Article(id=1148994042559525439, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-090, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1701100800000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-28, revisedDate=1709481600000, revisedDateStr=2024-03-04, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751871127023, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1719676800000, pubDateStr=2024-06-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751871127023, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751871127023, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751871127023, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148994036700078859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='3', pageStart='397', pageEnd='693', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751871125626, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057298298, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992417, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=548, endPage=560, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999701605626031, articleId=1148994042559525439, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Bacterial inter-PKS hybrids and the biosynthetic algorithm of polyketides, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Polyketides are a class of natural products isolated from a wide variety of species. In bacteria, diverse skeletons of polyketides lead to different biological functions, including anti-bacteria, anti-fungi, anti-tumor and immunomodulation. Polyketide synthases (PKSs) are responsible for the biosynthesis of polyketides through successive Claisen condensations of short-chain fatty acids. PKSs are classified into type Ⅰ, type Ⅱ and type Ⅲ, producing different polyketide scaffolds. Bacterial PKSs often hybridize with other biosynthetic enzymes to form PKS hybrids, such as PKS-NRPS or PKS-Ripps, exhibiting more complicated and unique structures. Additionally, different types of PKS can also form inter-PKS hybrids to generate different skeletons. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the structures and biosynthetic mechanisms of bacterial inter-PKS hybrids, including type Ⅰ PKS internal hybrids, type Ⅰ/Ⅱ PKS hybrids and type Ⅰ/Ⅲ PKS hybrids with the following context: (1) In atypical type Ⅰ PKSs, some modules may iteratively catalyze multiple rounds of carbon chain growth, resulting in iterative/non-iterative PKS hybrids; (2) trans-AT PKS and cis-AT PKS can also form PKS hybrids, and the synthesis of kirromycin is a representative example; (3) Type Ⅰ PKSs synthesize unique starter units for type Ⅱ PKSs to produce polyketide scaffolds with the alkyl groups; (4) Type Ⅲ PKSs can condense malonyl-CoA to form different aromatic acids through multiple tailoring steps, and the aromatic acids subsequently act as the starter unit or extender unit into the type Ⅰ PKS assembly line. By elucidating the biosynthetic gene clusters and biosynthetic pathways of inter-PKS hybrids, the reconstructions of inter-PKS hybrids for synthesizing pharmaceutically important analogues are possible. This review also comments the discovery of new inter-PKS hybrids and the engineering of their biosynthetic machineries, to gain more insights into their biosynthetic potential for the production of diverse molecules. By comparing the biosynthetic mechanisms of PKS and discussing the progress of engineering modifications, we prospect a variety of potential inter-PKS hybrid models, highlight the direction for the genome mining of novel polyketides, and provide insights for the engineering modifications of PKS. Through further in-depth and systematic studies on various inter-PKS hybrids in bacteria, it is expected to reveal more natural conundrums, generating a large number of new natural products through adaptive transformation for the research and development of microbial drugs.

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聚酮化合物(polyketide)是一类来源广泛、结构多样的活性天然产物,聚酮合酶(polyketide synthase, PKS)负责聚酮骨架的生物合成。细菌次级代谢中PKS广泛存在,不同类型的PKS在组成和生物合成机制上各不相同,从而产生截然不同的聚酮骨架。根据细菌PKS功能和生物合成途径的不同,可以将其分为Ⅰ型、Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型。PKS通常能与其他生物合成酶系杂合以产生结构更为复杂的天然产物。同时,不同类型PKS之间也可以形成多种内部杂合,产生更多样的聚酮骨架。本文总结和比较PKS间的内部杂合,包括Ⅰ型PKS内部杂合、Ⅰ型/Ⅱ型PKS杂合以及Ⅰ型/Ⅲ型PKS杂合,归纳各种杂合基因簇的形成方式及其杂合特征。通过比较杂合聚酮化合物的生物合成机制并讨论杂合聚酮工程化改造的进展,展望了多种潜在的聚酮杂合模式,合理假设存在合成过程相反的Ⅰ型/Ⅱ型PKS杂合模式,或随着化合物的挖掘发现迄今未报道的Ⅱ型/Ⅲ型PKS杂合模式等,指出可以充分和全面地利用细菌基因组信息,通过酶和基因的生物勘探,发现更多更特殊的PKS杂合化合物等一系列针对新颖聚酮化合物进行基因组挖掘的方向,同时也提出了工程化改造trans-AT PKS在cis-AT模块中实现不同寻常的骨架修饰等多种PKS的工程化改造设想,为后续PKS内部杂合基因簇挖掘和表征提供一些新思路。

, correspAuthors=null, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
陈依军(1962—),男,教授。研究方向为药物合成生物学。E-mail:
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张瑞(1999—),女,硕士研究生。研究方向为聚酮化合物的生物合成。E-mail:

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SCSIO 07399, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1172892421177360834, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1172892421189943747, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, companyId=1172892421177360834, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Laboratory of Chemical Biology,School of Life Science and Technology,China Pharmaceutical University,Nanjing 211198,Jiangsu,China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1172892421202526660, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, companyId=1172892421177360834, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=中国药科大学生命科学与技术学院化学生物学教研室,江苏 南京 211198)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1172892423740080604, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=Classic polyketides for clinical use[1], figureFileSmall=CQAtHKmr0NsucBAPpUrA+g==, figureFileBig=y25Vump9tAg7spylcNAJ4w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892423802995165, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=CN, label=图1, caption=临床使用的经典聚酮类药物1, figureFileSmall=CQAtHKmr0NsucBAPpUrA+g==, figureFileBig=y25Vump9tAg7spylcNAJ4w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892423891075550, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Basic biosynthetic algorithm for different polyketide synthases[11], figureFileSmall=BvVnheKK0VutNwkcrRFm0g==, figureFileBig=eVO6Q/A7zPAC6OHj/t0xnA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892423970767327, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=CN, label=图2, caption=不同类型PKS的生物合成的基本逻辑11, figureFileSmall=BvVnheKK0VutNwkcrRFm0g==, figureFileBig=eVO6Q/A7zPAC6OHj/t0xnA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892424071430624, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Biosynthetic mechanism of Aureothin[41]

MCoA—malonyl CoA; mMCoA—methylmalonyl-CoA

, figureFileSmall=zU1Dof17yd4tOa4x+gUT+Q==, figureFileBig=CxI2ulKLPuuEoH3Wi1aBJA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892424142733793, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=CN, label=图3, caption=Aureothin的生物合成机制41

MCoA—丙二酰辅酶A;mMCoA—甲基丙二酰辅酶

, figureFileSmall=zU1Dof17yd4tOa4x+gUT+Q==, figureFileBig=CxI2ulKLPuuEoH3Wi1aBJA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892424222425570, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Biocatalytic mechanisms of cis-AT PKS and trans-AT PKS[54], figureFileSmall=ZNELmqT0+2qsAMQBOo08QA==, figureFileBig=XG2zDEBG3ckDOwOldbQmDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892424306311651, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=CN, label=图4, caption= cis-AT PKS和trans-AT PKS的生物催化逻辑54, figureFileSmall=ZNELmqT0+2qsAMQBOo08QA==, figureFileBig=XG2zDEBG3ckDOwOldbQmDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892424373420516, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Structures of products synthesized under the catalysis of type Ⅱ PKS and type Ⅰ/Ⅱ PKS hybrids

(The moieties from starter units in polyketidess are highlighted in red.)

, figureFileSmall=UUTbqP2BRnU04GBeD4c4IA==, figureFileBig=vABa/vmx9P8oNIqkmzS9Kg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892424453112293, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042559525439, language=CN, label=图5, caption=Ⅱ型PKS和Ⅰ/Ⅱ型杂合PKS对应产物的化学结构

(由聚酮合酶的起始单元引入的基团以红色加粗显示)

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细菌聚酮合酶间的杂合方式及聚酮化合物生物合成逻辑
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张瑞 , 金文铮 , 陈依军
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(3): 548-560
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(3): 548-560
细菌聚酮合酶间的杂合方式及聚酮化合物生物合成逻辑
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张瑞 , 金文铮, 陈依军
作者信息
  • 中国药科大学生命科学与技术学院化学生物学教研室,江苏 南京 211198
  • 张瑞(1999—),女,硕士研究生。研究方向为聚酮化合物的生物合成。E-mail:

通讯作者:

陈依军(1962—),男,教授。研究方向为药物合成生物学。E-mail:
Bacterial inter-PKS hybrids and the biosynthetic algorithm of polyketides
Rui ZHANG , Wenzheng JIN, Yijun CHEN
Affiliations
  • Laboratory of Chemical Biology,School of Life Science and Technology,China Pharmaceutical University,Nanjing 211198,Jiangsu,China
出版时间: 2024-06-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-090
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聚酮化合物(polyketide)是一类来源广泛、结构多样的活性天然产物,聚酮合酶(polyketide synthase, PKS)负责聚酮骨架的生物合成。细菌次级代谢中PKS广泛存在,不同类型的PKS在组成和生物合成机制上各不相同,从而产生截然不同的聚酮骨架。根据细菌PKS功能和生物合成途径的不同,可以将其分为Ⅰ型、Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型。PKS通常能与其他生物合成酶系杂合以产生结构更为复杂的天然产物。同时,不同类型PKS之间也可以形成多种内部杂合,产生更多样的聚酮骨架。本文总结和比较PKS间的内部杂合,包括Ⅰ型PKS内部杂合、Ⅰ型/Ⅱ型PKS杂合以及Ⅰ型/Ⅲ型PKS杂合,归纳各种杂合基因簇的形成方式及其杂合特征。通过比较杂合聚酮化合物的生物合成机制并讨论杂合聚酮工程化改造的进展,展望了多种潜在的聚酮杂合模式,合理假设存在合成过程相反的Ⅰ型/Ⅱ型PKS杂合模式,或随着化合物的挖掘发现迄今未报道的Ⅱ型/Ⅲ型PKS杂合模式等,指出可以充分和全面地利用细菌基因组信息,通过酶和基因的生物勘探,发现更多更特殊的PKS杂合化合物等一系列针对新颖聚酮化合物进行基因组挖掘的方向,同时也提出了工程化改造trans-AT PKS在cis-AT模块中实现不同寻常的骨架修饰等多种PKS的工程化改造设想,为后续PKS内部杂合基因簇挖掘和表征提供一些新思路。

天然产物  /  聚酮化合物  /  聚酮合酶  /  聚酮内部杂合

Polyketides are a class of natural products isolated from a wide variety of species. In bacteria, diverse skeletons of polyketides lead to different biological functions, including anti-bacteria, anti-fungi, anti-tumor and immunomodulation. Polyketide synthases (PKSs) are responsible for the biosynthesis of polyketides through successive Claisen condensations of short-chain fatty acids. PKSs are classified into type Ⅰ, type Ⅱ and type Ⅲ, producing different polyketide scaffolds. Bacterial PKSs often hybridize with other biosynthetic enzymes to form PKS hybrids, such as PKS-NRPS or PKS-Ripps, exhibiting more complicated and unique structures. Additionally, different types of PKS can also form inter-PKS hybrids to generate different skeletons. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the structures and biosynthetic mechanisms of bacterial inter-PKS hybrids, including type Ⅰ PKS internal hybrids, type Ⅰ/Ⅱ PKS hybrids and type Ⅰ/Ⅲ PKS hybrids with the following context: (1) In atypical type Ⅰ PKSs, some modules may iteratively catalyze multiple rounds of carbon chain growth, resulting in iterative/non-iterative PKS hybrids; (2) trans-AT PKS and cis-AT PKS can also form PKS hybrids, and the synthesis of kirromycin is a representative example; (3) Type Ⅰ PKSs synthesize unique starter units for type Ⅱ PKSs to produce polyketide scaffolds with the alkyl groups; (4) Type Ⅲ PKSs can condense malonyl-CoA to form different aromatic acids through multiple tailoring steps, and the aromatic acids subsequently act as the starter unit or extender unit into the type Ⅰ PKS assembly line. By elucidating the biosynthetic gene clusters and biosynthetic pathways of inter-PKS hybrids, the reconstructions of inter-PKS hybrids for synthesizing pharmaceutically important analogues are possible. This review also comments the discovery of new inter-PKS hybrids and the engineering of their biosynthetic machineries, to gain more insights into their biosynthetic potential for the production of diverse molecules. By comparing the biosynthetic mechanisms of PKS and discussing the progress of engineering modifications, we prospect a variety of potential inter-PKS hybrid models, highlight the direction for the genome mining of novel polyketides, and provide insights for the engineering modifications of PKS. Through further in-depth and systematic studies on various inter-PKS hybrids in bacteria, it is expected to reveal more natural conundrums, generating a large number of new natural products through adaptive transformation for the research and development of microbial drugs.

natural products  /  polyketide  /  polyketide synthase  /  inter-PKS hybrids
张瑞, 金文铮, 陈依军. 细菌聚酮合酶间的杂合方式及聚酮化合物生物合成逻辑. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (3) : 548 -560 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-090
Rui ZHANG, Wenzheng JIN, Yijun CHEN. Bacterial inter-PKS hybrids and the biosynthetic algorithm of polyketides[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (3) : 548 -560 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-090
微生物次级代谢产物是生物活性化合物的“宝库”,主要包括聚酮(polyketide)1、非核糖体肽(nonribosomal peptide)2、萜类(terpenoid)3、翻译后修饰肽(ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide,RiPP)4等类型的天然产物。
聚酮化合物是一类广泛存在的微生物次级代谢产物,也是天然药物的重要来源,其结构多样性也带来了丰富的生物活性(图115。例如,红色糖多孢菌(Saccharopolyspora erythraea)中发现的具有大环内酯结构的红霉素(erythromycin)是被广泛应用于治疗细菌感染的一线药物6;多烯类骨架的两性霉素B(amphotericin B)是治疗真菌感染的经典药物7;蒽环类药物柔红霉素(daunorubicin)被应用于肿瘤治疗8;来源于Streptomyces avermitilis的阿维菌素(avermectin)是具有杀虫、杀螨活性的十六元大环内酯化合物9
聚酮合酶(polyketide synthase,PKS)负责聚酮骨架生物合成10。聚酮合酶的装配线经历了起始单元的加载、碳链骨架的合成、碳链的释放与环化的过程。根据PKS组成与催化机制的差异11,细菌中的PKS被分为Ⅰ型、Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型,随之不同类型的PKS产生的聚酮骨架也大相径庭。Ⅰ型PKS是模块化(module)的多功能酶复合体12,每个模块单元包含多个不同催化功能的结构域,聚酮骨架在模块内发生一轮碳链的延长并在模块间顺序传递,组成了复杂又精密的“聚酮流水线”。以发生于一轮模块内的聚酮生物合成现象为例13图2(a)],酰基转移酶结构域(acyltransferase,AT)识别丙二酰辅酶A作为延伸单元,并将其转移至酰基载体蛋白(acyl carrier protein,ACP)上,酮基合成酶(ketosynthase,KS)催化上一模块ACP传递而来的聚酮链与本模块ACP上挂载的丙二酰辅酶A发生克莱森缩合,从而使聚酮骨架延长一个C2单元。AT、ACP、KS是模块内最基本的三个结构域,此外,模块内还选择性地包含酮基还原酶(ketoreductase,KR)、脱水酶(dehydratase,DH)和烯酰基还原酶(enoylreductase,ER),它们对发生了碳链增长后的聚酮链上的β-酮基进行修饰并决定了α、β位的化学结构与立体构型14。另外,根据聚酮骨架在同一模块内是否实现多轮延伸,Ⅰ型PKS又可分为迭代型(iterative PKS)和非迭代型(noniterative PKS)15。在Gladiolin生物合成基因簇中16,聚酮模块内不存在AT结构域,基因簇中的游离酰基转移酶负责在每轮碳链延伸中掺入延伸单元,人们将这类PKS称为trans-AT PKS,而模块内含有AT结构域的则称为cis-AT PKS。与模块化工作的Ⅰ型PKS不同,Ⅱ型PKS是由多个独立催化的酶组成的复杂催化体系17。它只含有一套可重复使用的酶元件,由KSα、CLF(chain length factor)18以及ACP组成,并以迭代方式合成芳香族聚酮化合物。此外,KR、芳香酶(aromatases)以及环化酶(cyclase)同样参与到Ⅱ型PKS的生物合成中,形成了如四环素类、蒽环类等多环芳香骨架19图2(b)]。Ⅲ型PKS又称为查尔酮合酶(chalcone synthase,CHS20),它在生物合成上的最大特点是可以直接催化丙二酰辅酶A缩合而无需ACP挂载底物21图2(c)]。诸如3,6,8-四羟基萘(3,6,8-tetrahydroxynaphthalene,THN)22等单环或双环芳香类聚酮化合物是Ⅲ型PKS的代表产物。
除由单一类型PKS合成聚酮化合物外,PKS可以与多种生物合成酶杂合以产生结构多样的杂合天然产物。PKS-NRPS杂合天然产物在微生物代谢产物中分布极其广泛23-25。迄今为止,多种PKS-NRPS生物合成机制已被深入剖析,并已被系统综述26-27。近年来,随着基因组挖掘技术的发展,人们发现了罕见的PKS-Ripp28或PKS-萜29的杂合化合物并解析了其生物合成途径,极大地拓展了对聚酮杂合现象和机制的理解。同时,与不同类型酶系间的杂合相似,PKS酶系内部同样也可以形成杂合,产生结构新颖的杂合聚酮化合物。
本文以细菌聚酮内部杂合现象为切入点,对已报道的PKS内部杂合的聚酮化合物和其生物合成机制进行了概述,并针对性地讨论了人工重构杂合聚酮基因簇的最新进展,随后对细菌基因组中潜在的聚酮内部杂合基因簇的挖掘和聚酮工程化重构进行了讨论和展望。
细菌Ⅰ型PKS是模块化的,每个模块都包含延伸和修饰所需的结构域,经典药物红霉素30和阿维菌素31等大环内酯类化合物的生物合成均由模块化Ⅰ型PKS负责。大多数情况下,Ⅰ型PKS每个模块只负责一次碳链延伸,这种模块与循环数间一对一的对应关系被称为共线性规则32。通过对“共线性”PKS结构域的组成和功能进行预测,能够初步推导出该聚酮基因簇产生的化合物的基本骨架33-34,助力天然产物结构的鉴定35。然而,自然界也存在多种不符合“共线性规则”的Ⅰ型聚酮合酶,它们的特定模块或特定结构域存在迭代使用36、链跳跃37和折返使用38等特殊现象,其有趣的地方在于终产物存在使用共线性模型难以预测的化学基团和骨架。
Aureothin39是从Streptomyces thioluteus中分离出来的一种特殊的含有硝基苯结构的吡喃酮。Christian Hertweck课题组40首次报道了Aureothin中部分模块存在重复使用的现象,这也是最早的共线性模型-非共线性模型杂合Ⅰ型聚酮基因簇的报道。Aureothin生物合成基因簇的四个PKS模块共计催化了五次克莱森缩合反应,其中AurA编码的module 1重复使用两次,迭代催化合成骨架中二烯部分41(见图3红色结构)。Busch等42证明在发生第一次碳链增长后,ACP1没有将聚酮链传递给下游KS2而是传递底物回到同一模块的KS1结构域上,从而启动了module 1的再次延伸。
阿扎霉素F(azalomycin F)是含有胍基支链的36元大环内酯类聚酮化合物,负责其生物合成的聚酮合酶共计19个模块,催化了20轮碳链延伸43。孙宇辉课题组44在前期研究中发现AzlA的module 1不仅迭代催化了两轮碳链增长,其模块中的烯基还原酶结构还具有“开关”特性。AzlA的ER1仅选择性催化第二轮碳链延伸中间体α,β-双键的还原而在第一轮碳链延长的过程中丧失功能,从而在阿扎霉素骨架中引入不同的基团。该课题组还进一步揭示ER1同样能够催化下游模块上聚酮链中间体双键的还原45,这一新颖而独特的跨模块“借用”方式打破了人们对聚酮合酶线性装配的既有观念,进一步丰富了人们对聚酮合酶装配线的认知。
在PKS的组合生物合成中,大片段的插入或删除往往面临着遗传操作手段上的瓶颈,而在理解PKS工作机制的基础上,针对PKS共线性模式的工程化改造则可以克服分子生物学手段上的瓶颈,极大地拓展聚酮化合物的化学空间。研究表明,KS结构域与相连的ACP结构域之间的相互作用以及对碳链骨架的选择性识别是聚酮装配线上关键的校验机制46-47。Chaitan Khosla课题组48针对KS-ACP相互作用的界面对ACP进行理性改构,成功地将非迭代催化过程转变为迭代催化,并首次在“共线性”PKS中引入“非共线性”的PKS模块。
迄今为止,尚未在自然界中发现迭代Ⅰ型-非迭代Ⅰ型PKS(如烯二炔类聚酮化合物的合成酶49)的杂合聚酮基因簇,利用基因组挖掘可针对该类杂合聚酮基因簇进行定向挖掘并填补领域空白。在对PKS装配线的分子机制和模块中的结构域-结构域相互作用有更为深入的理解的情况下,可以找到合适的“探针”来定向挖掘特殊杂合模式的聚酮基因簇。随着基因组或宏基因组挖掘手段的完善,有望发现细菌Ⅰ型PKS中多种非规范结构域50和非规范模块51等偏离经典规则的情况。
cis-AT PKS和trans-AT PKS(AT-less PKS52)模块组成上的最大区别在于AT结构域是否存在于模块内。cis-AT PKS的每个模块都包含一个AT结构域,负责将延伸单元加载到同一模块的ACP结构域上53;而trans-AT PKS中的模块内则不包含AT结构域,trans-AT PKS 生物合成基因簇中独立的酰基转移酶多次重复地将丙二酰辅酶A转移至一个或多个模块的ACP结构域上(图454
Streptomyces collinus Tü 365分离的蛋白质合成抑制剂55Kirromycin是首个被报道的cis-AT/trans-AT PKS杂合聚酮。Kirromycin的生物合成涉及三种不同类型的多模块酶,其生物合成组装线已成为研究cis-AT/trans-AT杂合的经典模型56。KirAⅥ是合成装配线上唯一的cis-AT PKS,而KirAⅠ-KirAⅤ则属于trans-AT PKS。值得注意的是,基因簇中同时存在两个不同的酰基转移酶KirCⅠ57和KirCⅡ,分别负责了不同模块中延伸单元的加载。Tilmann Weber课题组58的研究表明,KirCⅡ较为特殊,它加载trans-AT中罕见的延伸单元乙基丙二酰辅酶A至module 5的ACP结构域上。KirCⅠ由AT1-AT2-ER的三结构域组成,其中KirCⅠ-AT2将丙二酰辅酶A加载到其余的trans-AT PKS的ACP结构域,而KirCⅠ-AT1在PKS校对中发挥作用59
研究者们对cis-AT/trans-AT杂合的疑问在于这类特殊的聚酮杂合基因簇是否是典型的cis-AT PKS中部分模块丢失了AT结构域而形成。然而,对聚酮合酶的系统发育树进行分析后发现,尽管trans-AT和cis-AT看起来如此相似,cis-AT PKS和trans-AT PKS的进化方式完全不同:cis-AT PKS通过模块复制和结构域多样化实现垂直进化60,而trans-AT PKS则通过基因转移实现水平进化61。截然不同的PKS进化模式也同样解答了为何特殊功能的结构域往往仅存在于trans-AT PKS模块中62
受限于cis-AT PKS中存在的复杂的结构域-结构域相互作用,利用工程化的trans-AT以实现非天然延伸单元的掺入已成为研究的热点63。2014年,Chaitan Khosla课题组64报道了在Disorazole生物合成基因簇中的特殊的DszAT可以掺入多种延伸单元,并且可以回补失活的AT的功能,从而提出了由cis-AT PKS转变为trans-AT PKS的可行策略。随后,Michelle C. Y. Chang课题组65通过工程化DszAT,构建了一个人工的cis-AT/trans-AT杂合基因簇,并首次在完整聚酮骨架中引入氟原子。
Tetracenomycin66等多环芳香结构的药物是由KSα、CLF以及ACP组成的Ⅱ型PKS催化合成的[图5(a)67。Ⅱ型PKS的生物合成多以简单的酰基辅酶A为起始单元,经历多轮碳链迭代增长、环化、后修饰后最终形成多环芳香结构68。相较于经典的Ⅱ型PKS,Streptomyces griseoruber产生的Hedamycin[图5(b)69以及最近从海洋链霉菌Streptomyces sp. shell-016分离出来的Shellmycin则具有较为特殊的烷基侧链[图5(c)70
Jon S.Thorson课题组71首先证实了Hedamycin是由Type Ⅰ/Ⅱ杂合聚酮基因簇负责合成的,其烷基侧链由两个Ⅰ型PKS HedT和HedU顺序催化形成。HedU接受来源于HedT加载的乙酰辅酶A并产生一个独特的己烯酸起始单元,随后该起始单元转移至KSα-CLF复合酶体上启动Ⅱ型PKS的生物合成(图6)。另一个Type Ⅰ/Ⅱ杂合聚酮Shellmycin与Hedamycin在聚酮装配线上的主要区别在于:①细菌Ⅰ型PKS合成了不同于Hedamycin起始单元的甲基二烯,随后启动Ⅱ型PKS的生物合成;②不同的CLF蛋白控制碳链增长的次数不同,从而赋予了骨架不同的芳香结构。
迄今为止,自然界中发现的Type Ⅰ/Ⅱ杂合基因簇的杂合方式都是相同的:Ⅰ型PKS合成一个可以被KSα利用的特殊起始单元从而在Ⅱ型骨架中引入特殊的烷基支链。此外,另一种潜在的颠覆性模式是Ⅱ型PKS催化合成的中间体可以作为Ⅰ型PKS的起始单元或延伸单元。因而,针对Ⅰ型PKS的特殊起始模块进行定向挖掘或可发现有别于现有杂合模式的新型Type Ⅰ/Ⅱ杂合聚酮。总之,Type Ⅰ/Ⅱ型PKS的杂合现象为人们提供了新的视角,对其杂合和催化机制的研究有望进一步开发利用这两大类PKS的潜能,产生结构和活性多样的细菌天然产物。
Ⅲ型PKS是一种可重复使用的同源双亚基蛋白,不存在除KS外的其余结构域,并可独立催化丙二酰辅酶A缩合形成单环或者双环芳香结构72。在细菌中,Ⅲ型PKS较少被发现,其往往与其他类型天然产物合成酶形成杂合,例如Meroterpenoids类天然产物就是由Type Ⅲ PKS-萜杂合形成的73
细菌次生代谢中,Ⅲ型PKS也可作为起始单元或延伸单元参与到Ⅰ型聚酮的生物合成过程中。然而,尽管不同亚种的Ⅲ型PKS可催化合成多样的聚酮分子74,目前已知的Type Ⅰ/Ⅲ杂合聚酮基因簇中Ⅱ型PKS的功能都是相同的。在Type Ⅰ/Ⅲ PKS-NRPS三杂合基因簇(tot)或Type Ⅰ/Ⅲ杂合基因簇(ken)中,Ⅲ型PKS及相关基因均催化了从丙二酰辅酶A到3,5-DHPGO(3,5-dihydroxyglyoxylate)的生物转化75图7)。totken生物合成途径中的差异点在于3,5-DHPGO经历了截然不同的后修饰,分别形成D-4-氯-5,7-二羟基-6-甲基苯甘氨酸(D-4-chloro-5,7-dihydroxy-6-methylphenylglycine,D-ClPhg)和3,5-二羟基苯甲酸(3,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 3,5-DHBA)。随后,在tot生物合成途径中,非天然氨基酸D-ClPhg作为NRPS模块的特殊延伸单元而嵌入骨架中;在ken生物合成途径中,3,5-DHBA则作为罕见的起始单元而被Ⅰ型PKS的起始模块活化和识别。
迄今为止,以3,5-DHBA作为起始单元的Type Ⅰ/Ⅲ杂合聚酮化合物家族已有Kendomycin76、Venemycin77、Resorculin78以及Cinnamomycin79,它们的生物合成逻辑本质上基本相同,但结构和活性却大相径庭。中国药科大学陈依军课题组79依据3,5-DHBA生物合成操纵子在细菌基因组数据库进行了定向挖掘,报告了NCBI公共数据库中所有26个Type Ⅰ/Ⅲ杂合聚酮基因簇,并证实了3,5-DHBA作为Ⅰ型PKS起始单元是细菌中Type Ⅰ/Ⅲ杂合的通用模式。由于Ⅲ型PKS的产物多样,我们可以合理地期待在细菌基因组中能够挖掘获得更多全新的Type Ⅰ/Ⅲ杂合生物基因簇及其新颖产物。
自1990年和1991年Peter Leadlay和Leonard Katz在红霉素生物合成途径中首次解析了其PKS以来3080,研究人员对以红霉素合成酶(6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase,DEBS)为典型的Ⅰ型聚酮合成酶进行了全面且深入的结构和分子机制研究。与此同时,基于聚酮化合物丰富的生物活性和良好的结构可塑性81,国内外学者对聚酮化合物的研究也逐渐深入和系统,从全新基因簇挖掘82到对已知化合物的生物合成机制研究均取得了重要的进展83
细菌中PKS催化合成的天然产物是临床治疗药物的重要来源84,但结构的复杂性往往带来了可及性问题85。因此,深入了解生物合成途径,总结生物合成规律,充分利用和改善天然的生物合成途径是解决上述问题的重要选项。随着分子生物学、生物信息学、代谢工程、合成生物学等领域的快速发展和相关研究成果的不断积累,人们对PKS的了解越来越全面且深入。然而,Ⅰ型、Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型PKS等较为粗略的分类并不能完全囊括所有的聚酮合酶,特别是聚酮合酶内部的杂合情况。因此,本文概述和总结了已报道的PKS内部杂合化合物的结构及其特殊的生物合成特征。
尽管相较于广泛分布的PKS-NRPS杂合基因簇,PKS内部杂合基因簇的报道更为罕见,其独特的生物合成机制仍然吸引了大量课题组对其展开定向基因簇挖掘和表征。然而,现存的研究仍有待进一步的深入:①是否可以实现更小的PKS催化较为复杂的杂合聚酮化合物,从而最大限度地发挥资源的利用率;②相较于cis-AT PKS,trans-AT PKS结构域模块的组成和装配线上的功能更为多样86,针对trans-AT PKS的工程化改造可在cis-AT模块中实现不同寻常的骨架修饰;③Ⅱ型PKS合成可被Ⅰ型PKS利用的生物合成起始单元的模式是否在自然界中存在;④Ⅰ型PKS合成脂肪酸链并作为Ⅲ型PKS起始单元的聚酮杂合模式是否可通过工程化改造而实现;⑤Type Ⅱ/Ⅲ杂合聚酮基因簇是否存在,其产生的结构与生物合成机制仍有待阐明。
细菌中不同类型的PKS通过杂合生物合成天然产物现象的不断发现,表明自然界可能存在着意想不到的合成新型天然产物的途径和机制。挖掘非经典PKS催化的天然产物将进一步拓展聚酮类化合物的结构多样性。为了扩大和利用PKS杂合聚酮化合物家族,未来的研究工作将体现在以下方面:①从结构和进化等不同层面深入表征PKS杂合体催化的精细方式和机制;②更充分和全面地利用细菌基因组信息,通过酶和基因的生物勘探,发现更多更特殊的PKS杂合化合物;③利用组合生物合成方式产生理化性质改善、生物活性新颖的PKS杂合化合物;④通过理解现有杂合方式和机制,发现和阐明新的杂合类型。通过进一步深入系统研究细菌中PKS内部的多种杂合,有望在揭示更多自然现象和规律的同时,通过适配性改造产生大量新型天然产物,为微生物药物研发奠定物质基础。
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-090
  • 接收时间:2023-11-28
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-06-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-28
  • 修回日期:2024-03-04
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    中国药科大学生命科学与技术学院化学生物学教研室,江苏 南京 211198

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陈依军(1962—),男,教授。研究方向为药物合成生物学。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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