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Deep geological disposal is currently internationally recognized most technically feasible method for the safe disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The chemical characteristics of groundwater at the disposal site are crucial for the design of engineering barriers and safety assessment of the disposal facility. This paper summarizes and compares the research achievements in groundwater chemistry,isotopes,and groundwater chemical modeling in the United States,Sweden,Finland,Switzerland,and France. Combining the foreign achievement with the current research status of high-level radioactive waste geological disposal in China,the paper proposes that China need to conduct further research on aspects such as the vertical distribution of groundwater chemistry at the site,groundwater microorganisms, dissolved gases in groundwater, the redox conditions of the site, and the paleoclimate of the site. Based on the above achievement,a hydrogeochemical model of the disposal site should be developed to evaluate the safety and stability of the disposal site at a timescale of tens of thousands years. This study aims to provide a reference for China’s research on groundwater chemistry at high-level radioactive waste disposal sites.
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ZHOU Zhichao,male,born in 1983,senior engineer,PhD,focusing on the R&D of geological disposal for high-level radioactive waste. E-mail:
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First author:TIAN Zhen,male,born in 1998,master’s degree candidate,focusing on hydrogeochemistry. E-mail:tianzhen981013@163.com
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深地质处置是目前国际上公认且技术上最可行的高水平放射性废物安全处置方式,开展处置场址地下水化学研究对于处置库的工程屏障设计及安全评价至关重要。对美国、瑞典、芬兰、瑞士和法国在地下水化学、同位素和地下水化学模拟等方面的研究成果进行总结和对比分析,结合我国在高放废物地质处置研发现状,提出我国还需进一步开展场址地下水化学的垂向分布、微生物、溶解气体以及场址氧化-还原条件和场址古气候等方面的研究,并在此基础上构建处置库场址的水文地球化学描述模型以评估万年尺度处置库场址的安全性和稳定性。旨在总结国内外高放废物深地质处置地下水化学方面的研究进展,为我国高放废物地质处置场址地下水化学研究提供参考。
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1 Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology, Beijing 100029, China
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2 中国国家原子能机构高放废物地质处置创新中心, 北京 100029)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1190362757934449322, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=
Yucca mountain cross-section schematic map(modified after reference [5]), figureFileSmall=ikEdUyOUNMN3g8tDldOs0A==, figureFileBig=Ealw9sVH7/CZcT65Y25pfQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758009946797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=图1, caption=
尤卡山断面示意图(据参考文献[5]修改), figureFileSmall=ikEdUyOUNMN3g8tDldOs0A==, figureFileBig=Ealw9sVH7/CZcT65Y25pfQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758110610095, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=
Spatial distribution of groundwater chemistry(modified after reference [16]), figureFileSmall=fTKNG3iUzEX4QWQtBp/y0w==, figureFileBig=mIH1niyZxsuyZifsah74IA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758160941745, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=图2, caption=
地下水化学空间分布(据参考文献[16]修改), figureFileSmall=fTKNG3iUzEX4QWQtBp/y0w==, figureFileBig=mIH1niyZxsuyZifsah74IA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758236439219, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=
Results of mixing different groundwaters (Modified after reference[29]), figureFileSmall=QmMkotkE6P1nGszqpu2gJQ==, figureFileBig=IYQz3LZstDerXUdWs0CtWQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758299353781, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=图3, caption=
不同地下水混合结果(据参考文献 [29]修改), figureFileSmall=QmMkotkE6P1nGszqpu2gJQ==, figureFileBig=IYQz3LZstDerXUdWs0CtWQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758391628471, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=
Workflow of Hydrogeochemical site descriptive model(modified after reference [31]), figureFileSmall=UAMBaJBaS0IUs25J5nzK6w==, figureFileBig=B6Vvqf+xUwhcbqK2oRU9mA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758458737337, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=图4, caption=
水文地球化学场址描述模型整体流程(据参考文献 [31]修改), figureFileSmall=UAMBaJBaS0IUs25J5nzK6w==, figureFileBig=B6Vvqf+xUwhcbqK2oRU9mA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758534234811, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=
Groundwater sampling equipment in Finland a- Sampling bottle sampling;b-Fissure sampling;c-Dissolved gas sampling., figureFileSmall=gwZJQKHuxtLIDsdf6SlOyA==, figureFileBig=deHTNVZRSYKSwF+5pQR7Qw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758626509501, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=图5, caption=
芬兰地下水采样设备 a—采样瓶采样;b—裂隙采样;c—溶解气体采样。
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Groundwater chemistry at the Olkiluoto site(modified after reference [34]), figureFileSmall=QKcYQx6a4jBvRoFpx/12Fg==, figureFileBig=FHAifgYT0KO8f1MtenLc3A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758777504449, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=图6, caption=
Olkiluoto场址地下水化学(据参考文献[34]修改), figureFileSmall=QKcYQx6a4jBvRoFpx/12Fg==, figureFileBig=FHAifgYT0KO8f1MtenLc3A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758832030403, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=
Reaction pathways of groundwater at different depths (modified after reference [41]), figureFileSmall=8vkSUKQveZTbpr/t1UElwg==, figureFileBig=LI7rClhI9L/aSlgq0ITNxA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758886556357, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=图7, caption=
不同深度地下水反应路径(据参考文献 [41]修改), figureFileSmall=8vkSUKQveZTbpr/t1UElwg==, figureFileBig=LI7rClhI9L/aSlgq0ITNxA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190362758949470918, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=
Comparison of main research directions in groundwater chemistry at sites in Sweden and Finland(modified after reference[39])
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| 研究内容 | 相同点 | 不同点 |
| 地下水化学特征 | 场址的pH范围相似,Olkiluoto介于7.3~8.2之间,Forsmark介于7.5~8之间 | 芬兰在TDS相同情况下,瑞典地下水pH略高,可能与碳酸盐浓度有关 |
| 阳离子浓度均随着深度增加而增大,主要由Na+、Ca2+主导 | Olkiluoto的Na+和Ca2+浓度更高 |
| 地下水同位素 | U同位素反应的氧化-还原条件基本一致,表现为地下水的强还原性 | 瑞典Forsmark存在局部U浓度异常偏高(如490~630 m深处达到150 µg·L-1) |
| S同位素表明硫酸盐还原为硫化物的过程均为微生物作用主导 | 瑞典Forsmark存在局部S浓度偏高(34S的局部峰值超过32 ‰) |
| 14C表明两地地下水均为冰川退缩时期形成 | 瑞典Forsmark的13C显示更明显的水-岩相互作用 |
| 古水文和微生物 | 两地均存在冰川水、海水和淡水的混合迹象,表明受晚更新世冰川退缩和海洋入侵的影响 | 瑞典Forsmark的冰川水和海水入渗深度更深,达到600 m |
| 微生物群落相似,包括产甲烷菌和硫酸还原菌 | Forsmark中产甲烷菌的分布更稀少 |
), ArticleFig(id=1190362759020774087, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=表1, caption=
瑞典与芬兰场址地下水化学主要研究方向对比(据参考文献[39]修改)
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| 研究内容 | 相同点 | 不同点 |
| 地下水化学特征 | 场址的pH范围相似,Olkiluoto介于7.3~8.2之间,Forsmark介于7.5~8之间 | 芬兰在TDS相同情况下,瑞典地下水pH略高,可能与碳酸盐浓度有关 |
| 阳离子浓度均随着深度增加而增大,主要由Na+、Ca2+主导 | Olkiluoto的Na+和Ca2+浓度更高 |
| 地下水同位素 | U同位素反应的氧化-还原条件基本一致,表现为地下水的强还原性 | 瑞典Forsmark存在局部U浓度异常偏高(如490~630 m深处达到150 µg·L-1) |
| S同位素表明硫酸盐还原为硫化物的过程均为微生物作用主导 | 瑞典Forsmark存在局部S浓度偏高(34S的局部峰值超过32 ‰) |
| 14C表明两地地下水均为冰川退缩时期形成 | 瑞典Forsmark的13C显示更明显的水-岩相互作用 |
| 古水文和微生物 | 两地均存在冰川水、海水和淡水的混合迹象,表明受晚更新世冰川退缩和海洋入侵的影响 | 瑞典Forsmark的冰川水和海水入渗深度更深,达到600 m |
| 微生物群落相似,包括产甲烷菌和硫酸还原菌 | Forsmark中产甲烷菌的分布更稀少 |
), ArticleFig(id=1190362759100465865, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=
Summary and comparative analysis of research from various countries
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| 研究方向 | 美国 | 瑞士 | 法国 | 瑞典 | 芬兰 |
| 地下水化学类型 | HCO3-Na型 | Cl-Na型 | Cl·SO4-Ca型 | Cl-Na·Ca型 | Cl-Na·Ca型 |
| 地下水同位素 | 14C识别地下水年龄9~18 ka D、18O识别地下水来源为大气降水 | 3H显示浅部地下水年龄为数月至几十年 81Kr识别深部地下水年龄高达13.2~32 ka | 14C识别地下水年龄17~30 ka 36Cl/Cl-比值计算的更古老的地下水年龄为360~800 ka | 36Cl/Cl和4He识别陆源古地下水4.3 Ma以上 14C识别出利托里纳海水在5~10 ka前混入, D、18O的结果对此进行了作证 | 13C同位素识别了CH4的来源 深部地下水中CH4以热成因占主导 |
| 地下水化学模拟 | TOUGHREACT模拟热-水-化学(THC)耦合,矿物在一百年后,沉淀填充裂隙,降低岩石的渗透率 M3量化地下水混合比例,古生代碳酸盐岩地下水占17 %,古近系凝灰岩地下水占19 %,第四纪盆地地下水占15 %,大气降水占49 % PHREEQC计算饱和指数,石膏、白云石等溶解矿物处于未饱和状态 | PHREEQC模拟水-岩相互作用,以评估CO2对场址深部地下水化学变化的影响,围岩黏土矿物对pH的变化具有缓冲作用,即便受到较强的CO2扰动,地下水环境仍能保持相对稳定的化学状态 | PHREEQC模拟孔隙水演化,地下水中的Na+、Cl-受道格统地层地下水下渗影响,浓度沿着NE-SW方向降低 | M3量化地下水混合比例,海水占12.1 %,大气降水占18.0 %,盐水占11.3 %,冰川融水占58.6 % SKB构建场址地下水化学描述模型,500 m以下地下水处于封闭环境,化学成分稳定 | 化学反应迁移方程模拟地下水化学长期演变,处置库运行期、关闭期均是稳定的还原环境 |
| 地下水气候 | 更新世非饱和带地下水位比现在地下水水位高25~50 m 冰期年平均气温比现在低10~15 ℃ | 稀有气体温度计反演古温度,冰期相较于现在低3.7±1.6 ℃ | 稀有气体温度计反演古温度,末次冰期补给温度介于3.0~8.6 ℃之间 | — | 预测气候演化,未来冰期处置库场址,冰盖边缘风速增加,湿度降低,土壤温度降低,可能会形成永久冻土 |
| 地下水溶解气体 | — | 监测溶解气体浓度,O2浓度随时间急剧降低,与黄铁矿中的Fe2+氧化消耗氧气有关 | — | CH4、CO2和H2的浓度随深度不同程度降低,He和烃类气体随深度而增加 | 深部地下水中大量还原性气体聚集,有利于维持地下水还原性环境 |
), ArticleFig(id=1190362759180157643, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190260162528112641, articleId=1190343839018749999, language=CN, label=表2, caption=
各国研究汇总对比情况
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| 研究方向 | 美国 | 瑞士 | 法国 | 瑞典 | 芬兰 |
| 地下水化学类型 | HCO3-Na型 | Cl-Na型 | Cl·SO4-Ca型 | Cl-Na·Ca型 | Cl-Na·Ca型 |
| 地下水同位素 | 14C识别地下水年龄9~18 ka D、18O识别地下水来源为大气降水 | 3H显示浅部地下水年龄为数月至几十年 81Kr识别深部地下水年龄高达13.2~32 ka | 14C识别地下水年龄17~30 ka 36Cl/Cl-比值计算的更古老的地下水年龄为360~800 ka | 36Cl/Cl和4He识别陆源古地下水4.3 Ma以上 14C识别出利托里纳海水在5~10 ka前混入, D、18O的结果对此进行了作证 | 13C同位素识别了CH4的来源 深部地下水中CH4以热成因占主导 |
| 地下水化学模拟 | TOUGHREACT模拟热-水-化学(THC)耦合,矿物在一百年后,沉淀填充裂隙,降低岩石的渗透率 M3量化地下水混合比例,古生代碳酸盐岩地下水占17 %,古近系凝灰岩地下水占19 %,第四纪盆地地下水占15 %,大气降水占49 % PHREEQC计算饱和指数,石膏、白云石等溶解矿物处于未饱和状态 | PHREEQC模拟水-岩相互作用,以评估CO2对场址深部地下水化学变化的影响,围岩黏土矿物对pH的变化具有缓冲作用,即便受到较强的CO2扰动,地下水环境仍能保持相对稳定的化学状态 | PHREEQC模拟孔隙水演化,地下水中的Na+、Cl-受道格统地层地下水下渗影响,浓度沿着NE-SW方向降低 | M3量化地下水混合比例,海水占12.1 %,大气降水占18.0 %,盐水占11.3 %,冰川融水占58.6 % SKB构建场址地下水化学描述模型,500 m以下地下水处于封闭环境,化学成分稳定 | 化学反应迁移方程模拟地下水化学长期演变,处置库运行期、关闭期均是稳定的还原环境 |
| 地下水气候 | 更新世非饱和带地下水位比现在地下水水位高25~50 m 冰期年平均气温比现在低10~15 ℃ | 稀有气体温度计反演古温度,冰期相较于现在低3.7±1.6 ℃ | 稀有气体温度计反演古温度,末次冰期补给温度介于3.0~8.6 ℃之间 | — | 预测气候演化,未来冰期处置库场址,冰盖边缘风速增加,湿度降低,土壤温度降低,可能会形成永久冻土 |
| 地下水溶解气体 | — | 监测溶解气体浓度,O2浓度随时间急剧降低,与黄铁矿中的Fe2+氧化消耗氧气有关 | — | CH4、CO2和H2的浓度随深度不同程度降低,He和烃类气体随深度而增加 | 深部地下水中大量还原性气体聚集,有利于维持地下水还原性环境 |
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