * , 郭一诺 1, 2 , 霍传腾 1 , 周文博 1 , 何明蝶 1 , 杨文超 1 , 刘林 1
航空材料学报 | 综述 2025,45(5): 78-92
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航空材料学报 | 综述 2025, 45(5): 78-92
激光粉末床熔融成形IN718高温合金薄壁组织、缺陷及力学性能研究进展
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杨培鑫1, 2, 苏海军1, 2, * , 郭一诺1, 2, 霍传腾1, 周文博1, 何明蝶1, 杨文超1, 刘林1
作者信息
  • 1西北工业大学 凝固技术全国重点实验室,西安 710072
  • 2西北工业大学 深圳研究院,广东 深圳 518057

通讯作者:

苏海军(1981—),男,博士,教授,研究方向为先进定向凝固技术与理论及新材料,联系地址:陕西省西安市碑林区友谊西路127号西北工业大学(710072),E-mail:
Research progress in microstructure,defects and mechanical properties of IN718 superalloy thin wall fabricated by laser powder bed fusion
Peixin YANG1, 2, Haijun SU1, 2, * , Yinuo GUO1, 2, Chuanteng HUO1, Wenbo ZHOU1, Mingdie HE1, Wenchao YANG1, Lin LIU1
Affiliations
  • 1State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing,Northwestern Polytechnical University,Xi’an 710072,China
  • 2Research & Development Institute,Northwestern Polytechnical University,Shenzhen 518057,Guangdong,China
出版时间: 2025-10-01 doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000080
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IN718高温合金因其优异的抗氧化性和抗热腐蚀性、良好的疲劳性能、组织稳定性及安全可靠性等综合性能,广泛应用于航空航天、核工业等领域,是新一代先进航空发动机热端构件不可替代的材料之一。激光粉末床熔融(laser powder bed fusion,LPBF)技术作为近年来发展迅速的新型快速成形技术,突破传统成形技术和结构设计束缚,实现复杂薄壁构件的一步激光近净成形,展现出广阔的应用前景。然而在激光增材制造成形过程中,薄壁表面的激光输入能量较大,易出现翘曲变形和裂纹,严重影响其服役性能。针对以上问题,本工作概述LPBF技术的工作原理及研究动态,系统分析LPBF成形IN718高温合金薄壁的跨尺度微观组织演化特征及析出相演变行为,重点梳理缺陷萌生和扩展机制,从优化结构设计、激光成形工艺参数、合金成分等多方面对缺陷抑制进行归纳,分析探讨IN718高温合金薄壁室温与高温力学性能的强化机制。最后,总结LPBF成形高温合金薄壁存在严苛环境下关键性能不足等问题并展望未来发展方向,其中包括:建立适合高温合金薄壁的激光成形工艺数据库;研究LPBF成形高温合金薄壁凝固缺陷形成及调控新方法;优化高性能高温合金薄壁构件材料化学成分。

激光粉末床熔融  /  IN718高温合金  /  薄壁构件  /  缺陷  /  力学性能

IN718 superalloy is extensively utilized in the aerospace and nuclear industries due to its outstanding oxidation resistance, heat-corrosion resistance, good structural stability, fatigue performance and safety reliability. It is one of irreplaceable materials for the hot-end components of next-generation advanced aircraft engines. Recently, laser powder bed fusion(LPBF) technology has developed as an innovative rapid prototyping technique, transcending the limitations of traditional shaping methods and structural designs. This technology has realized one-step laser near-net shaping of complex thin-walled structures, demonstrating substantial application potential. However, during the laser additive manufacturing process, the thin-walled surfaces are exposed to high laser input energy, which can readily induce warping, deformation, and even cracking, significantly impacting the service performance of these structures. To address these challenges, this work provides an overview of the working principle and recent advancements in LPBF technologies. It systematically analyses the multi-scale microstructural evolution and precipitation phase behavior of IN718 superalloy thin wall fabricated by LPBF. Special emphasis is placed on the initiation, propagation mechanisms and mitigation strategies for metallurgical defects, including optimized thin-walled structural designs, laser forming process parameters and alloy composition. In addition, the strengthening mechanisms underlying the mechanical properties of IN718 superalloy thin wall at both room and high temperatures are analyzed and discussed. Finally, the work summarizes the existing challenges such as insufficient critical performance under harsh conditions and future development directions of superalloy thin wall fabricated by LPBF, including establishment of laser forming process databases specialized for superalloy thin wall, investigation of solidification defect formation and novel control strategies in superalloy thin wall fabricated by LPBF, and optimization of the chemical composition design for high-performance superalloy thin-walled components.

laser powder bed fusion  /  IN718 superalloy  /  thin-walled structures  /  defect  /  mechanical property
杨培鑫, 苏海军, 郭一诺, 霍传腾, 周文博, 何明蝶, 杨文超, 刘林. 激光粉末床熔融成形IN718高温合金薄壁组织、缺陷及力学性能研究进展. 航空材料学报, 2025 , 45 (5) : 78 -92 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000080
Peixin YANG, Haijun SU, Yinuo GUO, Chuanteng HUO, Wenbo ZHOU, Mingdie HE, Wenchao YANG, Lin LIU. Research progress in microstructure,defects and mechanical properties of IN718 superalloy thin wall fabricated by laser powder bed fusion[J]. Journal of Aeronautical Materials, 2025 , 45 (5) : 78 -92 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000080
随着航空发动机技术的迅速发展,高推重比、结构可靠性和耐久性以及低燃油消耗率已经成为提升发动机性能的关键指标。在此背景下,发展兼具空腔拓扑结构、复杂几何特征和轻量化薄壁构件制备技术已成为实现发动机等航空装备减重增效的关键途径,同时对金属材料的成分设计、强度匹配及服役可靠性提出更高要求[1]。为满足航空航天高端装备迭代发展的需求,新一代航空发动机通过采用超轻量化结构与空心化设计,确保金属薄壁关键构件在高温高压、高温氧化与化学腐蚀的极端环境中保持性能稳定。
众所周知,高温合金是先进材料领域内十分重要的一类高性能金属结构材料,因其优异的高温稳定性、抗氧化性、抗热腐蚀性等,在航空航天动力装置、核反应堆芯组件等关键热端构件制造领域占据不可替代的地位,被称为“工业皇冠上的明珠”[2-3]。以CJ-2000航空发动机为例,高温合金占整体材料的40%~60%。目前,IN718、Mar-M247、IN939、IN718plus等系列高温合金材料已经广泛应用于航空发动机扩压器、涡轮机匣等大型复杂薄壁构件[4]。另外,在航空发动机机匣中,直径为1400 mm且壁厚约2 mm的IN718高温合金薄壁面积占整体面积的80%以上,并且含有较多凸台、空心支板、加强筋等异形构件。然而,机械加工过程中,高温合金易因薄壁面积大和内腔结构复杂产生形变失稳[5]。传统铸造技术制备的大尺寸高温合金薄壁构件受限于尺寸效应、变截面效应和薄壁效应[6],未能充分发挥其优异的力学性能。因此,开发兼具高精度、高性能和复杂结构高温合金薄壁构件的一体化制造技术,是实现航空发动机高温长时服役的关键突破口。
近年来,激光粉末床熔融(laser power bed fusion,LPBF)技术作为一项发展迅速的新型快速成形制造技术,因其开发过程快、加工速度快、设计自由度高、节约原材料等优势备受关注。该技术突破传统制备成形技术和几何结构设计的束缚[7-9],能够制造出具有内部复杂流道和轻量化结构的薄壁构件。另外,该技术在成形过程中对高温合金粉末进行逐层加工,不仅提高原材料利用率,而且降低生产成本。国内外研究者对激光成形工艺参数、凝固条件等方面展开深入研究,已成功制备出大尺寸高致密和优异力学性能的高温合金薄壁构件,并应用在航空发动机燃油喷嘴、燃烧室衬套等[10-12]。目前,LPBF技术不仅能够成功制备出金属构件[13-17],而且实现了陶瓷[18-21]、复合材料[22-24]等快速成形及应用。然而,LPBF成形过程中局部高温熔化和高速冷却特性,使内部和表面的温度梯度变化明显,从而导致不均匀热应力分布。随着成形尺寸增大,热应力进一步加剧,容易引起宏观和微观裂纹,严重影响成形质量和力学性能。此外,薄壁构件的刚度相对较低,对温度变化更为敏感,在大尺寸、变截面、复杂形状等几何特征下,更容易产生严重的扭曲变形以及不均匀的残余应力分布,且难以通过后续加工进行校正,进而降低其服役性能。另外,LPBF制备高温合金薄壁构件会出现表面粗糙度较高、尺寸精度偏差较大等问题,需进行后续加工处理。
本工作简述LPBF制备IN718高温合金薄壁的微观组织、凝固缺陷及力学性能,探讨LPBF成形IN718高温合金薄壁缺陷类型及形成机理,重点从优化结构设计、激光成形工艺参数、合金成分等方面对缺陷抑制进行系统归纳。最后,基于现有研究对激光增材制造高温合金薄壁构件未来发展趋势进行探讨和展望。
LPBF技术是铺展粉末与激光加工交替进行的过程,其技术原理如图1(a)所示。首先对3D模型进行分层切片和路径规划,设置打印成形参数。高能激光束按照预设路径对单层铺展的粉末进行逐道选区熔融,料缸上移,基板下降,逐层沉积,直至零件加工完毕。该技术激光光斑直径较小,适用于制备复杂结构高精度的零件[7,25]。成形的构件表面粗糙度低(<10 μm),成形精度高(可达99.9%),另外经热处理的构件力学性能超过铸件,甚至达到锻件水平。2017年,曼柴油机和透平公司首次将激光增材制造制备的复杂涡轮静叶片用在MGT6100燃气轮机上,成功实现工程化应用[3]
GE公司最早成立金属快速成形研发团队,利用LPBF技术生产大量航空发动机零件[26],并在2013年末开始采用该技术生产发动机喷嘴(图1(b)),生产效率提高67%。同时通过美国联邦航空管理局认证,并应用于GE90-94B航空发动机[27]。GE公司采用增材制造技术生产35%的发动机构件,包括涡轮螺旋桨发动机燃烧室、动力齿轮箱等零件,使发动机零件总数从800多个减少到12个,显著减轻因零件装配增加的发动机质量。法国赛峰公司通过激光增材制造技术成形的镍基合金涡轮喷嘴通过欧洲航空安全局认证[28],使发动机减重35%。Blakey-milner[29]利用LPBF技术成形IN718火箭发动机喷射器芯,如图1(c)所示,将248个零件整合为1个,极大缩短生产时间,并降低50%生产成本。Voxel团队[30]对Ignus I引擎进行升级,迭代打印含有95个可变面积再生冷却通道的IN718 Ignus Ⅱ引擎(图1(d)),显著缩短后续加工时间。Kanishka等[31]采用LPBF技术仅用3天成功打印IN718高温合金火箭喷嘴,如图1(e)所示,其内壁含有多个网格结构,这种结构可以作为发动机的冷却夹层,这一技术节省材料,避免后续复杂处理和工具磨损。
西北工业大学、中国航发商用航空发动机有限公司等对航空发动机镍基高温合金零件(如燃油喷嘴、涡流器、预旋喷嘴等)激光增材制造技术进行研究,材料涵盖IN718、GH5188、GH4099、GH3536等高温合金,并取得工程化应用。
LPBF成形IN718高温合金薄壁的凝固过程涉及多场耦合,其中温度场、应力场、流场和质量场对晶粒形态和尺寸起决定性作用[2,32]。高能激光束快速移动,与基板接触的成形件底层因其较快的冷却速率(≥0.01 m/s)和较高的温度梯度(102~106 K/cm),形成细小组织。随着厚度逐渐增加,基板与成形件内部热场发生变化,与沉积层的温差减小,温度梯度下降,固液界面前端的熔体存在枝晶生长所需的成分过冷和较小凝固温度梯度,促进枝晶形成(图2(a)[2]。熔体热量通过已凝固的沉积层进行传导耗散,形成向上的温度梯度。同时在晶粒生长过程中,接近热流方向的晶粒占据有利位置。
在热场作用下,熔池内部与边缘的晶粒形貌存在显著差异。鱼鳞状的熔池呈激光尖端连续移动后形成的半椭圆形轮廓,如图2(b)[14]所示。每个熔池作为重复单元,其底部由外延生长形成的微细柱状晶构成,而熔池顶部由等轴晶构成[33],这与LPBF独特的逐层凝固方式直接相关。经过熔池边界的多层搭接,生长方向(building direction,BD)与热流方向相差较大的晶粒会逐渐消失[34],外延连续生长的柱状晶粒跨越多个熔覆层。熔池内柱状晶前沿存在的晶体碎片可作为异质形核的位点,熔池底部向上的温度梯度减小,引发柱状晶向等轴晶转变,因此熔池顶部易形成等轴晶[35]。与传统高速凝固法制备铸件相比,LPBF制备的柱状晶一次臂间距较小,一般为几微米至几十微米,比传统柱状晶间距小近2个数量级[36]。根据经典凝固过程的晶粒成核生长理论,当温度梯度较高时,有利于形成柱状晶;减小温度梯度和加快凝固速率,聚集的等轴晶粒逐渐生长,阻碍柱状固液界面推进,促进柱状晶向等轴晶转变,形成等轴晶区。通常,沿着生长方向的底部组织主要呈现柱状晶[37],顶部呈现等轴晶。Voyiadjis等[38]发现不同厚度IN718六边形蜂窝晶格结构的微观组织有明显区别,在距离单个晶胞边缘大约80 μm的位置,存在细小晶粒;距离中心100~150 μm位置出现较弱的<101>织构。0.4 mm厚蜂窝只有两部分晶粒分布区,0.6 mm和0.8 mm厚蜂窝含有三部分晶粒分布区。
LPBF成形是快速非平衡熔凝的过程,受到多场耦合以及循环热历史的影响,镍基高温合金薄壁的强化相难以在短时间内完全析出。在较快冷却速率下,强化相中元素扩散和形核时间不足,且强化相元素含量较低导致过饱和度低,形核驱动力不足,形核生长过程缓慢[39]表1[14,40-41]为IN718高温合金中各相的固溶温度,沉积态IN718高温合金薄壁的微观组织主要有γ基体相、Laves相、初生碳化物。Laves相是凝固过程中常见的一种拓扑密排脆性相[40],与Nb、Mo、W等难熔元素密切相关,典型的分子式为AB2,以3种晶体结构存在,即MgCu2型、MgZn2型以及MgNi2型,其中在IN718高温合金中通常为MgZn2型。Laves相是有害相,易成为裂纹源,降低蠕变性能。碳化物是一种间隙相[41],包括初生碳化物(NbC和TiC)和次生碳化物(M6C和M23C6),弥散分布在晶界,析出的碳化物可强化晶界,钉扎位错,进而提高高温力学性能。
传统铸造和锻造制备的高温合金薄壁经过热处理后才能服役,热处理后析出相主要有γ′相、γ′′相、δ相和碳化物,析出相形貌如图3[14,39-41]所示。对于IN718高温合金而言,γ′′相是主要强化相,其成分为Ni3Nb,常以圆盘状析出。γ′′相的主要强化方式为共格强化和弥散强化,共格强化的临界尺寸为30 nm,超过该尺寸共格强化作用逐渐削弱。另外,γ′′相是一种亚稳态相,在长期高温作用下,容易聚集长大粗化,650 ℃以上会转变为δ相,强化作用降低,导致服役寿命缩短[41]。δ相与γ′′相的化学成分一致,均为Ni3Nb,晶体结构为正交结构,常呈长针状或短棒状,在晶界、孪晶界或晶内非均匀析出。适量δ相可以钉扎晶界,阻碍晶粒粗化,有效改善冲击韧性、蠕变性能等。过多δ相会降低塑性,过度消耗Nb导致γ′′相析出不足,降低强度。γ′相是次要强化相,其成分为Ni3(Al,Ti,Nb)。γ′相与γ基体相的点阵常数差异一般小于1%[14],两相之间界面能较低,具有较高稳定性。
LPBF成形高温合金薄壁的微观组织为非平衡态组织,相比块体零件,在厚度方向比较小,容易出现翘曲变形,导致尺寸精度低。激光增材制造易产生气孔、熔合不良、裂纹等缺陷,影响构件的结构完整性,严重降低IN718高温合金薄壁高温环境下服役寿命,阻碍其工业化应用。
LPBF成形高温合金薄壁要求一次成形,减少翘曲变形、提高尺寸精度是成形薄壁构件首要考虑的问题。对于高温合金薄壁构件来说,需满足形变和精度的要求,才能进行后续处理、装配和应用。张冬云等[42]利用LPBF技术成形不同厚度纯镍薄壁板,结果表明成形的极限厚度为0.2 mm。当厚度小于0.2 mm时,刮刀刮粉会破坏沉积层,导致粉末铺展不均匀,继续激光扫描会出现熔瘤或翘曲,薄壁发生严重的翘曲变形。尤其对于变截面较多的薄壁构件,对被破坏的沉积层继续扫描,变形逐渐累积,甚至无法成形。薄壁产生翘曲变形(图4(a)[43],主要是因为LPBF成形过程中熔池加热的顶部区域叠层累积的热应力在高温度梯度下开始膨胀并形成压应力,导致凸起变形[43]。当一个粉末层扫描完成时,加热区域的冷却和收缩形成拉伸应力,导致凹形变形[44-45]。沉积层顶部存在水平拉伸残余应力,而在基板的拐角周围发现压缩应力。另外,当沉积层顶部区域最大等效应力超过IN718高温合金屈服强度时,会发生塑性变形。在沉积层的边缘以及基板和沉积层之间的界面周围还观察到较大的水平应力,这些位置易出现裂纹或者分层。另外,较大的热应力促进位错滑移和塞积,形成不均匀晶粒尺寸,导致相变时间和程度不同,进而产生结构应力。随着IN718高温合金方形薄壁高度增加,达到0.8 mm时,会出现显著变形(图4(b)[46]。此外,大尺寸薄壁构件受机械约束应力影响,与基板分离时发生不同程度变形,甚至翘曲(图4(c)[47]
孔隙是LPBF成形过程中常见的冶金缺陷,在孔隙处易萌生裂纹,引发构件的过早断裂失效。根据孔隙来源将其分为未熔合孔隙[48-49]和匙孔孔隙[50-51]。未熔合孔隙涵盖不规则月牙形状孔隙和未熔化粉末,主要与激光能量输入不足有关。当能量密度较低时,激光强度相对较低,熔池寿命较短,抑制粉末熔化和熔池流动,熔池润湿性差,导致IN718粉末颗粒未完全熔化(图5(a))或相邻沉积层间不充分熔合(图5(b)[48]。通过提高激光能量输入可充分熔化粉末,抑制此类孔隙。但过大的激光能量输入会导致熔池内温度升高,促进匙孔孔隙形成。当熔池内温度超过IN718高温合金沸点,会产生向下的反冲压力,促进熔池底部的熔体向下流动,促使匙孔打开,当匙孔不稳定时发生坍塌,并捕获气泡。表面张力使熔体向匙孔流动以闭合匙孔,从而减小表面能,在表面张力、Marangoni效应和反冲压力间的动态竞争下引起不稳定的匙孔孔隙[52]。另外,IN718高温合金粉末颗粒中存在的气孔、松散球形粉末间气体和熔池表面卷入的气体一起卷入熔池内,在顺时针涡流作用下向后高速运动,当熔体流动速度减弱时,此类气泡的运动逐渐停止,逐渐转变为球形的匙孔孔隙(图5(c)[48]。此外,IN718高温合金中各元素熔点差距大,熔点低的金属会蒸发,气体在反冲压力下快速运动,在熔池液面发生飞溅,进一步形成孔隙。孔隙的存在直接影响IN718高温合金薄壁的成形质量,并在长期服役过程中对力学性能产生不利影响[53]
与以上两种缺陷相比,裂纹是LPBF成形镍基高温合金更普遍且致命性的缺陷,它阻碍增材制造技术工程化应用。根据裂纹的形貌特征、产生原因和发生位置,将其分为凝固裂纹和液化裂纹。
Chakraborty等[54]通过LPBF制备不同厚度René 108高温合金薄壁,发现在凝固温度以上,熔池内存在3个不同方向的正应力,均随厚度增加而增加,1 mm厚的René 108薄壁试样不连续的凝固裂纹比例较高,如图6(a-1)所示。凝固裂纹出现在固液两相共存的凝固后期熔池内,裂纹尺寸较大,贯穿多个熔池。相互穿插的枝晶阻碍剩余液相及时填充,枝晶间液相补缩不足而产生孔隙。与此同时,晶界和枝晶间析出少量硬而脆的碳化物和硼化物这些高熔点化合物,降低液相流动性。两者共同作用下,严重阻碍液相补缩能力。伴随着凝固应力和热应力增大,导致枝晶间液膜破裂,引发裂纹萌生,并在残余应力作用下扩展,形成凝固裂纹(图6(a-2)),这种裂纹具有不规则开裂缝隙大的特征[33]。Kou等[55]的研究结果表明,凝固裂纹的形成受到晶界处元素偏析行为的影响,并建立开裂敏感性与凝固开裂指数之间关系。通过调控Mo、Co、Cr等固溶元素含量来控制凝固温度范围,确定合适的固液两相共存区间,实现凝固裂纹的抑制。
液化裂纹与热影响区中枝晶间低熔点析出相和晶界元素偏析密切相关。在凝固过程中,偏析元素在枝晶间或晶界处聚集,导致这些位置成分偏离γ基体,随着凝固温度不断降低,形成低温液膜。由于LPBF成形过程中循环往复加热的特点,热影响区中枝晶间或晶界处一些相对低熔点析出相(Laves相[56-58]、氮化物[59]和γ/γ'共晶相[60])先达到熔点进行重熔,在持续内应力作用下,液膜发生撕裂,萌生裂纹。当裂纹尖端无法承受凝固应力和热应力共同作用时,会沿着液膜路径进行扩展,最终形成液化裂纹。液化裂纹的典型特征是沿晶界分布,如图6(b-1)和(b-2)所示[57]
LPBF成形高温合金薄壁常出现成形质量差、表面粗糙度高、残余应力大等问题,导致力学性能不佳。LPBF成形是一种复杂的激光非平衡短时冶金过程,涉及多重热力场耦合,尤其是高温合金薄壁换热比表面积较大,温度场分布不均匀,激光成形工艺参数直接影响微观组织均匀性和分布,进而影响高温合金薄壁构件的成形质量。针对翘曲变形、孔隙、裂纹等缺陷,目前主要通过优化结构设计、激光工艺参数、化学成分等进行调控和抑制。
薄壁构件本身刚度较小,在激光增材制造过程中易发生变形,改变倾斜角度[61-62]、增加支撑[63-65]等措施优化薄壁构件设计可以在一定程度提升IN718高温合金薄壁的成形精度。Zhou等[61]和胡伟南等[62]探究无支撑结构IN718高温合金薄壁倾斜角度成形过程,发现下表面成形质量受到粘粉以及熔池下陷引起凸起的影响,而上表面受到粘粉、阶梯效应和激光扫描盲区的影响,并建立下表面粗糙度与倾斜角度之间关系,获得30°低角度样件的高质量成形,如图7(a)[61]所示。Vastola等[46]从结构设计的角度考虑,对IN718高温合金方形薄壁零件进行数值模拟,发现较小壁厚(400 μm)时,圆角比尖角更有利于抑制变形,且与零件高度相比,宽度受薄壁宏观变形的影响更大。赵小康等[63]利用有限元对壁厚1 mm的IN718高温合金圆筒薄壁结构进行多次迭代和反向补偿,从而实现对变形缺陷的调控。此外,在支撑结构与薄壁结构的匹配方面,树形、“Y”形和晶格支撑结构的散热性能较差,引起局部区域热集中和热应力升高,反而降低薄壁结构的成形性能。Nie等[65]设计块体、锥子和菱形结构3种IN718高温合金悬挑支撑结构,发现块体支撑结构抵抗翘曲和偏转的能力明显强于锥子和菱形支撑结构(图7(b)[65],这是由于这种结构残余应力较小(1117.4 MPa),可以有效抑制弯曲和变形。
激光成形工艺参数决定激光能量密度输入,最终影响LPBF成形高温合金薄壁的尺寸精度和表面粗糙度。目前主要通过优化激光成形工艺参数、预热基板等方法提升熔池间熔合程度,减少凝固缺陷,提高成形质量。Zea等[66]研究表明,改变激光束扫描偏移量可以提高IN718高温合金薄壁的成形精度,当采用对称的激光补偿输入能量(功率为110 W,扫描速度为312 mm/s)时,可减少理论薄壁厚度(200 μm)与实际成形厚度((195±9) μm)之间的误差。Yang等[67]对宽范围激光功率(200~500 W)和扫描速度(100~1800 mm/s)下进行IN718高温合金薄壁成形,如图8(a)所示,研究发现激光功率为200~400 W或者扫描速度为1500~1800 mm/s时,薄壁试样易出现裂纹。当激光功率高于400 W或扫描速度高于1500 mm/s时,熔池长宽比会降低,熔池内液体流动受到热毛细作用影响较小,激光扫描的薄层粉末能更均匀地熔化成连续液滴,从而抑制裂纹产生。郑俊楠等[68]指出,当激光扫描间距小于激光光斑直径时,相邻熔道重复熔化,重熔区域产生孔隙、球化等缺陷。激光扫描间距与激光光斑直径一致时,相邻熔道之间实现充分搭接,此时孔隙率仅为3.92%,致密度显著提高。当激光扫描间距大于激光光斑直径时,熔道之间无法充分搭接,粉体吸收能量不足,最终导致IN718高温合金薄壁成形质量下降。Cheng等[45]和Papadakis等[69]用更为简化的有限元模型,发现相较于单一方向扫描,采用旋转45°的扫描方式能够降低残余应力,减小试样变形程度。Chowdhury等[70]和Borisov等[71]对基板进行预热,发现较高的预热基板温度(600 ℃)有利于改善沉积层之间结合,提升IN718粉末熔合效果,进而降低元素偏析和减少凝固缺陷,提高IN718高温合金薄壁的成形精度(图8(b)[70]
IN718高温合金含有多种元素且元素间相互作用复杂,调整其中任意元素含量都会影响LPBF成形过程中熔凝行为及相析出规律,因此,对IN718高温合金成分进行优化有望消除凝固缺陷,提升性能[33,72-74]。为了确保LPBF成形高温合金薄壁稳定的成形窗口和优异的力学性能,需要综合考虑高温合金中各元素的作用。Tang等[33]对高温合金成分进行调整,成功避开高裂纹敏感性区间,实现无裂纹的新型合金。不过,这种成分调整降低了γ′相比例,导致高温强度有所下降。Ti和Al元素总含量需保持在一定范围内[72],添加1% (质量分数,下同)Ti元素或者Al元素会形成γ/γ′/γ″夹层结构,显著提高γ″相高温稳定性[73]。适量添加W、Mo、V等难熔元素提高析出强化和固溶强化,从而提升高温强度。另外,当Al元素含量小于0.6%或Ti元素含量大于1%时,合金析出η[74]。加入Co元素可以抑制η相的析出,同时降低基体层错能,提高蠕变性能。Wang等[75]基于高通量第一性原理声子计算构建较为全面的增材制造IN718高温合金热化学数据库,成功预测随温度析出的强化相类型、组成和体积分数,获得实验无法得到的热化学数据,为化学成分调整提供依据。Xiong等[76]通过高通量计算探索IN718高温合金中元素对γ基体和强化相的单独或协同效应,获得了Al、Ti、Nb和W元素含量与析出相及力学性能之间稳定的匹配关系,为调控微量元素提供基础。Tekoğlu等[77]通过LPBF技术在IN718高温合金中加入纳米SiC陶瓷颗粒,原位生成纳米碳化物和硅化物,减少气孔数量,提高拉伸性能。后续研究中,在IN718高温合金中加入纳米ZrB2陶瓷颗粒[78],成功消除孔隙缺陷,显著提升高温性能。因此,除了优化IN718高温合金本身成分含量,引入额外元素也是一种减少甚至消除凝固缺陷的有效手段。
此外,研究人员还尝试一些新方法来实现抑制LPBF成形高温合金缺陷,如外加磁场、超声振动、电磁搅拌等。Du等[79]通过在LPBF制备IN718高温合金过程中添加0.2 T静磁场,熔池内产生更大热梯度,在塞贝克效应作用下产生热电流,在热电流和磁场相互作用下形成洛伦兹力,促进熔体流动,减少孔隙缺陷,致密度超过99.5%。当前,探索调控和抑制激光增材制造制备高温合金薄壁构件缺陷的方法仍是研究热点,且有望成为未来发展的关键方向。
高温合金力学性能是影响高温合金薄壁应用的重要指标。近些年来,国内外研究人员对LPBF成形IN718高温合金室温与高温力学性能展开广泛研究,研究表明,IN718高温合金薄壁构件力学性能受到激光工艺参数、后续处理、厚度等因素综合影响。
在拉伸和疲劳性能方面,Ahmad等[80]探究壁厚、表面加工和热等静压对薄壁和窄流道拉伸性能的影响,发现表面加工和增加厚度均能提高断后伸长率且不降低强度。与热等静压IN718试样相比,未经过热等静压的IN718试样中存在未完全溶解且较大的δ相和部分树枝晶,阻碍位错滑移,形成较短的位错塞积。根据霍尔-佩奇公式,屈服强度与位错堆积长度的平方根成反比,提升拉伸强度。伸长率受到脆性相、表面条件和试样厚度的影响。综合考虑材料强度和塑性得到,1.25 mm厚IN718薄壁和2.5 mm厚IN718窄流道经表面加工和热等静压后抗拉强度分别为1351 MPa和1355 MPa,屈服强度分别为1074 MPa和1082 MPa,断后伸长率分别为29%和41%。Zhang等[81]对比LPBF制备的IN718高温合金薄壁板状与圆棒试样水平和垂直方向沉积态室温拉伸性能,发现板状拉伸试样的水平方向拉伸强度(屈服强度和抗拉强度分别为764 MPa和1058 MPa)高于垂直方向拉伸强度(屈服强度和抗拉强度分别为654 MPa和964 MPa)。这主要是因为晶粒沿垂直方向生长时与拉伸方向垂直,导致应力集中在晶界处,在拉伸过程中无法有效传递应力,因此拉伸性能较低。而圆棒试样的共晶区域存在Nb元素的偏析,且表面存在未熔合和球化的颗粒,导致其垂直方向屈服强度和抗拉强度分别为691 MPa和1017 MPa,高于板状拉伸试样,且误差较小。 Ma等[82]探究均匀化热处理对LPBF成形IN718高温合金薄壁拉伸性能的影响,结果表明与1065 ℃相比,经1100 ℃均匀化热处理的薄壁试样拉伸性能更优异。这是由于均匀化热处理改善Nb元素的偏析程度,固溶热处理时长针状的δ相在晶界处析出,改善合金缺口敏感性,钉扎晶界以提升晶界强度。时效热处理过程中晶内析出γ″相和γ′相,在固溶强化、晶界强化、位错强化、沉淀强化、弥散强化等共同作用下,显著提升拉伸性能。同时,研究厚度(0.25~2.0 mm)对IN718高温合金薄壁疲劳性能的影响规律发现,随着厚度与晶粒尺寸比减小,薄壁试样疲劳寿命缩短,与1065 ℃相比,经1100 ℃均匀化热处理的薄壁试样疲劳寿命更高。Wan等[83]发现,经机械加工的IN718高温合金薄壁试样疲劳强度(405 MPa)比未经机械加工的试样提高约50%。另外,研究得到,1.3 mm厚IN718高温合金薄壁试样具有更强的<001>织构,并经历了更大的累积循环塑性应变,疲劳寿命较3.3 mm厚薄壁试样有所降低。
LPBF成形高温合金薄壁构件硬度对工程化应用具有重要意义,硬度与材料强度具有一定关系。结构设计、激光工艺参数、后处理等多种因素均会影响高温合金薄壁的硬度。Zhang等[81]采用Oliver-Pharr方法测量IN718高温合金薄壁支柱不同区域硬度,无共晶区域硬度偏差最小,平均值高达5.89 GPa,不规则共晶区硬度偏差最大,平均值仅为3.91 GPa。Ferrarotti等[84]研究结果表明,IN718高温合金块状试样垂直(XZ)方向平均硬度为300HV,体对角线晶胞结构试样相对密度高于金刚石单元晶胞结构和菱形十二面体晶胞结构,其垂直方向平均硬度高达335HV。Voyiadjis等[85]对比0.4、0.6 mm和0.8 mm壁厚的LPBF成形 IN718高温合金蜂窝状结构硬度,结果表明靠近边缘区域平均硬度比远离边缘区域低4.0%~6.5%,随着壁厚从0.8 mm减小到0.4 mm,平均硬度下降15.2%。热处理后,强化相析出,显微硬度明显提升。Ouyang等[86]对LPBF成形IN718高温合金薄壁进行不同方式后处理,发现经过热处理薄壁试样平均硬度为445HV。经过激光冲击、喷丸及两者共同作用,表面和中心均发生加工硬化,表面硬度显著增加,高于540HV。
IN718高温合金薄壁的一体化激光增材制造已经成为先进高温结构材料领域的研究热点,经过多年发展,从最初的IN718高温合金简单形状成形逐步发展到大尺寸成形、组织调控与缺陷抑制及工程化应用阶段,取得突破性进展。尽管如此,当前IN718高温合金薄壁在严苛环境下工程适用性仍存在关键性能不足等问题。为了进一步推动激光增材制造IN718高温合金薄壁在高温热端构件的应用进程,亟需在基础科学和关键技术领域进行探讨和突破。
(1)建立适合高温合金薄壁的激光成形工艺数据库。激光增材制造过程工艺参数影响复杂,薄壁构件在成形过程中产生的应力和应变导致严重变形,降低尺寸精度和表面质量。尤其是厚度越薄(低于1.5 mm),后续处理和加工越困难,甚至无法进行装配。因此,有必要系统深入研究激光成形工艺参数与薄壁成形精度的关系。通过开展多组实验,改变激光功率、扫描速度、扫描间距等关键参数,测量成形薄壁构件的尺寸精度、表面粗糙度、变形量等数据,分析工艺参数对成形质量的影响规律。在此基础上,建立包含各种工艺参数组合及对应成形质量数据的工艺数据库,并确定稳定的成形窗口。同时,借助有限元模拟等手段预测成形过程中应力分布和变形趋势,为工艺参数优化提供理论支撑。通过模拟与实验相结合,最终实现IN718薄壁构件的成形质量、微观组织及力学性能的精准调控。
(2)研究LPBF成形高温合金薄壁凝固缺陷形成及调控新方法。激光与粉末的交互作用涉及传热、传质、对流等过程,当前手段主要集中在成形后缺陷的表征,难以捕捉凝固时缺陷萌生与扩展行为的动态信息,这严重阻碍对凝固缺陷机理的深入了解和有效调控。为此,借助同步辐射、中子衍射等技术手段对凝固缺陷的原位、动态、无损表征等多方面优势,实现应力、相变等瞬时信息的快速获取,从而为深入了解凝固缺陷的形成机理提供关键数据支撑。另外,结合超声振动,促进熔体的流动和均匀性,减少凝固缺陷形成;通过引入磁场,影响熔体对流行为,改变凝固过程中溶质分布,降低元素偏析。同时,结合智能制造理念,利用实时监测和反馈控制,进一步优化制造过程,提高零件质量和性能。通过多场调控与LPBF技术相结合,有望实现对凝固缺陷的有效控制。
(3)优化高性能高温合金薄壁构件材料的化学成分。由于高温合金中各元素之间交互作用,导致枝晶间和晶界易出现元素偏析,不仅改变材料的裂纹敏感性,而且在激光增材制造过程中难以兼顾材料适用性和高性能。为解决这一难题,采用物理学、机器学习、材料基因组与大数据分析相结合的方法,将相关元素纳入数据集,建立并完善机器学习模型边界条件。通过对关键合金元素进行筛选、递归消除、排序等操作,优化迭代设计成分,消除元素偏析现象。同时,整合遗传搜索、聚类分析与实验反馈,借助高通量计算实现成分-性能关联,提升设计效率,降低成本。在此基础上,结合热力学计算与遗传算法,进一步优化合金成分,快速预测不同组合条件下合金性能。通过融合高通量计算等方法将为IN718高温合金薄壁构件的成分优化提供有力支撑,推动材料设计向智能化和高效化发展。
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2025年第45卷第5期
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doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000080
  • 接收时间:2025-05-08
  • 首发时间:2026-04-09
  • 出版时间:2025-10-01
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  • 收稿日期:2025-05-08
  • 录用日期:2025-06-09
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    1西北工业大学 凝固技术全国重点实验室,西安 710072
    2西北工业大学 深圳研究院,广东 深圳 518057

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苏海军(1981—),男,博士,教授,研究方向为先进定向凝固技术与理论及新材料,联系地址:陕西省西安市碑林区友谊西路127号西北工业大学(710072),E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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