Article(id=1249065614082515810, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, issueId=1249065613306569569, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000158, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1755792000000, receivedDateStr=2025-08-22, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1756915200000, acceptedDateStr=2025-09-04, onlineDate=1775730048914, onlineDateStr=2026-04-09, pubDate=1759248000000, pubDateStr=2025-10-01, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1775730048914, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-04-09, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1775730048914, creator=13041195026, updateTime=1775730048914, updator=13041195026, issue=Issue{id=1249065613306569569, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, year='2025', volume='45', issue='5', pageStart='1', pageEnd='182', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1775730048728, creator=13041195026, updateTime=1775730148042, updator=13041195026, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1249066029947757306, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, issueId=1249065613306569569, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1249066029951951611, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, issueId=1249065613306569569, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1, endPage=25, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1249065614355145573, articleId=1249065614082515810, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, language=EN, title=Precise tailoring of manufacturing processes for superalloys:strategy,methodology and validation, columnId=1249065614292231012, journalTitle=Journal of Aeronautical Materials, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

As a critical strategic material for aero-engines and industrial gas turbines, the composition/process design, optimization and process control of superalloys remain at the core of industry concerns. The present work focuses on addressing practical challenges in the development and production of superalloys and their components. It identifies key influencing factors in typical processes within the manufacturing workflow and employs a combination of advanced characterization techniques such as synchrotron radiation and high-throughput experimental methods. This integrated approach enables the design and optimization of critical process parameters for superalloy manufacturing, thereby providing foundational support for enhancing process technology, product performance, research and development efficiency, and reducing costs. Taking representative manufacturing processes involving liquid-solid and solid-solid phase transformations as examples, we explore precision tailoring strategies and validation methods for key stages including master alloy melting/remelting, synergistic particle size/morphology control in gas atomization, shrinkage porosity control during casting solidification, powder storage/desorption treatments, powder consolidation through hot isostatic pressing(HIP) and heat treatment procedures. In addition, optimal usage conditions are investigated for auxiliary materials or consumables integral to superalloy production, particularly ceramics, isothermal forging dies and brazing repair materials. Notably, the research on process tailoring reveals significant phenomena: (1)the impact of oxygen existence forms in cast and powder metallurgy alloys; (2)the influence of the initial microstructural state of alloys on the phase transformation temperature during HIP consolidation and heat treatment; (3)the formation and control of abnormal phases and defects in cast, powder metallurgy and additive manufacturing alloys, along with repair materials for brazing and ceramic refractories. The aforementioned findings establish a theoretical foundation for optimizing and tailoring superalloy process parameters and achieving precise manufacturing control, while also providing feasible technical pathways for industrial implementation.

, correspAuthors=Liang ZHENG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Journal of Aeronautical Materials. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Liang ZHENG, Guoqing ZHANG, Lichong ZHANG, Wenyong XU, Zhou LI), CN=ArticleExt(id=1249065618130019202, articleId=1249065614082515810, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024468962553931, language=CN, title=高温合金制备工艺精确定制:策略、方法与验证, columnId=1249065614468391782, journalTitle=航空材料学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

高温合金作为航空发动机及工业燃气轮机等重大装备的关键战略材料,其成分/工艺设计优化与过程控制始终是业界关注的核心问题。本工作聚焦高温合金及其部件研制与生产过程中的实际问题,识别制备流程中典型工艺的关键影响因素,综合运用同步辐射等先进表征技术和高通量实验等方法,设计并优化高温合金制备的关键工艺参数,为工艺技术水平、产品性能、合格率和研发效率提升以及成本降低提供支撑。以涉及液-固与固-固相变的高温合金制备工艺为例,研究母合金熔炼与重熔、气雾化制粉粒度/粒形协同控制、铸造凝固过程孔缺陷控制、粉末存储与除气降氧处理、粉末热等静压固结成形以及热处理等关键环节的精确定制策略与验证方法。同时,还探讨了与高温合金制备过程密切相关的关键辅助材料,如陶瓷耐火材料评价、等温锻造模具材料以及钎焊修复材料的优选使用条件。另外,在工艺定制研究过程中,揭示了若干值得关注的现象:(1)铸造和粉末合金中氧存在形式的影响;(2)合金初始组织状态对热等静压固结成形和热处理过程相变温度的影响;(3)铸造、粉末和增材制造合金、钎焊修复用材料和陶瓷耐火材料中反常相和缺陷的形成与控制等。上述研究为高温合金制备工艺参数的优化定制及工艺过程的精确控制奠定理论基础,并为工业化应用提供可行的实践技术路径。

, correspAuthors=郑亮, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
郑亮(1979—),男,博士,研究员,研究方向为高温结构材料及其制备与表征技术,联系地址:北京81号信箱1分箱(100095),E-mail:
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高温合金制备工艺精确定制:策略、方法与验证
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郑亮 * , 张国庆 , 张利冲 , 许文勇 , 李周
航空材料学报 | 综述 2025,45(5): 1-25
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航空材料学报 | 综述 2025, 45(5): 1-25
高温合金制备工艺精确定制:策略、方法与验证
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郑亮* , 张国庆, 张利冲, 许文勇, 李周
作者信息
  • 中国航发北京航空材料研究院 先进高温结构材料重点实验室,北京 100095

通讯作者:

郑亮(1979—),男,博士,研究员,研究方向为高温结构材料及其制备与表征技术,联系地址:北京81号信箱1分箱(100095),E-mail:
Precise tailoring of manufacturing processes for superalloys:strategy,methodology and validation
Liang ZHENG* , Guoqing ZHANG, Lichong ZHANG, Wenyong XU, Zhou LI
Affiliations
  • Science and Technology on Advanced High Temperature Structural Materials Laboratory,AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials,Beijing 100095,China
出版时间: 2025-10-01 doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000158
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高温合金作为航空发动机及工业燃气轮机等重大装备的关键战略材料,其成分/工艺设计优化与过程控制始终是业界关注的核心问题。本工作聚焦高温合金及其部件研制与生产过程中的实际问题,识别制备流程中典型工艺的关键影响因素,综合运用同步辐射等先进表征技术和高通量实验等方法,设计并优化高温合金制备的关键工艺参数,为工艺技术水平、产品性能、合格率和研发效率提升以及成本降低提供支撑。以涉及液-固与固-固相变的高温合金制备工艺为例,研究母合金熔炼与重熔、气雾化制粉粒度/粒形协同控制、铸造凝固过程孔缺陷控制、粉末存储与除气降氧处理、粉末热等静压固结成形以及热处理等关键环节的精确定制策略与验证方法。同时,还探讨了与高温合金制备过程密切相关的关键辅助材料,如陶瓷耐火材料评价、等温锻造模具材料以及钎焊修复材料的优选使用条件。另外,在工艺定制研究过程中,揭示了若干值得关注的现象:(1)铸造和粉末合金中氧存在形式的影响;(2)合金初始组织状态对热等静压固结成形和热处理过程相变温度的影响;(3)铸造、粉末和增材制造合金、钎焊修复用材料和陶瓷耐火材料中反常相和缺陷的形成与控制等。上述研究为高温合金制备工艺参数的优化定制及工艺过程的精确控制奠定理论基础,并为工业化应用提供可行的实践技术路径。

高温合金  /  制备工艺定制  /  粉末冶金  /  铸造  /  增材制造  /  钎焊  /  辅助材料  /  高通量实验  /  同步辐射  /  氧存在形式  /  反常相  /  缺陷

As a critical strategic material for aero-engines and industrial gas turbines, the composition/process design, optimization and process control of superalloys remain at the core of industry concerns. The present work focuses on addressing practical challenges in the development and production of superalloys and their components. It identifies key influencing factors in typical processes within the manufacturing workflow and employs a combination of advanced characterization techniques such as synchrotron radiation and high-throughput experimental methods. This integrated approach enables the design and optimization of critical process parameters for superalloy manufacturing, thereby providing foundational support for enhancing process technology, product performance, research and development efficiency, and reducing costs. Taking representative manufacturing processes involving liquid-solid and solid-solid phase transformations as examples, we explore precision tailoring strategies and validation methods for key stages including master alloy melting/remelting, synergistic particle size/morphology control in gas atomization, shrinkage porosity control during casting solidification, powder storage/desorption treatments, powder consolidation through hot isostatic pressing(HIP) and heat treatment procedures. In addition, optimal usage conditions are investigated for auxiliary materials or consumables integral to superalloy production, particularly ceramics, isothermal forging dies and brazing repair materials. Notably, the research on process tailoring reveals significant phenomena: (1)the impact of oxygen existence forms in cast and powder metallurgy alloys; (2)the influence of the initial microstructural state of alloys on the phase transformation temperature during HIP consolidation and heat treatment; (3)the formation and control of abnormal phases and defects in cast, powder metallurgy and additive manufacturing alloys, along with repair materials for brazing and ceramic refractories. The aforementioned findings establish a theoretical foundation for optimizing and tailoring superalloy process parameters and achieving precise manufacturing control, while also providing feasible technical pathways for industrial implementation.

superalloys  /  manufacturing process tailoring  /  powder metallurgy  /  casting  /  additive manufacturing  /  brazing  /  consumables  /  high-throughput experiment  /  synchrotron radiation  /  oxygen existence form  /  abnormal phase  /  defect
郑亮, 张国庆, 张利冲, 许文勇, 李周. 高温合金制备工艺精确定制:策略、方法与验证. 航空材料学报, 2025 , 45 (5) : 1 -25 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000158
Liang ZHENG, Guoqing ZHANG, Lichong ZHANG, Wenyong XU, Zhou LI. Precise tailoring of manufacturing processes for superalloys:strategy,methodology and validation[J]. Journal of Aeronautical Materials, 2025 , 45 (5) : 1 -25 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000158
高温合金问世于20世纪40年代,最初为了满足喷气发动机对材料的严酷要求而研制,至今已成为燃气涡轮发动机热端部件不可替代的关键材料。当前,高温合金因其在高低温环境下优异的力学性能和卓越的环境抗力,已被广泛应用于航空发动机、工业燃气轮机[1-3]、等温锻造模具[4]、核工业[5]、深海油气 [6] 等多个领域。在一些前沿技术领域,如氢燃料航空发动机[7-9]、高超声速飞行器[10-11]等,由于其良好的综合性能,作为传统结构材料仍然潜力巨大。航空发动机是当前高温合金最主要的应用场景之一,在航发热端部件中的占比达到60%以上,被誉为“先进航空发动机基石”。发动机关键部件包括压气机、涡轮、燃烧室、传动系统、紧固件等,几乎都会用到高温合金,其中以三大核心部件——压气机、燃烧室、涡轮的应用最为广泛。高温合金按基体元素种类可分为镍基、铁基和钴基合金,按照主要强化类型可分为固溶强化型和沉淀强化型合金,按照材料的成形工艺又可分为变形合金、铸造合金、粉末合金、增材制造(additive manufacturing,AM)合金等。
经过几十年发展,高温合金在成分与制备工艺的主流体系已基本成熟。然而,随着涡轮前进口温度的不断提高,最高服役温度已达到合金熔点的90%,镍基高温合金新成分的可探索空间已接近物理极限。与此同时,高温合金及其部件的制备工艺(如工艺参数设计与过程控制等)仍面临诸多挑战,成为制约行业发展的主要瓶颈。因此,对现有合金制备工艺进行精确优化与稳定控制,今后将是高温合金领域的关键发展方向。
如果说高温合金的成分发展可简化为γ′相含量与组成的持续演进,那么其制备工艺的发展则更为多元化,经历了几个标志性阶段:自20世纪40年代真空熔炼技术取得突破,合金的气体和杂质含量显著降低,使添加更多活性元素(如Al和Ti)形成有效的沉淀强化成为可能[1,12];60年代,伴随合金化程度提高与构件日益复杂,高温合金叶片制造呈现“以铸代锻”趋势,紧随其后的是定向凝固技术取得突破,通过获得定向柱晶消除横向晶界,甚至单晶结构彻底消除晶界,使合金使用温度上限实现显著提升[13-14];60~70年代,气雾化粉末制备技术开始兴起[15-16],为解决高合金化导致的铸锭宏观偏析及后续加工涡轮盘件厚大截面构件变形困难等问题,粉末冶金技术开始用于军用发动机涡轮盘制备[17];近年来,为制造传统工艺难以实现的复杂结构件,增材制造被引入高温合金制备领域[18],与此同时,数字孪生、在线监测与实时反馈自动控制等智能化技术也正逐步融入制造流程[19-20],共同提升高温合金及其零部件的制造水平。
高温合金制备工艺多样,流程长,因此工艺控制难度大。图1梳理出若干典型的高温合金成形工艺流程。高品质高温合金部件通常以预合金化棒材作为原材料,首先需要制备成分均匀、气体和杂质元素含量低的母合金。母合金经过重熔后可直接浇注成叶片、结构件等铸件,或者制备成微米级粉末备用。粉末随后经过热等静压(hot isostatic pressing,HIP)固结成形制备粉末冶金涡轮盘件,或用于增材制造打印复杂结构部件。上述几类零件成形后,通常还需再经热处理工艺进行组织调控以优化力学性能。此外,从合金制备、零部件成形到服役维护,整个产品生命周期还会贯穿多种辅助材料的使用,其质量控制也是不可或缺的环节。以上仅为高温合金制备的总体流程,实际工艺链更为冗长,细分工序可达数十甚至上百道。因此,对各工序的严格控制尤为重要——任何工艺环节的微小偏差,在长流程中累积放大,将导致终端产品质量和成品率下降。在整个工艺流程中,均需精确控制特定工艺参数,以确保产品兼具稳定的品质与优异的性能。然而,当前高温合金在工艺设计与过程优化控制方面仍面临缺乏充分理论支撑、精细化程度不足、控制点覆盖不够全面等问题。
本工作立足于高温合金制备工艺过程中多重影响因素,聚焦铸造和粉末高温合金制备流程中关键工艺,旨在为合金工艺参数的精确定制优化与工艺过程稳定控制提供理论依据和技术支撑。
在高温合金生产流程中,部分工序涉及液-固转变,如高温合金母合金锭制备以及后续重熔浇注过程。值得注意的是,重熔后凝固方式的不同也会形成具有不同组织和性能的产品。例如,雾化制粉工艺中金属熔体与高速惰性气体交互作用可制备出微米级粒径的球形高温合金粉末,该粉末可用于粉末冶金或增材制造;而将母合金重熔后可直接浇注进陶瓷型壳,通过熔模精密铸造工艺成形高温合金铸件。另一些工序主要经历固-固转变,例如粉末的转运、存储和除气降氧工艺、粉末冶金高温合金的热等静压固结成形工艺以及各类合金的热处理过程。此外,辅助材料在高温合金制备过程的应用及其工艺控制也至关重要。例如,母合金熔炼和重熔所用的陶瓷坩埚、铸件制备所需的陶瓷型壳和型芯以及气雾化粉末制备环节涉及的坩埚、中间包和导流管等,都大量采用陶瓷材料;高温合金粉末涡轮盘等锻件成形需依赖等温锻造模具材料;在零部件修复领域,宽间隙钎焊(wide-gap brazing,WGB)用同种高温合金粉末作为填缝支撑材料,配合低熔点钎料使用。这些辅助材料的优选以及制备和使用过程工艺和缺陷控制通常对主材料性能影响显著,需予以高度关注。
针对上述关键工艺控制点,依据高温合金及构件生产流程图(图1),梳理高温合金制备工艺的定制和优化方向(图2),结合高通量实验、同步辐射大科学装置等先进表征手段有针对性开展研究,可为工艺参数的精确定制提供有力支撑。
航空发动机三大核心热端部件(涡轮盘、涡轮叶片和结构件)的制备几乎离不开真空熔炼过程。该过程中氧含量控制是决定零部件最终质量和服役性能的关键因素。然而,熔炼与重熔过程中控氧策略及其工艺参数阈值缺乏科学设定依据长期困扰科研人员。
高温合金零部件制备通常始于母合金锭,即熔炼不同元素原料获得预合金化母合金,它是获得高质量部件的前提。随着对母合金品质要求的不断提高,关注焦点已从早期的主要元素成分控制,转向影响合金净度的气体和微量杂质元素含量的精确控制[21-22]。高温合金中常见的气体元素包括氧、氮和氢。以氧为例,气体含量的测试结果代表合金中不同形态氧的总量,气体含量越高,合金性能通常越差。例如,氧含量分别为0.002%(质量分数,下同)和0.0006%的K4648高温合金,其室温冲击韧性分别为13.2 J/cm2和34.5 J/cm2[23]。因此,必须在制备过程中严格控制气体含量,其关键在于原材料纯度和熔炼过程环境介质控制。
零件的最终成形通常需要将母合金进行真空感应熔炼(vacuum induction melting,VIM)重熔。重熔后可采用定向凝固工艺铸造单晶(single crystal,SX)、定向(directionally solidified,DS)以及普通铸造(conventional casting,CC)等轴晶叶片或结构件,或通过雾化工艺制备粉末,进而生产粉末冶金(powder metallurgy,PM)涡轮盘或增材制造复杂构件。尤其对于高应力转动部件,其对合金净度要求极高,“10–6”(质量分数)量级氧含量已成为普遍控制水平[24]。在此背景下,母合金制备及重熔过程真空度和保持时间控制是实现氧含量精准调控的关键因素,直接影响零部件的质量和性能。以往研究采用电子束(electron beam,EB)纽扣锭汇聚合金中微量氧化物,评价合金纯净度[25],但由于高温合金通常含有10种以上元素,氧化物的组成极其复杂,仍然难以进行定性和定量分析。同步辐射以其高通量和高分辨特点,在合金微量相定量分析方面具备优势[26-28],可以弥补传统表征手段的不足。采用EB纽扣锭熔炼,结合同步辐射X射线粉末衍射(synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction,SXPD)技术对高温合金中微量氧化物夹杂进行高真空汇聚和精确分析[29]。考察3种接近生产条件的真空度(正常真空度 <1 Pa、短时轻微漏气100 Pa/1 min、长时轻微漏气100 Pa/10 min)对合金气体含量、痕量氧化物夹杂及力学性能的影响[30],为合金制备过程中真空度容限的选择提供依据。与母合金气体含量的影响结果不同,重熔过程中正常真空和漏气后较低真空条件相比,合金总氧含量差异不大(分别为0.0012%和0.0015%,见图3[30]。然而,EB结合SXPD分析表明,重熔后合金的氧化物夹杂含量却相差两个数量级(分别为0.76 mm2/kg和59.1 mm2/kg),漏气后合金中氧化物夹杂更多,且组成更复杂。二者力学性能也呈现差异:雷达图显示,真空度降低对持久寿命和拉伸强度影响较小,主要影响塑性——真空轻微降低条件下合金室温拉伸断面收缩率和冲击韧性分别降低67%和39%(图3[30]
采用气体分析、高真空EB纽扣锭重熔顺序凝固和SXPD结合的方式,研究重熔真空度对合金组织和性能的影响,为熔炼和重熔真空度容限的选择提供支撑。值得注意的是,接近生产条件下高温合金重熔过程真空度短时降低,对气体含量(氧总量)影响不大,但影响合金中内生氧化物夹杂的含量和组成,进而影响合金力学性能。熔炼过程真空度短时降低虽未导致气体含量发生数量级变化(总氧含量仅从0.0012%升至0.0015%),且力学性能在部分指标上仍能满足合金技术条件要求,这对静止部件的应用环境影响不大。然而,对于服役条件更苛刻的转动部件,其性能(尤其是塑性)显著下降应引起高度关注。在制备高温合金新料和返回料零部件时,要关注合金中氧的存在形式,不仅要控制合金中气体含量(氧总量),还要关注内生氧化夹杂物含量(氧化夹杂物)。
高温合金粉末是粉末冶金涡轮盘和增材制造复杂构件的材料基础,两种工艺路线均对粉末的粒度分布与颗粒形貌提出特定要求。对于粉末冶金固结成形涡轮盘件,其严苛的夹杂物尺寸容限要求在可接受的氧含量下,粉末粒度需尽可能细小[31],并通过筛分技术同步控制夹杂物尺寸上限;同时,粉末需具备较高的球形度[32],以提升包套装填时的松装和振实密度[33]。在增材制造领域,不同工艺对粒度要求各异:铺粉工艺(如选区激光熔化(selective laser melting,SLM))通常采用粒径15~53 μm细粉[34],送粉工艺(如激光粉末沉积(laser powder deposition,LPD))选用粒径53~150 μm粗粉[35],但两者均追求高球形度粉末,保障送粉工艺优异流动性,有利于铺粉工艺实现均匀铺层[36]。然而,粒度与形貌的控制因素相互制约,例如细粉比例增加易诱发卫星粉形成,粗粉比例增加又会增加空心粉比例,影响整体粉末形貌,使得二者协同优化极具挑战。为揭示粒度与外部(球形度/卫星粉)和内部(空心粉)形貌协同控制机制,结合计算流体动力学(computational fluid dynamics,CFD)数值模拟与气雾化(gas atomization,GA)实验,探究雾化气体调控压力和温度的影响,结果表明:在2.0~3.5 MPa压力范围内,3.0 MPa是实现粒度与球形度及空心粉含量较佳平衡的关键点,压力继续升高,二者变化趋于平缓(图4[37]。此外,采用100 ℃高温惰性气体雾化可获得更显著的粉末细化效果及更高的球形度。基于此,研究确定实现最优粒度-形貌平衡的雾化压力参数,为高温合金粉末制备工艺参数的制定和精确调控提供重要依据。
采用CFD数值模拟和雾化实验结合的方式研究粉末粒度粒形的影响因素,研究气体调控(雾化气体压力和温度)对高温合金粉末粒度和内/外部形貌的影响,由此确定最优雾化压力、温度和粒度粒形的平衡,为粉末制备雾化工艺参数的精确定制提供支持。
熔模精密铸造是当前高温合金铸件的主要成形方法,热裂[38-39]、疏松/缩孔[40-41]等缺陷控制始终是该制造过程的关键瓶颈。尤其对于大型厚壁复杂结构等轴晶铸件,由于难以实现顺序凝固,其疏松倾向性显著高于单晶及定向凝固合金零部件。热控凝固(thermal controlled solidification,TCS)技术是一种抑制疏松形成的等轴晶高温合金制备技术[42],由于其壳型温度顶部和底部温区设置为不同温度,可能会对铸件组织一致性产生影响。枝晶间熔体凝固控制(interdendritic melt solidification control,IMSC)工艺是一种采用统一壳温和抽拉工艺设计的铸造工艺,可有效减少高温合金等轴晶铸件凝固过程中疏松和缩孔缺陷的形成[43]
图5给出普通铸造与IMSC技术原理[44-45]。在普通铸造工艺中,合金熔体浇注至预热陶瓷壳型(温度通常远低于合金固相线温度TSolidus),初始凝固阶段合金温度T1 高于液相线温度TLiquidus,处于完全液相区;当温度降至T2时,开始形成初生γ枝晶;随着温度持续降至T3,枝晶继续生长并形成枝晶间熔体毛细管网络。缩孔的形成与凝固后期液/固体积分数相关,因此当温度达到T4时,熔体毛细管网断裂导致残余液相区孤立,后续凝固过程中缩孔缺陷易在孤立熔池区域形成。两种制备技术的核心差异在于,IMSC技术将壳型预热并恒温维持于合金液-固相线温度区间内。当壳型在恒温T3时,枝晶骨架充分生长且残余液相体积分数足以维持枝晶间熔体毛细管网的连通状态,此时有利于持续补缩。随后以特定速度将壳型从加热区向下抽离(类似定向凝固),抽拉过程始终保持枝晶间毛细管通道内连通的熔体持续补缩,冷却至低温T5,最终获得无孔缺陷的等轴晶组织(上述过程中不同阶段的温度高低顺序T1 >TLiquidus >T2 > T3 >T4 >TSolidus >T5)。
壳型保温温度的精准设定是IMSC工艺核心,通过等温凝固淬火(isothermal solidification quenching,ISQ)实验确定(图5[44-45]。以IN792合金为例,ISQ实验揭示IN792合金凝固过程中温度、液相体积分数与枝晶间熔体空间配置的关联规律。1330 ℃时合金呈全液态,1325 ℃时液相体积分数降至64%,1300 ℃时随温度下降枝晶间熔体急剧减少,液相体积分数达15.7%,此时残余液相仍通过枝晶通道内毛细管网保持连通,1270 ℃时仅存6.6%液相,枝晶间熔体网络破碎。在低于液相线仅30 ℃(约1300 ℃)时,虽然凝固区固相分数已达84%,但枝晶间补缩通道仍保持通畅和补缩功能。基于ISQ实验结果,IN792合金的IMSC铸造工艺将壳型温度设定在约1300 ℃,此温度远高于普通铸造的壳型保温温度(900~1000 ℃),配合一定抽拉速度(5~20 mm/min)制备出IMSC铸件,并采用同步辐射X射线衍射(synchrontron X-ray diffraction,SXRD)鉴别IMSC和CC铸件中微量相(图5[44-45]。值得注意的是,无论是IMSC还是CC,同样的合金和制备工艺对比,铸件的缩孔含量要高于试棒,而精确定制抽拉速度和壳型温度的IMSC工艺制备铸件缩孔数量仅比试棒略高,CC铸件中甚至出现毫米级缩孔群,也说明实际构件的工艺条件较试棒更苛刻,工艺设计需要留出更大裕度空间,从缩孔控制的角度,IMSC工艺更优异。
采用等温凝固淬火和高能同步辐射X射线衍射结合的方式确定和验证一种抑制缩孔形成的等轴晶高温合金IMSC制备工艺的最优参数。结果表明:壳型温度的优选遵循合金凝固过程残余液体保持毛细管沟通的温度,以慢速至中等速度抽拉,孔缺陷减少1个数量级,仅为普通铸造工艺的1/5,但由于凝固冷速较慢,枝晶间距和析出相尺寸略有升高。优选1300 ℃壳温[44]与5~10 mm/min抽拉速度[45]工艺组合,实现IMSC工艺壳型保温温度和抽拉速度的精确定制(图5)。
高温合金粉末是粉末冶金涡轮盘的首选材料,也是增材制造高性能复杂构件的基材。粉末在整个生产工序中除了制粉和筛分,不可避免地也会经历转运和存储环节[46-49],其高比表面积特性导致在接触空气介质时易发生氧化、吸湿与结块,使氧含量升高1~2个数量级(增氧效应),存储转运过程中环境介质控制尤为关键。为此,通过小环境平行试样高通量实验[50],系统测定不同粒径(<15、≤53 μm和150~180 μm)高温合金粉末在6种存储介质(常规环境:空气;优越环境:真空和氩气;恶劣环境:纯氧、潮湿空气和湿热空气)存储不同时间(0.5~500天)后氧含量及粉末表面氧化膜厚度变化(图6[51-53]。其中,氧含量测量采用氧氮分析仪,氧化膜厚度采用X射线光电子能谱(X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy,XPS)测量,并用高角环形暗场扫描透射电镜成像(high-angle annular dark-feild scanning transmission electron microscopy,HAADF-STEM)对部分粉末表面厚度进行验证(图6)。可以看出,同样的存储条件下,细粉氧含量比粗粉高出一个数量级。不同存储环境介质对粉末氧含量产生明显影响,同时对粉末表面氧化膜厚度影响明显(图6)。潮湿环境以及高温潮湿环境较常规大气环境粉末氧含量最高增加100%,氧化膜厚度增加30%。存储实验结果表明,不同介质内存储的高温合金粉末氧含量都有不同程度上升,其中优越环境介质存储(真空和氩气环境)的粉末氧含量绝对值相对较低,而恶劣环境湿热空气中粉末的氧含量最高,甚至达到0.045%。因此应尽量选用真空(负压)和氩气(正压)保护环境存储和转运高温合金粉末,而应尽可能避免粉末接触高温潮湿环境(如梅雨季节的空气)。存储时间对粉末氧含量的影响研究结果表明,不同干燥介质内存储的高温合金粉末氧含量都是在相对短时间内(5~7天)快速升高,潮湿空气更短(约3天),而后进入平台期(10~500天甚至更久),氧含量基本不再发生明显变化。因此,存储转运周期当以合金粉末进入氧含量平台期之前进行控氧最为有效(如7天内)。在氧含量进入平台期前将粉末进行热等静压固结成形,以锁定粉末的低氧状态。形成块体材料后,合金的氧含量几乎不会再随存储转运条件转变而变化。超过平台期的粉末,存储时间已不再敏感,一旦发生升氧,只能靠后期除气工艺降氧后再使用。
采用小环境平行试样高通量测定不同粒度高温合金粉末在不同存储介质(空气、纯氧、真空、氩气、潮湿空气和湿热空气)和存储不同时间(0.5~500天)后氧含量及粉末表面氧化膜厚度变化。找到了粉末氧含量随粒度、介质和时间变化的影响规律。据此,提出工艺优化策略:(1)粉末筛分、转运和存储过程优先采用氩气(微正压)或真空(负压)环境,全流程严禁接触高温潮湿介质;(2)在氧含量平台期前(≤7天)完成热等静压固结,通过致密化锁定低氧状态(块体材料氧含量不再受存储条件影响);(3)超期粉末存储时间已不再敏感,需经后期除氧工艺处理方可使用。
高温合金粉末在雾化制粉、存储及转运过程中不可避免发生增氧现象,其氧含量可比同成分块体材料高1~2个数量级。通过真空除气降氧工艺可有效降低氧含量至可接受水平,以满足合金和部件服役要求。粉末的除气效果跟氧存在形式密切相关,比如表面氧化是在粉末的表面形成氧化膜和不连续分布的氧化物,氧化膜随着粉末在空气中暴露逐渐增厚,到一定程度钝化停止,这一部分氧很难脱除。另外,粉末表面还会吸附氧气、水蒸气等含氧气体,可通过除气工艺去除。粉末除气降氧的主要机制是在持续抽真空条件下升温保温,物理吸附的气体会在保温温度脱附,同时表面化学吸附物质发生Ni(OH)2→NiO + H2O↑和NiCO3→NiO + CO2↑等反应释放出含氧气体,最终实现粉末表面氧含量的有效降低[53]。真空除气处理(vacuum degassing,VD)是一种在动态真空条件下对合金粉末进行加热进而实现粉末表面气体脱附的处理工艺,除气保温温度是除气降氧处理工艺的核心参数。以往工艺应用单一温度除气和组合除气,实现高温合金粉末氧含量降低,与传统单一温度(300 ℃)工艺相比,采用组合温度(300 ℃+600 ℃)保温除气工艺 氧含量从0.014%降到0.0113%,氧含量降低后,合金性能随之提升。引入催化领域常用的程序升温脱附质谱联用技术(temperature-programmed desorption-mass spectrometry,TPD-MS)可用于研究高温合金粉末表面吸附气体的脱附行为。以往文献报道采用气相色谱-质谱(gas chromatography-mass spectrometry,GC-MS)[54-55]和TPD-MS[56-58]研究铝合金粉末气体脱附规律。采用TPD-MS测定高温合金粉末从室温至1000 ℃含氧气体的脱出随温度变化曲线,研究不同合金成分和不同粒度的影响[59]。识别曲线中特征峰位置,精确确定高温合金粉末升温脱附曲线峰位所处温度作为除气保温温度组合[60]。采用窄粒径粗/细粉末和高温加湿的方法测试均可精确识别水蒸气脱附双峰(图7),并针对性地采用25 ℃+150 ℃+310 ℃+470 ℃低温-中温-高温组合多级真空除气[61],使空气中存储超过1年的高温合金粉末(≤53 μm)氧含量进一步降低至0.0087%~0.0096%(图7[53],氧含量较传统工艺降低1个数量级[53]。此外,对不同成分和粒径的高温合金粉末有针对性地定制除气工艺[61]
采用TPD-MS和真空除气(VD)实验结合的方式,研究不同成分、粒径和湿度高温合金粉末气体脱出规律,依据气体脱出峰位温度设定多级除气工艺,将空气中存储1年的高温合金粉末(≤ 53 μm)氧含量降至0.0096%以内,实现高温合金粉末除气降氧工艺的精确定制。
热等静压的基本原理是在密闭容器中以惰性气体作为压力传递介质,使材料在加热过程中经受各向均衡的压力,借助于高温(1000~2000 ℃)与高压(100~200 MPa)共同作用,对合金粉末进行压制烧结和致密化固结成形的技术[62]。高温合金粉末制备具有低偏析特征厚大截面的涡轮盘件需要通过热等静压固结成形,成型过程中粉末颗粒边界彼此结合[63-64],且粉末内原始的树枝晶结构会转变为块体合金的等轴细晶。对于粉末固结成形且获得合适的显微组织特征和性能的块体材料,保温温度是合金热等静压工艺的关键控制点[65-66]。热等静压设备运行成本高,且加热或冷却和保温时间较长(小时级甚至天级),无法观察到粉末到块体最初时刻的组织演变过程,且用于合金固结成形温度确定的实验效率低,需要高效确定粉末固结成形温度。采用较低温度(900 ℃)热等静压,在不改变粉末原始组织的前提下首先将粉末松散固结形成导电体,可以将样品用于大电流快速加热冷却烧结成形实验[67]
利用Gleeble热模拟试验机的大电流将粉末快速焦耳加热,经过仅2 s即可将合金粉末快速加热至1000 ℃以上,随后在不同目标温度(1100~1250 ℃)保温,保温约10 s,以确定合金粉末从树枝晶向等轴细晶转变的临界温度[68]。可以看到,在1100 ℃(1373 K)合金粉末仍然保持原始树枝晶形貌;在1150 ℃粉末内部树枝晶开始向平直晶界的等轴晶转变;温度进一步升高至1180 ℃,粉末颗粒内部为完全等轴晶状态;温度升高至1200 ℃,粉末内部等轴晶粒有一定长大;温度升高至1250 ℃,进入合金固液两相区,合金局部出现液相,合金从粉末转变为块体材料,组织为完全等轴晶(图8(a)[68-69]
该方法的核心优势在于通过低温HIP松散固结制备高温合金粉末导电预制坯,可同炉高通量制备上百个试样,并利用合金粉末导电自发热效应,采用大电流焦耳加热,实现约2 s快速升温,最高约1500 K/10 s保温及快速冷却,从而高效确定高温合金粉末从树枝晶转变为平直晶界等轴细晶的临界温度区间,且晶粒未显著长大,实验时间从传统的“小时级”大幅缩短至“秒级”[69],可用于高温合金粉末的快速烧结成形。近年来,相似的快速加热策略在Science封面文章中报道[70],采用超快高温烧结(ultrafast high-temperature sintering, UHS)制备陶瓷材料,可制备上百个粉末预制坯,由于陶瓷本身不导电,通过电流快速加热石墨薄带加热体的方法烧结成形粉末薄片试样,经过30 s快速升温,保温1500 ℃/10 s后快速冷却,实现小尺寸陶瓷样品的“秒级”高效烧结成形(图8(b)[70]
采用粉末松散固结高通量制备预制坯,焦耳超快速加热高效获得从锯齿状树枝晶到平直晶界等轴晶的临界转变温度,观察到粉末到块体转变温度下最初始阶段的组织演变规律,时间从原来的“小时级”提升到“秒级”,大幅提高高温合金粉末固结成形工艺的定制效率和精度。依据上述结果,该高温合金粉末固结成形温度区间应为1150~1180 ℃,实现粉末固结成形温度的高效精确定制。
高温合金零部件通常需经热处理后方可投入使用,热处理是高温合金制备的关键过程,其目标是通过精准的组织调控优化性能,具体包括调节析出强化相(体积分数、尺寸及分布)并控制晶粒尺寸与形态[71-73]。热处理工艺参数设定与合金相变温度密切相关[74-75]
在测量高温合金相变温度时,有时会遇到同成分的合金相变温度存在一定差异的现象。例如,对同一根高温合金定向凝固试棒的顶端和底端(分析成分相同)分别取样[76],进行扫描量热分析(differential scanning calorimetry,DSC),其显微组织和对应的DSC曲线如图9[76-77]所示。结果表明,两个试样的DSC加热曲线并不重合,除液相线温度基本一致外,底端试样的其他相变点整体向低温段方向偏移。其中,底端试样的MC碳化物溶解温度比顶端试样低3 ℃,相差不大,而固相线和(γ+γ′)共晶的溶解温度比顶端试样分别低了17 ℃和20 ℃,存在很大差异。与加热曲线不同的是,顶端和底端试样的DSC冷却曲线几乎重合。上述差异并非测量误差造成,而是源于定向凝固试棒顶端和底部原始显微组织差异造成实际相变温度发生变化。从合金组织可以看出,底端试样因为距离水冷铜模较近,冷却速率较快,枝晶间距明显小于试棒顶端,偏析倾向也较低,导致低熔点Ni5Hf相及(γ+γ′)共晶数量与尺寸减少,从而在加热时更易溶解,造成相变温度偏差近20 ℃。众所周知,低熔点Ni5Hf相及(γ+γ′)共晶是铸造镍基高温合金初熔的主要起始区域[78-80]。此后,当成分相同而显微组织不同的合金一旦熔化至完全液态重新以相近条件凝固,组织状态已基本趋于一致,故二者DSC冷却曲线高度重合,相变温度也趋于一致。对铸造高温合金而言,在枝晶间距相近的状态下,DSC实验结果才具有比较意义。
除了铸造高温合金,类似现象也存在于高温合金粉末中。相同成分的高温合金粗粉和细粉具有不同原始显微组织和元素偏析倾向。研究发现,相比于细粉,粗粉枝晶间距更大,硬度更高,高能同步辐射X射线衍射(high energy synchrotron X-ray diffraction,HESXRD)和聚焦离子束-透射电子显微镜(focused ion beam and transmission electron microscopy,FIB-TEM)研究结果表明,粗粉中存在更多析出相(γ′相和MC碳化物),且粗粉中Ti、Nb和Ta元素偏析更显著,表现为其偏析系数偏离k=1的程度更大(图9[77]。上述元素刚好是γ′相组成元素,因此这些差异对后续固结成形和热处理过程强化相析出产生影响,尤其对γ'相的析出温度和稳定性影响显著。例如,同样的热处理温度设定在粗粉和细粉区域后续可能产生不同的显微组织和微区性能,其中粗粉会析出更多粗γ′相,且γ′相稳定析出温度较细粉更高,而粉末粒度级配以及粗/细粉的弥散/聚集分布状态进而影响后续块体合金组织和微区成分。以往研究表明,对高温合金粉末,原始组织状态(粉末粒度大小、热等静压态/铸态)不同也会导致相变温度产生不同程度的差异[81-82]。加热过程中不同粒度大小粉末DSC相变温度差很小,在2 ℃以内[81]。同一成分的高温合金粉末在热等静压和铸态不同状态下,升温时相变温度差最大可达40~45 ℃(基体开始熔化温度)[82]。值得注意的是,DSC通常仅能反应相含量较多时宏观温度差异,粉末态高温合金因为偏析限制在微米级尺度范围内,析出相含量较低且尺寸小,导致不同粒径粉末DSC相变温度差异不大。实际上粉末内元素在枝晶干和枝晶间的偏析导致微区相变温度的改变程度不一定比铸造合金小很多,只是在DSC结果中不容易体现,因此实际相变温度的影响还需要结合显微组织观察等多种表征手段判断。综上所述,在设计热处理工艺时应充分考虑上述差异化因素,制定容限更宽的热处理制度,以避免不均匀组织形成,最终满足合金组织以及性能调控的需求。
采用DSC、FIB-TEM、HESXRD等手段,分析铸造和粉末原始组织差异对相变温度和析出相的影响规律,同样成分而原始组织不同的合金会造成相变温度差异,因此在热处理温度定制的时候要充分考虑上述差异性,定制宽裕度热处理工艺。
高温合金制备广泛采用陶瓷耐火辅助材料,如前面提到的母合金熔炼和重熔过程需用到的坩埚和漏斗,铸件制备用到的型壳和型芯以及气雾化粉末制备用到的中间包、导流管等耐火材料,直接关系到高温合金产品质量。陶瓷耐火材料及其使用条件优选成为始终关注的问题。耐火材料在使用过程中和高温合金熔体接触,会发生界面反应,陶瓷与高温合金熔体界面反应问题早在20世纪80年代已受到关注[83],随后不同成分高温合金与陶瓷反应的研究陆续报道[84-87]。可见,高温熔体长时浸泡下的陶瓷界面稳定性成为耐火材料应用的主要考量因素。将不同种类的陶瓷材料制备成型芯,用定向凝固方法制备等轴晶高温合金和陶瓷界面反应试样,通过不同高度截取带型芯定向凝固合金试样,可以一次实验中高通量获得不同耐火材料高温下不同反应时间的定量数据,为耐火材料的优选和使用条件的评价提供支撑[88]。相较以往研究常采用液滴实验方法评价陶瓷和合金熔体的界面行为[89],这种方法测试效率更高。以氧化硅基陶瓷材料为例,将等轴晶高Cr镍基高温合金浇注进带有陶瓷型芯的模壳,并进行定向凝固,将型壳以一定速度抽拉出加热区,凝固冷却后在不同高度切取横截面试样观察反应情况,并作定量金相分析,根据抽拉速度和切取高度位置可以获得陶瓷在高温合金熔体中的浸泡时间在4~22 min范围内,并获得不同浸泡时间下陶瓷界面反应情况的动力学曲线(图10[90]。采用同步辐射X射线聚焦反应区,通过衍射分析反应产物。结果表明,在1500 ℃下,高温合金熔体和氧化硅基陶瓷耐火材料接触4 min,反常反应区可控制在5%以内。随着浸泡时间增加,反应区不断增大,在18 min后反应生成的瘤状物可达25% [90],反应产物组成元素来自合金和陶瓷材料(图10),严重破坏了耐火材料界面结构稳定性,应加以避免。陶瓷材料被金属熔体侵蚀形成孤岛状颗粒容易脱落进入合金,这也是零部件中形成非金属夹杂物的原因之一。不同材质的其他耐火材料(如氧化铝、氧化锆、氧化镁、氧化钇、氧化钙等)均可以通过这种方法在同一模组下同炉进行高效评价,为合金熔炼、重熔浇注和雾化制粉用陶瓷耐火材料的选择和使用条件评价提供支撑。
采用定向凝固的方式高通量优选等轴晶铸造和高温合金粉末制备用陶瓷耐火料,结合同步辐射高分辨粉末衍射分析,可在一个模组下同时测定不同陶瓷耐火材料在高温熔体下不同浸泡时间的界面稳定性,并确定不同阶段的反应产物,可用于陶瓷耐火料(如型芯、型壳、坩埚、中间包、喷嘴等)的优选和评价,支撑陶瓷界面反应控制和耐火料夹杂形成倾向筛选。
等温锻造是高温合金涡轮盘件近净成形的主要方式之一,该工艺是将毛坯始终保持同一温度条件下进行低变形速率锻造。等温锻模材料是该技术的重要支撑。钛锆钼(titanium-zirconium-molybdenum,TZM)钼基合金承温能力强,但抗氧化性能较差,需在全封闭真空环境下使用,成本高昂。铸造高温合金很早就被考虑作为大气环境下使用的等温锻模材料,但常规成分的高温合金用于等温锻造涡轮盘件时,承温能力不足[4]。高钨类镍基高温合金以其高承温能力和低成本的优势,使得该类合金成为大气环境下使用的等温锻模材料[91-96]。由于等温锻模截面厚大,制备过程中容易产生严重偏析,形成尺寸粗大且硬脆的反常相,如M6C碳化物[91],影响模具性能和寿命,有时也会形成 (γ′+ α) 共晶[97],虽然该α相本身对力学性能影响不大,但会攫取本应参与合金强化的W、Mo等难熔元素,因此也应适当予以关注。了解反常相的特性及其形成条件,对于模具合金使用性能的提升具有重要意义。采用等温凝固淬火和差热分析(differential thermal analysis,DTA)结合的方式确定合金凝固顺序及初生相的形成温度(图11),尺寸达百微米级的富W的M6C碳化物在1375 ℃从液相直接析出,该相是硬脆相,硬度可以达到14 GPa,比高温合金基体的硬度高出一个数量级,且极易开裂[92]。研究表明, Co和Ru元素加入以及C元素降低可有效抑制等温锻模用高温合金中反常相析出和宏观偏析[91-9298],进而提高模具使用性能和寿命,Ta元素合理加入可提高合金抗氧化性能[99]和中高温力学性能[95]。合金凝固冷却至1285 ℃时,(γ+ γ′)共晶析出,共晶旁边形成孤立液池,在后续凝固冷却中容易形成疏松缺陷。
在等温锻模铸造凝固工艺参数设置时,应尽量避免在M6C碳化物和疏松形成的敏感温度(1375 ℃和1285 ℃)附近长时停留,在该温度段附近应采用尽可能快的冷却速率。
宽间隙钎焊(wide gap brazing,WGB)是一种高温合金零部件裂纹和孔缺陷的修复方法[100-101]。在WGB工艺过程中,修复的缺陷处需填充两种材料(即填缝材料),一种是与基材同成分的粉末(即支撑材料),另一种是低熔点钎焊材料(粘接剂),二者混合使用,可将原始零件中裂纹和孔缺陷愈合。WGB加热保温温度往往设置在基体材料和粉末支撑材料固相线温度以下,钎焊材料熔点以上。以往修复用材料的研究中,往往更倾向钎焊材料,忽略支撑粉末的作用。实际上,在宽间隙钎焊过程中,支撑粉末占据缝隙绝大部分空间,该区域性能也是决定焊缝性能的关键因素之一。首先,支撑粉末的选择(如尺寸、表面和内部质量)非常重要。其次,支撑粉末的原始组织状态、工艺匹配性和工艺过程中组织变化都决定该区域最终的性能。钎焊过程中支撑粉末参与熔化的体积分数不大(粉末表面),固态部分组织变化尤为重要,中心区域始终处于固相区,修复后支撑粉末区域性能与原始粉末组织和缺陷情况以及加热保温冷却过程热历史直接相关。优选合适的支撑粉末以及与之相匹配的钎焊工艺是获得高性能焊缝的关键。前面提到不同粒度的粉末原始组织差异较大[77],可以看到粗粉和细粉相组成和硬度都有很大差异(图12),会遗传给最终块体材料影响制件性能,原始粉末中带有空心粉缺陷[3777],也会直接遗传并保存到部件最终服役状态。钎焊过程的热历史特别是冷却速率影响γ′相析出量和尺寸分布,更为直接地影响合金性能。采用等温凝固方法将保护环境下高温合金粉末随炉缓慢加热到1100、1150 ℃和1200 ℃,保温30 s,快速空冷。结果表明,1100~1150 ℃时,粉末基本保持原始树枝晶结构,在随后冷却过程中1150 ℃粉末析出体积分数约40%的γ′相,在枝晶干和枝晶间显示出不同的析出行为。其中枝晶间析出体积分数约3%的较为粗大的γ′相(300 nm),枝晶干区域大量析出体积分数37%的γ′相(100 nm)[77]。经1150 ℃处理,WGB支撑粉末区域的纳米硬度达到8.19 GPa,由于适当的工艺保证适当含量和尺寸的γ′相析出,WGB修复用支撑粉末获得与同成分块体材料(如热等静压+过固溶处理合金组织为平直晶界等轴细晶,纳米硬度9.32 GPa;同轴送粉增材制造合金组织为树枝晶结构,纳米硬度为8.61 GPa)以及快速凝固原始粉末中粗粉(100~150 μm粒径粉末,纳米硬度8.61 GPa)相当的力学性能,比超快凝固的细粉(<32μm粒径粉末,纳米硬度6.65 GPa)硬度更高(图12)。
WGB工艺优选定制中,需要关注支撑材料原始粉末选择时的组织状态(粒度挑选)和粉末缺陷(空心粉)情况,以及保温温度和冷却速率(γ′相含量和尺寸控制),上述工艺控制综合因素最终决定钎焊支撑粉末区域的性能。而以上粉末的考虑因素,如粒度、内外部粒形(球形度、卫星粉、空心粉)以及冷却速率控制γ′相含量和尺寸,同样适用于增材制造和粉末冶金制件。
根据高温合金及其部件研制与生产过程中的实际问题,挑选典型制备工艺开展精确定制研究,研究过程中发现若干值得关注的现象,例如:(1)合金气体含量(氧含量)相近而力学性能差异巨大,需关注铸造和粉末高温合金中氧的存在形式及其影响(母合金熔炼和重熔工艺过程,粉末制备、筛分、转运和存储过程,粉末除气降氧处理工艺等);(2)同成分合金相变温度产生达20 ℃的差异,需关注热等静压及热处理过程中合金初始组织状态对相变温度的影响(粉末热等静压固结成形、铸件或粉末冶金件的热处理等);(3)正常成分的合金由于工艺控制差异导致组织和性能差异,需关注铸造、粉末与增材制造合金以及钎焊修复所用材料与陶瓷耐火材料中有害反常相与缺陷的影响等。上述需要考虑的关键因素与工艺过程控制之间关联如图13所示。
合金的气体含量(如氧总量)相同,力学性能却存在差异,可能与氧的存在形式相关。高温合金中氧的不同存在形式对性能具有重要影响,不同状态合金存在明显差别,铸造合金中的氧主要以固溶态和化合态(如内部氧化物)形式存在;而高温合金粉末中除固溶态和化合态(表面及内部氧化物)外,还包括表面吸附(物理与化学吸附)氧(图13)。
铸造合金:对于铸造高温合金,前期研究指出,仅依靠常规气体含量评估高温合金洁净度存在局限,且该指标与力学性能之间未必正向关联。氧以游离态(固溶态:氧原子)和化合态(氧化物夹杂:Al2O3、Cr2O3等)两种形式存在,气体含量测定仅反映总氧量。制备过程真空度是影响高温合金氧含量的重要因素之一,真空度降低时易促使氧化物形成,尽管总量通常较低(10−6数量级),形成的少量氧化物对总氧量贡献有限,仍可能显著损害合金力学性能,尤其是塑性。在一些情况下,部分高温合金返回料虽与原始合金化学成分和总氧量相近,力学性能却下降,可能与氧化物夹杂所占比例有关。然而,高温合金中由于氧化物夹杂微量且弥散分布,即便是在力学试样断口中都很难找到。通过电子束钮扣实验汇聚氧化物,并与同步辐射X射线衍射技术结合,可实现对不同真空感应熔炼条件下高温合金痕量氧化物夹杂的有效表征。研究结果表明,真空感应熔炼真空度影响合金气体含量、氧化物夹杂数量及多项力学性能指标。在较低真空度下熔炼的合金,其总氧量与强度指标(如抗拉强度和持久寿命)未发生明显变化,但氧化物夹杂数量呈指数级增加,塑性指标(如断后伸长率与冲击韧性)显著下降。值得注意的是,即便在较低真空条件(100 Pa/(1~10) min)下重熔制备的合金,力学性能仍满足合金技术标准,该类合金主要用于燃气涡轮静止结构件。总体来看,痕量夹杂物对力学性能,尤其是塑性和疲劳性能影响显著。这对静态部件或可接受,但对某些转动部件(如涡轮盘或转子叶片),不仅需要控制气体含量(总氧量),还应严格控制氧化物夹杂占比和数量。
粉末合金:高温合金粉末制备、筛分、转运、存储(增氧)与真空除气(降氧)过程中,氧的存在形式也会显著影响粉末及后续固结成形部件的性能。由于氧在高温合金中溶解度极低,除了粉末心部与铸造合金中相似的氧存在形式外,其区别主要以表面化合态(氧化物: NiO、Al2O3等)和自由态(包括表面物理吸附的含氧气体和化学吸附氧)形式存在(图13)。因此,应重点关注粉末表面氧元素,包括表面氧化膜、不连续分布的氧化物以及吸附的多种含氧气体。其中,在粉末表面形成氧化膜(NiO等)随着粉末在空气中暴露逐渐增厚,这一部分氧很难后续脱除。从制粉到固结前,粉末持续与环境介质接触,氧含量短期内可达到平衡,并遗传至最终零部件,对力学性能造成不利影响。具体而言,粉末制备后接触空气会迅速形成氧化物或水合物表层,并吸附氧气、水蒸气及含C和O元素的有机物。随存储时间延长,表面氧化层增厚、吸附气体量增加,宏观表现为氧含量上升。对比窄粒度分布的细粉与粗粉发现:单颗粗粉氧化层更厚,而细粉因比表面积大、数量多,总氧含量更高。为控制氧含量,需采用真空除气工艺进行降氧处理。在除气升温与保温阶段,粉末表面吸附的氧气持续脱附,物理吸附水蒸气于150 ℃左右出现脱附峰;表面水合物分解释放水蒸气(如Ni(OH)2→ NiO + H2O↑,300 ℃),由分解反应生成的水蒸气也随温度升高而脱附;化学吸附的金属碳酸盐及有机物热分解产生CO2或CO(如NiCO3→ NiO + CO2↑,310 ℃)。经上述有效降氧后,粉末在后续热等静压固结成形中可维持低氧状态,并遗传至块体材料与零部件,最终提升合金力学性能。通过上述粉末表面气体脱附实验,结合粉末表面分析手段(如XPS和FIB-TEM),也可为高温合金粉末中氧的存在形式判定提供参考[102]
在铸造和粉末高温合金中,不能仅仅关注氧总量,也就是我们通常测试的气体含量,还要区分不同存在形式的氧(固溶态氧、化合态氧化物夹杂、表面吸附氧等),并综合考虑其对组织和性能的影响。上述因素在工艺参数设定和工艺过程控制中应加以考虑。
多数高温合金需要经热处理才能使用,以调控其显微组织达到所需力学性能。高温合金粉末需经过热等静压固结成形,形成具有一定组织、形状和功能的块体合金及构件。上述热工艺之前的原始组织状态不同,会对最终使用态合金的组织性能产生很大影响(组织遗传特性)。研究表明,高温合金的原始组织差异会导致其后续热工艺过程相变温度发生显著变化,主要表现在以下两方面:铸造与粉末合金的组织结构差异引起的相变温度差异以及工艺过程加热与冷却速率不同所引起的相变温度差异。
合金原始组织的影响:合金原始组织对铸造合金和粉末合金有着不同影响。
铸造合金:高温合金即使成分相同,不同取样部位的相变温度也可能存在差异。例如,对同一根定向凝固试棒的顶端和底端分别取样进行DSC分析,底端试样除液相线温度与顶端基本一致外,其余相变温度均向低温偏移,同一炉合金同种相的相变温度最高相差可达20 ℃,但两者冷却曲线基本重合。这种差异源于原始组织的不同:底端冷却速率更快,枝晶间距小、偏析程度低,导致(γ+γ′)共晶和低熔点Ni5Hf相数量与尺寸减少,更易溶解,从而引起相变温度降低。所以,决定后续热工艺过程中合金相变温度的重要因素除了合金成分外,还有原始组织状态。
粉末合金:在高温合金粉末中,粗粉与细粉因原始组织及偏析行为不同而呈现相变特性差异。粗粉冷却速率慢,枝晶间距更大,Ti、Nb、Ta等元素偏析更为显著,促使析出相(如γ′相和MC碳化物)增多,直接影响后续热工艺过程中γ′相析出温度、稳定性及形核位置——偏析严重的区域(如枝晶间或晶界)更易析出粗大γ′相;相反,采用超快冷却(105 ℃/s)的细粉因偏析相对较轻,γ′相形核受到抑制。高浓度偏析元素不仅促进γ′相析出,还会提高合金硬度。这些偏析特征通过影响γ′相析出行为进一步遗传至块体合金中:在快速凝固(如气雾化和增材制造)过程中,γ′相形成受冷却速率控制。而在近热平衡工艺(如热等静压、热处理、钎焊等固-固转变过程)中,粗γ′相更易在原始粗粉Ti、Nb、Ta等元素的偏析区形成,且形成温度更高,稳定性更好。加热过程中,细粉中析出的γ′相尺寸较细小,形成温度也相对较低。如果采用相同的热处理温度,在原始粗粉和细粉区域,可能会产生不同的微区显微组织。对于原始粉末颗粒粒度差异,可能导致后续热等静压或者热处理合金在同一热处理温度下微区显微组织和性能差异,该差异起源于粒径差异,但更重要的是不同粒度粉末的分布状态,如粒度级配或者粉末聚集状态有关。不同粒径的粉末颗粒弥散随机分布,对最终组织的性能微区差异影响小,而如果同种粒径的粉末聚集分布,分散的微区变成累积放大区域,对组织和微区性能的影响将成为值得关注的问题。
加热冷却速率和合金状态的影响:除原始组织差异外,加热与冷却速率也会影响合金相变温度值。在不同升降温速率(5、10、20 ℃/min和40 ℃/min)的DSC实验中, 随着加热/冷却速率的增加,相变温度分别向增大和减小的方向变化,其中,DZ22沉淀强化型高温合金在冷却过程中次生γ′相析出温度最大相差14 ℃[76];而对IN625固溶强化型合金,5 ℃/min与10 ℃/min冷却速率下固相线温度最大差异达19 ℃[82]。加热过程中不同粒度的IN625合金粉末DSC相变温度差较小,在2 ℃以内[81]。热等静压态和铸态IN625合金相变温度相差最大,可达40~45 ℃[82]
综上所述,合金原始显微组织的差异以及升降温速度的变化均会显著影响后续热工艺过程相变温度。上述结果在实际工程应用的意义在于,针对成分相同原始组织状态差异却较大的高温合金部件(如截面尺寸差异大的复杂大型结构铸件或不同粒径的粉末等),热处理温度选择要充分考虑不同部位的显微组织差异导致的相变温度差和组织不均匀。例如同一铸件不同部位的初熔温度(共晶γ′等低熔点相)差异可能达到20 ℃甚至更大,而合金手册中相变温度通常只提供单一温度作为参考值。因此在热处理工艺参数制定时,要充分考虑组织差异导致的相变温度差异,拓宽温度窗口,设计容限更宽的热处理工艺,制定宽裕度热处理制度,实现高温合金区域差异化热处理工艺定制,同时在热处理工艺实施过程中也需动态响应此类影响因素。
镍基高温合金是目前综合性能最好且不可替代的高温结构材料之一,随着新型合金的成分设计空间逐渐变小,现有合金挖掘潜力和降低使用成本将是重要的研究方向,高温合金的制备过程中出现有害反常相和缺陷一直困扰着研究人员,使其成为制约燃气涡轮发动机发展的一个重要因素[103]。值得注意的是,上述十余年前的观点在当下依然具有现实意义,针对缺陷和反常相的研究仍需持续深化、不断扩展与完善相应的组织性能数据。在高温合金的研发与制备中,除了常规强化相和显微组织调控之外,还需高度重视反常组织及各类缺陷及其对性能的影响。在合金成分确定的情况下,对反常相和缺陷的有效控制很大程度上依赖于制备工艺的优化,这也成为提升合金和构件性能与可靠性的核心环节。
反常相:由于高温合金中初生相从液相中直接析出,因此往往具有比次生相更大的尺寸。高温合金中偏析效应可能导致凝固时形成大块初生反常相,这类相通常具有较高脆性,其本身与基体界面处极易萌生裂纹,从而严重损害材料力学性能。初生反常有害相通常是制备过程应该关注的问题,需要从源头控制。而对于传统次生有害相(如最常见的TCP相),通常要关注服役过程有害相的析出及其对服役性能的不利影响。高温合金中几种典型的初生反常相包括:高钨高温合金中初生M6C型碳化物[91-92, 95, 104]和初生α-(W,Mo)相[97]、高铬合金中初生α-(Cr,Ni)相[105-108],高铝合金中初生β-(NiAl)相[109-112],以及高钨钼合金中初生μ相[113]。其中,初生M6C碳化物尺寸可达数十至上百微米,硬度高达14 GPa;初生α与β相硬度也可达6 GPa,远高于合金基体(平均约为4 GPa)。μ相作为一种常见的TCP相,通常以针片状形态从固相中析出[114-116]。然而在合金化程度更高的体系中,偶尔会在铸态下直接从液相中析出初生μ相[113]。该类μ相尺寸粗大且硬度极高,对材料性能的危害更为显著。值得注意的是,在含有初生μ相的合金中,通常在后续热处理或长期高温服役热暴露过程中会析出针片状次生μ相,两者共同作用,进一步加剧对材料性能的不利影响。因此,为抑制上述几种脆性有害相析出,在关注成分控制的同时需合理控制凝固过程冷却速率,使其快速通过反常相的敏感析出温度区间。如遇尺寸大且结构复杂的特殊构件,也可通过局部成分调整,牺牲部分力学性能来保证工艺性能。
缺陷:除反常相外,高温合金中也会出现孔缺陷、裂纹、宏观偏析、非理想形态粉末或凸出正常型面的瘤状物缺陷。常见的缺陷有高钛铸造高温合金在凝固过程中产生的疏松和缩孔,这些缺陷会显著降低合金力学性能。通过特殊设计的枝晶间熔体凝固控制工艺配合精确定制的壳型温度和抽拉速度工艺参数组合,可以减少或消除疏松和缩孔缺陷[44]。高γ′含量高温合金增材制造过程产生容易产生热裂纹,采用可控快速加热冷却实验获得粉末在不同热历史下的显微组织,对比高能束熔覆组织特征,可确定合金打印过程热影响区温度和热裂温度敏感区间[117-118],为增材制造高温合金热裂缺陷控制提供支撑。高钨合金中由于反常相、疏松和宏观偏析的叠加产生[9298],会影响等温锻造模具的性能和寿命,了解其形成机理,通过成分调整和工艺优化可有效控制反常组织和缺陷形成。气雾化制粉工艺过程中形成非理想形态粉末,如卫星粉和空心粉等[37, 77, 119-121],卫星粉会影响粉末冶金工艺中松装和振实密度以及增材制造工艺过程粉末床的铺贴性能和同轴送粉的流动性。制粉时形成空心粉缺陷,若作为宽间隙钎焊支撑材料使用,可能因始终处于固相状态而将“空心”结构遗传至最终块体材料。在增材制造过程中,空心粉同样可能混入成形件,对微区局部熔化产生影响。粉末冶金热等静压固结成形和热处理后,空心粉可能与热诱导孔洞存在关联。因此,必须在粉末制备阶段对粉末的内外部形貌(卫星粉、球形度、空心粉等)予以严格控制。另外,高温合金熔体易与陶瓷型壳或型芯发生界面反应,形成瘤状物[90],破坏铸件内外表面完整性,导致零件报废。通过高通量实验优选耐火陶瓷材料,并严格控制熔体与陶瓷接触的温度区间和时间,可有效抑制此类界面反应,保障零件内外表面质量。上述反常相和缺陷的形成会对合金乃至部件的性能产生不利影响,通过揭示反常相和缺陷的形成机理,找到其控制手段,为高温合金质量稳定控制和性能提升提供支撑。
在材料研究阶段,小试样(试棒)作为常用研究对象,其组织差异较小,因此相变温度差异小且反常组织或缺陷出现的概率较低;而在实际构件制备过程中,由于结构更为复杂、尺寸更大,成型条件更为严苛,多因素耦合作用导致同一合金体系中构件不同位置的组织可能存在一定差异,进而影响相变温度和反常相与缺陷的形成倾向。一般而言,构件反常相与缺陷的形成倾向显著高于试棒,而构件对组织与性能控制的要求也远高于试棒[44-45]。因此,通过合理的实验方案设计,在近生产条件下系统研究反常组织与缺陷的形成机理及控制方法,并考察相应组织状态下性能表现,显得尤为重要[103]
持续深化上述几类现象的形成机理与控制机制的研究,将为高温合金及其部件的制备工艺技术以及未来服役可靠性提供关键的理论支撑与技术储备。
高温合金作为航空发动机及工业燃气轮机的关键战略材料,其制备工艺的精确控制与材料成分设计具有同等重要的地位。尤其当前,镍基高温合金最高服役温度已达熔点的90%,逐渐逼近材料物理极限,使得制备工艺研究的重要性日益突显,工艺参数精确定制与工艺过程稳定控制已成为行业焦点。为实现上述目标,必须在工艺参数制定过程中确保每一环节均有理论依据。然而,部分关键数据难以在实际生产过程中直接获取,因此往往需要借助精心设计的针对性实验方法,结合明确的定制策略及有效的验证手段,准确获取关键信息,最终为工艺优化与定型提供可靠支撑。
主/辅材工艺优化:结合科研生产中实际问题,梳理高温合金研制生产流程,聚焦高温合金熔炼和重熔、气雾化制粉和铸件浇注等几个液-固工艺过程,以及高温合金粉末存储转运、除气降氧处理、固结成形及热处理等固-固转变典型过程。借助高通量实验设计、同步辐射先进表征技术等,开展制备工艺精确定制研究,追溯其对成形、组织性能调控的影响机制,并适时进行工艺有效性验证。实现基于气体总含量和氧化夹杂物定量评价的合金熔炼/重熔真空度定制、基于粉末制备粒度粒形协同控制的气雾化工艺参数定制、基于枝晶间熔体凝固控制的铸造凝固孔缺陷抑制工艺定制与验证、基于小环境高通量试验的粉末存储条件优选与控制、基于气体脱附特征温度的粉末除气降氧工艺精确定制与验证、基于快速组织转变的粉末热等静压固结成形工艺高效定制以及基于原始组织相变温度差异的合金宽裕度热处理制度定制。结合不同工艺过程需求,优选适配的辅助材料使用条件,包括陶瓷耐火材料、等温锻模材料、修复用材料等。开展基于合金熔体反应动力学高通量试验的陶瓷耐火辅助材料优选、基于合金凝固顺序的等温锻模用材料优选工艺定制以及基于支撑粉末组织演变的修复用材料使用条件优化等过程的精确调控。通过有针对性的高效实验设计与工艺适配性评估,实现主材、辅助材料与工艺参数协同优化。
值得关注的现象:研究进一步揭示对传统认知具有修正意义的几种现象。气体含量相近的合金因内生氧化物夹杂含量差异可达两个数量级导致性能显著差异,突显出纯净度评价须关注氧的存在形式,不能仅仅关注氧总量;同一成分合金因初始组织状态差异可导致超过20 ℃的相变温度波动,是一个较宽的范围,而在合金手册中特定相的相变温度通常只是单一数值,粉末粒度级配以及粗/细粉的弥散/聚集分布状态可能遗传影响后续块体合金的显微组织,这就要求后续热工艺(热等静压、热处理等)必须具备更宽的参数容限和工艺裕度;固定成分的合金,由于工艺差异导致大块初生硬脆反常相的形成,疏松、缩孔、热裂纹和空心粉缺陷形成,发生陶瓷与合金熔体界面反应形成瘤状物破坏铸件内外表面等情况,需要通过工艺优化或特殊新工艺设计对反常相和缺陷加以控制。上述现象应作为高温合金工艺过程稳定控制的考虑因素。
工艺参数中线和上下限:“工艺精确定制”理念及其演进始终应以提升材料性能与构件可靠性为核心,以科学依据确定工艺最优参数(中线),并致力明确工艺窗口的边界(上下限),系统提升工艺控制的覆盖度与适应力。上述不同制备工艺精确定制研究,共性问题实际是要探寻工艺参数最优解,而在实际生产中,我们更加关注的是工艺参数上下限。通过优先锁定最优线,确立工艺理想状态;通过严谨地探索和验证工艺参数的极限边界条件,知晓其承受原材料变化、设备波动和环境干扰等因素的能力范围,从而在保障产品质量的前提下,为生产操作提供安全的调整空间,为最终构建起高效、稳健且可持续的工艺体系提供支撑。
材料-工艺-质量-人员:结构材料的设计不单只为力学性能提升,有时为了兼顾合金工艺性能,需在保持合金原始性能或者甚至略微牺牲力学性能的情况下对成分进行优化调整。工艺的制定需要考虑生产现场实际,具备可操作性,前面提到的工艺最优中线是理想目标,工艺设计还需考虑一定保险系数进而给出参数控制的上下限等,可在工艺正常波动时依然确保材料和构件满足设计要求。考虑成形工艺对试棒与构件材料性能的差异性影响。按照既定的工艺严格控制,产品质量应稳定输出。技术与质量密不可分,工艺技术是质量管理的基石,质量管理则是技术有效发挥作用的保障。在产品质量出现异常波动时,可能存在因为人员操作或者设备因素导致的工艺过程出现偏差的现象,技术人员应能够通过系统检查逆向推出材料制备过程中实际经历的工艺条件。这种能力依赖于长期扎实的技术积累,即将大量已有研究成果、实验现象与理论融会贯通,有时也需要补充设计实验和复盘,以解决生产实际问题。
未来发展与挑战:在未来高温合金工艺研究中,应着力加强多尺度、多物理场耦合模拟仿真,深度融合人工智能(artificial intelligence, AI)技术,充分释放制造过程中“感知-分析-决策-执行-学习”一体化协同潜力。通过在线监测、机器学习、实时反馈控制并集成数字孪生等关键技术,构建工艺参数的闭环优化体系。同时,进一步深化对高温合金中反常组织与缺陷形成机制的认识,建立覆盖铸造、粉末冶金、锻造、增材制造、钎焊等多种工艺路线的组织性能统一评价体系,推动“一材多用”理念的深入实践。值得注意的是,在近年来表征技术快速发展的大背景下,我们工艺定制研究过程中也要避免陷入“先进表征手段驱动研究”的误区,更应坚持“创新导向驱动”以推动科研工作。与此同时,随着AI技术日益成熟,其应用已是大势所趋,但在积极引入AI技术的同时也需加强监管,警惕数据毒化等潜在风险,并防范对AI的过度依赖,在探索AI对工艺精确定制辅助作用的同时,须确保最终决策权仍由人掌握,实现人机协同的智能化制造。最终,通过工艺精确定制与智能控制的系统融合,有望实现高温合金部件制造全流程的“质量可预测、性能可设计”,为新一代高端装备的研发提供更加可靠的材料与工艺支撑。
工艺定制三步走:工艺控制需从单一指标监控走向多因素协同调控,逐步从经验积累走向理论指导的精细设计。不但要不断提升工艺定制精度,还要尽量丰富工艺参数变量,拓展其广度,识别尽可能多的工艺参数影响因素变量,随即完善工艺参数控制变量,扩充工艺参数指标参量,提高工艺的可执行和可操作性。通过工艺参数制定和优化(目标)和工艺过程精细控制(过程),获得高质量高性能产品输出(结果)。实践可分“阶段性三步走”:首先,面向应用的基础研究解决“行与不行”的问题;其次,近生产条件的实验验证着力应对“稳与不稳”的挑战;最后,分阶段的工程应用最终评判“好与不好”的实际效能。通过不断丰富工艺参数体系变量和过程控制优化迭代,支撑高温合金工艺技术实现可持续高质量发展。
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2025年第45卷第5期
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doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000158
  • 接收时间:2025-08-22
  • 首发时间:2026-04-09
  • 出版时间:2025-10-01
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  • 收稿日期:2025-08-22
  • 录用日期:2025-09-04
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    中国航发北京航空材料研究院 先进高温结构材料重点实验室,北京 100095

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郑亮(1979—),男,博士,研究员,研究方向为高温结构材料及其制备与表征技术,联系地址:北京81号信箱1分箱(100095),E-mail:
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https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/hkclxb/CN/10.11868/j.issn.1005-5053.2025.000158
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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