Article(id=1148994042240758334, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-097, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1701360000000, receivedDateStr=2023-12-01, revisedDate=1709827200000, revisedDateStr=2024-03-08, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751871126947, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1719676800000, pubDateStr=2024-06-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751871126947, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751871126947, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751871126947, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148994036700078859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='3', pageStart='397', pageEnd='693', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751871125626, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057298298, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992417, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=672, endPage=693, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999714905764054, articleId=1148994042240758334, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=CRISPR/Cas systems and their applications in gene editing with filamentous fungi, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Filamentous fungi, which present distinct morphology and cell structure, play a critical role in human health as well as industrial and agricultural production. However, the unique characteristics of filamentous fungi make them difficult to be manipulated with traditional genetic engineering methods. Thus, the development of an efficient gene editing system is essential for exploring biological resources and understanding metabolic processes in filamentous fungi. The development of the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/CRISPR associated protein (CRISPR/Cas) system promotes more efficient and effective gene editing in different species, and brings a revolutionary breakthrough in fungal fundamental research and applications. In this review, we first briefly introduce the history, working mechanism, and classifications of the CRISPR/Cas mediated gene editing system. Next, we comment the functional components of CRISPR/Cas9 such as selective marker, Cas9 and gRNA and the delivery methods of these components in various filamentous fungi. Furthermore, we systematically discuss the applications of CRISPR related technologies, including CRISPR/Cas12, base-editor, CRISPRa, CRISPRi and CRISPR mediated epigenetic regulation, in the genetic engineering of filamentous fungi, particularly in marine-derived filamentous fungi. Finally, we address challenges with relative low gene editing efficiency and off-targets effects in engineering filamentous fungi, and highlight the potential solutions for developing novel CRISPR/Cas-based gene editing systems. This review can provide guidance for developing an efficient gene editing platform in filamentous fungi and pave the way for further exploration of the secondary metabolites and establishment of robust fungal cell factories.

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丝状真菌(filamentous fungi)具有独特的形态和细胞构造,与人类健康和工农业生产息息相关,对这类生物资源的开发和利用高度依赖高效的基因编辑平台。然而,由于丝状真菌复杂多样的遗传背景,使用传统的基因编辑技术较难实现大范围的基因编辑,极大地妨碍了丝状真菌的遗传学研究。CRISPR/Cas(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/CRISPR-associated protein)技术的出现,打破了这一困境,促进了不同种属和不同来源的丝状真菌的基因编辑,为丝状真菌的基础和应用研究带来了革命性的突破。本文简述了CRISPR/Cas系统的作用机理、分类及基于CRISPR的各种新型技术,归纳总结了丝状真菌中现有的CRISPR/Cas9系统功能组分、多种新兴CRISPR/Cas技术在丝状真菌中的应用现状以及海洋真菌中的CRISPR/Cas技术的应用情况。最后,对CRISPR/Cas系统在丝状真菌中应用进展缓慢、编辑效率低和脱靶效应等问题以及针对这些问题的潜在解决方法进行总结和展望,以期为不同类型的丝状真菌基因编辑平台的构建提供参考。

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鞠建华(1972─),男,博士,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物活性次级代谢产物的发现、生物合成和抗感染、抗肿瘤创新药物研发。E-mail:
马俊英(1980─),女,博士,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为结构新颖、活性显著的海洋微生物活性次级代谢产物的生物合成。E-mail:
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陈盈盈(1986─),女,博士,副研究员。研究方向为真菌次级代谢产物生物合成和代谢调控。E-mail:

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(Colors representing different Cas9 with codon sequences optimized)

, figureFileSmall=vHcF7fgkoxHd5SBBbGLRzg==, figureFileBig=1+/l9yt03ZQP3fcERHP47Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892355746218062, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=CN, label=图2, caption=不同种属密码子优化的Cas9序列在丝状真菌中的应用

(不同颜色代表着不同Cas9序列来源)

, figureFileSmall=vHcF7fgkoxHd5SBBbGLRzg==, figureFileBig=1+/l9yt03ZQP3fcERHP47Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892355830104143, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Applications of next-generation CRISPR technologies in engineering filamentous fungi, figureFileSmall=0aZhT7heNQBAWVV6kjqLpA==, figureFileBig=2r6kxodlVMf2WPW+x6A/2A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892355880435792, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=CN, label=图3, caption=新兴CRISPR技术在丝状真菌中的使用, figureFileSmall=0aZhT7heNQBAWVV6kjqLpA==, figureFileBig=2r6kxodlVMf2WPW+x6A/2A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892355926573137, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Naturally occurring major Cas homologues

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
蛋白名称 蛋白大小(AA) PAM/TAM序列 gRNA大小 剪切位点 参考文献
SpCas9 1368 NGG 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [12]
FnCas9 1629 NGG 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [16]
SaCas9 1053 NNGR RT 21 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [17]
NmCas9 1082 NNNNG ATT 24 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [18]
St1Cas9 1121 NNAGA AW 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [13,19]
St3Cas9 1409 NGGNG 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [13,19]
CjCas9 984 NNNNACAC 22 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [20]
CdCas9 1084 NNRHHHY 22 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [21]
GeoCas9 1087 NNNNCRAA 21/22 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [22]
AceCas9 1138 NNNCC 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [23]
AsCas12a 1307 TTTV 24 bp 约19/24 bp 3′ of PAM [24]
LbCas12a 1228 TTTV 24 bp 约19/24 bp 3′ of PAM [24]
FnCas12a 1307 TTV 24 bp 约19/24 bp 3′ of PAM [25]
Cas12b 1108/1130 TTN 23 bp 约17/23 bp 5′ of PAM [26-27]
Cas12f 约400~600 5′ T/C-rich 20 bp/33~39 bp 约3/24 bp 3′ of PAM [28-31]
CasX 978 TTCN 20 bp 约12/25 bp ′ of 3′ PAM [32]
TnpB/IscB/IsrB 约400

TTGAT/ATAAA

/ATGA/NNG

15~45 bp

约3/12 bp of 5′ TAM

约6/21 bp of 3′ TAM

[33-34]
Fz 约500~800

CATA/TTAAN

/CCG/TAG

7~21 bp 约9/21 bp of 5′ TAM [35]
Cas14 约400~700 ssDNA 20 bp [29]
Cas13 约900~1250 RNA targeting 28 bp [36]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892355993682002, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

自然界中存在的关键Cas 类蛋白酶

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
蛋白名称 蛋白大小(AA) PAM/TAM序列 gRNA大小 剪切位点 参考文献
SpCas9 1368 NGG 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [12]
FnCas9 1629 NGG 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [16]
SaCas9 1053 NNGR RT 21 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [17]
NmCas9 1082 NNNNG ATT 24 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [18]
St1Cas9 1121 NNAGA AW 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [13,19]
St3Cas9 1409 NGGNG 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [13,19]
CjCas9 984 NNNNACAC 22 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [20]
CdCas9 1084 NNRHHHY 22 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [21]
GeoCas9 1087 NNNNCRAA 21/22 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [22]
AceCas9 1138 NNNCC 20 bp 约3 bp 5′ of PAM [23]
AsCas12a 1307 TTTV 24 bp 约19/24 bp 3′ of PAM [24]
LbCas12a 1228 TTTV 24 bp 约19/24 bp 3′ of PAM [24]
FnCas12a 1307 TTV 24 bp 约19/24 bp 3′ of PAM [25]
Cas12b 1108/1130 TTN 23 bp 约17/23 bp 5′ of PAM [26-27]
Cas12f 约400~600 5′ T/C-rich 20 bp/33~39 bp 约3/24 bp 3′ of PAM [28-31]
CasX 978 TTCN 20 bp 约12/25 bp ′ of 3′ PAM [32]
TnpB/IscB/IsrB 约400

TTGAT/ATAAA

/ATGA/NNG

15~45 bp

约3/12 bp of 5′ TAM

约6/21 bp of 3′ TAM

[33-34]
Fz 约500~800

CATA/TTAAN

/CCG/TAG

7~21 bp 约9/21 bp of 5′ TAM [35]
Cas14 约400~700 ssDNA 20 bp [29]
Cas13 约900~1250 RNA targeting 28 bp [36]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892356073373779, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Screening markers applied in CRISPR/Cas systems for engineering filamentous fungi

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
分类 筛选标记 表征或筛选条件 应用
抗性基因标记 Hygromycin (hyg) Hph (编码潮霉素磷酸转移酶), 具有潮霉素抗性

A. niger [42],A. fumigatus [43]

本课题组各种海洋来源菌株

phosphinothricin (bar) Bar (编码磷化麦黄酮乙酰转移酶),具有草胺膦抗性

Myceliophthora thermophila [44],

Beauveria bassiana [45]

Carboxin (cbx) 点突变的SdhB (编码琥珀酸脱氢酶)可作为米曲霉的筛选标记,以醋酸盐作为碳源,可提高对萎锈灵的敏感性 A. oryzae [46]
Neomycin (neo) Neo (编码氨基糖苷磷酸转移酶),具有G418 (新霉素衍生物)抗性

Phytophthora sojae [47],

M. thermophila [48]

Pyrithiamine (ptrA) 点突变的PtrA (编码硫胺素噻唑合成酶基因),具有吡啶硫胺抗性 A. oryzae[49],A. flavus [50]
Chlorimuron (sur) Sur (乙酰乳酸合成酶)具有氯嘧磺隆抗性 Knufia petricola [51]
Fenhexamid (Fenr) 点突变的 ERG27 (编码酮还原酶),具有环酰菌胺抗性 Botrytis cinerea [52]
Nourseothricin (Nat) Nat (编码N-乙酰转移酶),具有诺尔斯菌素抗性 B. cinerea [52]
营养缺陷型标记 amdS 带有amdS基因的菌株在以乙酰胺为唯一氮源的培养基上能够正常生长

A. niger [53],

M. thermophila [48]

niaD niaD功能缺陷突变株能够耐受高浓度氯盐 A. oryzae [49]
pyrG pyrG功能缺失的突变株只能在含有尿苷或尿嘧啶的培养基上正常生长 A. niger [42], A. terreus [54]
argB argB功能缺失的突变株只能在含有精氨酸的培养基上正常生长 A. nidulans [55],A. oryzae [56]
adeA adeA功能缺失的突变株只能在含有腺苷酸的培养基上正常生长 A. oryzae [56]
ppt1 缺失ppt1功能的突变体只能在添加赖氨酸的培养基上正常生长 F. fujikuroi [57]
表型报告基因 fcc1 fcc1基因的破坏可导致紫色色素的积累 F. fujikuroi [57]
wA wA突变体形成白色分生孢子 A. oryzae [49],A. nidulans [55]
yA yA突变体形成黄色分生孢子 A. oryzae [49], A.nidulans [55]
fwnA fwnA突变体形成白色分生孢子 A. niger [58]
albA albA突变体形成白色分生孢子 A. niger [53]
pkaC pkaC (编码camp依赖性蛋白激酶的催化亚单位)的破坏可导致平板上的菌落直径大大减小 A. niger [53]
creA creA 敲除菌株产孢能力显著降低 Spiromastix sp. [59]
pksP pksP敲除菌落具有明显的附白化表型 A. fumigatus [60]
cnaA cnaA功能障碍导致菌丝生长缺陷显著,菌落表型非常小而密集 A. fumigatus [60]
ayg1 ayg1 敲除可导致孢子的颜色从黑色变为黄色 A. carbonarius [61]
cbh1 破坏cbh1将导致SDS-PAGE凝胶上的主要条带丢失,从而有利于通过成功的基因编辑鉴定菌株 Trichoderma reesei [62]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892356157259860, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

丝状真菌中的应用于 CRISPR/Cas 筛选标记

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
分类 筛选标记 表征或筛选条件 应用
抗性基因标记 Hygromycin (hyg) Hph (编码潮霉素磷酸转移酶), 具有潮霉素抗性

A. niger [42],A. fumigatus [43]

本课题组各种海洋来源菌株

phosphinothricin (bar) Bar (编码磷化麦黄酮乙酰转移酶),具有草胺膦抗性

Myceliophthora thermophila [44],

Beauveria bassiana [45]

Carboxin (cbx) 点突变的SdhB (编码琥珀酸脱氢酶)可作为米曲霉的筛选标记,以醋酸盐作为碳源,可提高对萎锈灵的敏感性 A. oryzae [46]
Neomycin (neo) Neo (编码氨基糖苷磷酸转移酶),具有G418 (新霉素衍生物)抗性

Phytophthora sojae [47],

M. thermophila [48]

Pyrithiamine (ptrA) 点突变的PtrA (编码硫胺素噻唑合成酶基因),具有吡啶硫胺抗性 A. oryzae[49],A. flavus [50]
Chlorimuron (sur) Sur (乙酰乳酸合成酶)具有氯嘧磺隆抗性 Knufia petricola [51]
Fenhexamid (Fenr) 点突变的 ERG27 (编码酮还原酶),具有环酰菌胺抗性 Botrytis cinerea [52]
Nourseothricin (Nat) Nat (编码N-乙酰转移酶),具有诺尔斯菌素抗性 B. cinerea [52]
营养缺陷型标记 amdS 带有amdS基因的菌株在以乙酰胺为唯一氮源的培养基上能够正常生长

A. niger [53],

M. thermophila [48]

niaD niaD功能缺陷突变株能够耐受高浓度氯盐 A. oryzae [49]
pyrG pyrG功能缺失的突变株只能在含有尿苷或尿嘧啶的培养基上正常生长 A. niger [42], A. terreus [54]
argB argB功能缺失的突变株只能在含有精氨酸的培养基上正常生长 A. nidulans [55],A. oryzae [56]
adeA adeA功能缺失的突变株只能在含有腺苷酸的培养基上正常生长 A. oryzae [56]
ppt1 缺失ppt1功能的突变体只能在添加赖氨酸的培养基上正常生长 F. fujikuroi [57]
表型报告基因 fcc1 fcc1基因的破坏可导致紫色色素的积累 F. fujikuroi [57]
wA wA突变体形成白色分生孢子 A. oryzae [49],A. nidulans [55]
yA yA突变体形成黄色分生孢子 A. oryzae [49], A.nidulans [55]
fwnA fwnA突变体形成白色分生孢子 A. niger [58]
albA albA突变体形成白色分生孢子 A. niger [53]
pkaC pkaC (编码camp依赖性蛋白激酶的催化亚单位)的破坏可导致平板上的菌落直径大大减小 A. niger [53]
creA creA 敲除菌株产孢能力显著降低 Spiromastix sp. [59]
pksP pksP敲除菌落具有明显的附白化表型 A. fumigatus [60]
cnaA cnaA功能障碍导致菌丝生长缺陷显著,菌落表型非常小而密集 A. fumigatus [60]
ayg1 ayg1 敲除可导致孢子的颜色从黑色变为黄色 A. carbonarius [61]
cbh1 破坏cbh1将导致SDS-PAGE凝胶上的主要条带丢失,从而有利于通过成功的基因编辑鉴定菌株 Trichoderma reesei [62]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892356245340245, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Promoters for expressing Cas9/gRNA in filamentous fungi

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
类型 名称 来源 应用
RNA聚合酶Ⅱ型启动子(组成型启动子) Ptef1 转录延伸因子启动子 A. niger [83], M. thermophila [48]
PtrpC 吲哚甘油磷酸合成酶启动子 N. crassa [81], Siliqua minima [84]
PgpdA 3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶的启动子 F. fujikuroi [57], A. fumigatus [60]
Ppdc 丙酮酸脱羧酶的启动子 T. reesei [40], Glarea lozoyensis [85]
Pactin 肌动蛋白的启动子 Chaetomium globosum [86] Leptosphaeria maculans [85]
Phsp70 热休克蛋白的启动子 U. hordei [87]
PpkiA 丙酮酸激酶的启动子 A. niger [88]
Pef1α 人延长因子1α的启动子 Shiraia bambusicola [89]
PmbfA 多蛋白桥接因子的启动子 A. niger [42]
PcoxA 细胞色素氧化酶的启动子 A. niger [42]
P40S 40S 核糖体蛋白S8的启动子 P.rubens [90]
Pham34 莴苣盘霜霉来源启动子 P.sojae [47]
PoliC ATP 合成酶亚基的启动子 B.cinerea [52]
RNA聚合酶Ⅱ型启动子(诱导型启动子) PxylP/xlnA 木聚糖酶的启动子 P. chrysogenum [73]A. fumigatus [91]
Pcbh1 纤维素二糖水解酶Ⅰ的启动子 T. reesei [40]
PamyB 淀粉酶的启动子 A.oryzae [74]
PtetON 四环素诱导启动子 A. fumigatus [92]
PglaA α-葡萄糖淀粉酶的启动子 A. niger [93], T. reesei [94]
niiA 硝酸还原酶的启动子 A. fumigatus [60]
RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子 u6 人U6微核启动子 A.oryzae [49], A. richmondensis [95]
5S rRNA 5S rRNA基因启动子 A. niger [53], P. oxalicum [94]
tRNA 转录转移核糖核酸启动子 A. niger [93], A. aculeatus [96]
SNR52 核仁小分子RNA 52启动子 N. crassa [81], A. fumigatus [43]
体外转录 T7 T7噬菌体衍生启动子 T. reesei [62], P. chrysogenum [97]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892356325032022, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

丝状真菌中的Cas9/gRNA表达启动子

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
类型 名称 来源 应用
RNA聚合酶Ⅱ型启动子(组成型启动子) Ptef1 转录延伸因子启动子 A. niger [83], M. thermophila [48]
PtrpC 吲哚甘油磷酸合成酶启动子 N. crassa [81], Siliqua minima [84]
PgpdA 3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶的启动子 F. fujikuroi [57], A. fumigatus [60]
Ppdc 丙酮酸脱羧酶的启动子 T. reesei [40], Glarea lozoyensis [85]
Pactin 肌动蛋白的启动子 Chaetomium globosum [86] Leptosphaeria maculans [85]
Phsp70 热休克蛋白的启动子 U. hordei [87]
PpkiA 丙酮酸激酶的启动子 A. niger [88]
Pef1α 人延长因子1α的启动子 Shiraia bambusicola [89]
PmbfA 多蛋白桥接因子的启动子 A. niger [42]
PcoxA 细胞色素氧化酶的启动子 A. niger [42]
P40S 40S 核糖体蛋白S8的启动子 P.rubens [90]
Pham34 莴苣盘霜霉来源启动子 P.sojae [47]
PoliC ATP 合成酶亚基的启动子 B.cinerea [52]
RNA聚合酶Ⅱ型启动子(诱导型启动子) PxylP/xlnA 木聚糖酶的启动子 P. chrysogenum [73]A. fumigatus [91]
Pcbh1 纤维素二糖水解酶Ⅰ的启动子 T. reesei [40]
PamyB 淀粉酶的启动子 A.oryzae [74]
PtetON 四环素诱导启动子 A. fumigatus [92]
PglaA α-葡萄糖淀粉酶的启动子 A. niger [93], T. reesei [94]
niiA 硝酸还原酶的启动子 A. fumigatus [60]
RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子 u6 人U6微核启动子 A.oryzae [49], A. richmondensis [95]
5S rRNA 5S rRNA基因启动子 A. niger [53], P. oxalicum [94]
tRNA 转录转移核糖核酸启动子 A. niger [93], A. aculeatus [96]
SNR52 核仁小分子RNA 52启动子 N. crassa [81], A. fumigatus [43]
体外转录 T7 T7噬菌体衍生启动子 T. reesei [62], P. chrysogenum [97]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892356392140887, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=

Examples of the CRISPR/Cas12a system-assisted gene editing in filamentous fungi

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
菌株 CRISPR/Cas12a 存在形式 递送方式 表达策略 编辑效率 参考 文献
嗜热毁丝霉 (M.thermophila) PCR产物 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U6启动子驱动gRNA的表达 编辑单基因的效率为90%;编辑多个基因时,单基因发生编辑的效率为13%~41%; [44]

稻瘟病菌

(M. oryzae )

RNP PEG介导的 原生质体转化 体外表达 50%~100%的编辑效率 [109-110]

棘孢曲霉

(A. aculeatus)

质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U3启动子 驱动gRNA的表达 接近100%的编辑效率 [111]

阿舒氏囊霉

(A.gossypii)

质粒 电转 TSA1启动子驱动Cas12a的表达;SNR52启动子驱动gRNA的表达 编辑效率根据靶序列有显著不同(19.2%~77.2%) [106]

构巢曲霉

(A. nidulans)

黑曲霉

(A. niger)

质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U3启动子 驱动gRNA的表达 80%~100%的编辑效率 [112]

嗜热毁丝霉

(T.thermophilus)

RNP/质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U6启动子驱动gRNA的表达 单基因编辑效率可达100%,双基因编辑效率为40%~56% [113]

米曲霉

(A.oryzae);

酱油曲霉

(A. sojae)

质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef启动子驱动Cas12a的表达;PgpdA启动子驱动gRNA的表达 在米曲霉中基因编辑效率为60%~100%,在酱油霉中基因编辑效率为50%~70% [114-115]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892356467638360, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994042240758334, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

CRISPR/Cas12a 系统编辑丝状真菌的例子

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
菌株 CRISPR/Cas12a 存在形式 递送方式 表达策略 编辑效率 参考 文献
嗜热毁丝霉 (M.thermophila) PCR产物 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U6启动子驱动gRNA的表达 编辑单基因的效率为90%;编辑多个基因时,单基因发生编辑的效率为13%~41%; [44]

稻瘟病菌

(M. oryzae )

RNP PEG介导的 原生质体转化 体外表达 50%~100%的编辑效率 [109-110]

棘孢曲霉

(A. aculeatus)

质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U3启动子 驱动gRNA的表达 接近100%的编辑效率 [111]

阿舒氏囊霉

(A.gossypii)

质粒 电转 TSA1启动子驱动Cas12a的表达;SNR52启动子驱动gRNA的表达 编辑效率根据靶序列有显著不同(19.2%~77.2%) [106]

构巢曲霉

(A. nidulans)

黑曲霉

(A. niger)

质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U3启动子 驱动gRNA的表达 80%~100%的编辑效率 [112]

嗜热毁丝霉

(T.thermophilus)

RNP/质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef 启动子驱动Cas12a 的表达;U6启动子驱动gRNA的表达 单基因编辑效率可达100%,双基因编辑效率为40%~56% [113]

米曲霉

(A.oryzae);

酱油曲霉

(A. sojae)

质粒 PEG介导的 原生质体转化 Ptef启动子驱动Cas12a的表达;PgpdA启动子驱动gRNA的表达 在米曲霉中基因编辑效率为60%~100%,在酱油霉中基因编辑效率为50%~70% [114-115]
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CRISPR/Cas基因编辑及其新兴技术在丝状真菌研究中的系统应用
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陈盈盈 1 , 刘扬 1 , 史俊杰 1 , 马俊英 1 , 鞠建华 1, 2
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(3): 672-693
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(3): 672-693
CRISPR/Cas基因编辑及其新兴技术在丝状真菌研究中的系统应用
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陈盈盈1 , 刘扬1, 史俊杰1, 马俊英1 , 鞠建华1, 2
作者信息
  • 1 中国科学院南海海洋研究所,中国科学院热带海洋生物资源与生态重点实验室,广东省海洋药物重点实验室,广东 广州 510301
  • 2 山东大学药学院,天然产物化学生物学教育部重点实验室,山东省基础科学研究中心(药学),山东省高等学校药物化学生物学重点实验室,山东 济南 250012
  • 陈盈盈(1986─),女,博士,副研究员。研究方向为真菌次级代谢产物生物合成和代谢调控。E-mail:

通讯作者:

鞠建华(1972─),男,博士,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物活性次级代谢产物的发现、生物合成和抗感染、抗肿瘤创新药物研发。E-mail:
马俊英(1980─),女,博士,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为结构新颖、活性显著的海洋微生物活性次级代谢产物的生物合成。E-mail:
CRISPR/Cas systems and their applications in gene editing with filamentous fungi
Yingying CHEN1 , Yang LIU1, Junjie SHI1, Junying MA1 , Jianhua JU1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1 CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica,South China Sea Institute of Oceanology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Guangzhou 510301,Guangdong,China
  • 2 Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education),Shandong Basic Science Research Center (Pharmacy),Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology (Shandong),School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,Shandong University,Ji’nan 250012,Shandong,China
出版时间: 2024-06-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-097
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丝状真菌(filamentous fungi)具有独特的形态和细胞构造,与人类健康和工农业生产息息相关,对这类生物资源的开发和利用高度依赖高效的基因编辑平台。然而,由于丝状真菌复杂多样的遗传背景,使用传统的基因编辑技术较难实现大范围的基因编辑,极大地妨碍了丝状真菌的遗传学研究。CRISPR/Cas(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/CRISPR-associated protein)技术的出现,打破了这一困境,促进了不同种属和不同来源的丝状真菌的基因编辑,为丝状真菌的基础和应用研究带来了革命性的突破。本文简述了CRISPR/Cas系统的作用机理、分类及基于CRISPR的各种新型技术,归纳总结了丝状真菌中现有的CRISPR/Cas9系统功能组分、多种新兴CRISPR/Cas技术在丝状真菌中的应用现状以及海洋真菌中的CRISPR/Cas技术的应用情况。最后,对CRISPR/Cas系统在丝状真菌中应用进展缓慢、编辑效率低和脱靶效应等问题以及针对这些问题的潜在解决方法进行总结和展望,以期为不同类型的丝状真菌基因编辑平台的构建提供参考。

丝状真菌  /  海洋真菌  /  CRISPR/Cas  /  基因编辑

Filamentous fungi, which present distinct morphology and cell structure, play a critical role in human health as well as industrial and agricultural production. However, the unique characteristics of filamentous fungi make them difficult to be manipulated with traditional genetic engineering methods. Thus, the development of an efficient gene editing system is essential for exploring biological resources and understanding metabolic processes in filamentous fungi. The development of the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/CRISPR associated protein (CRISPR/Cas) system promotes more efficient and effective gene editing in different species, and brings a revolutionary breakthrough in fungal fundamental research and applications. In this review, we first briefly introduce the history, working mechanism, and classifications of the CRISPR/Cas mediated gene editing system. Next, we comment the functional components of CRISPR/Cas9 such as selective marker, Cas9 and gRNA and the delivery methods of these components in various filamentous fungi. Furthermore, we systematically discuss the applications of CRISPR related technologies, including CRISPR/Cas12, base-editor, CRISPRa, CRISPRi and CRISPR mediated epigenetic regulation, in the genetic engineering of filamentous fungi, particularly in marine-derived filamentous fungi. Finally, we address challenges with relative low gene editing efficiency and off-targets effects in engineering filamentous fungi, and highlight the potential solutions for developing novel CRISPR/Cas-based gene editing systems. This review can provide guidance for developing an efficient gene editing platform in filamentous fungi and pave the way for further exploration of the secondary metabolites and establishment of robust fungal cell factories.

filamentous fungi  /  marine-derived fungi  /  CRISPR/Cas systems  /  gene editing
陈盈盈, 刘扬, 史俊杰, 马俊英, 鞠建华. CRISPR/Cas基因编辑及其新兴技术在丝状真菌研究中的系统应用. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (3) : 672 -693 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-097
Yingying CHEN, Yang LIU, Junjie SHI, Junying MA, Jianhua JU. CRISPR/Cas systems and their applications in gene editing with filamentous fungi[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (3) : 672 -693 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-097
丝状真菌(filamentous fungi)是一类在自然界中广泛分布的真核微生物。丝状真菌不仅在生态环境中扮演重要角色,还与人类健康和工农业生产息息相关,并在生物技术领域和基础生物学研究中发挥重要作用。从20世纪40年代开始,科学家就开始用小芽枝霉属(Blastocladiella sp.)和异水霉属(Allomyces sp.)真菌来研究其交配和色素的生产1。随后,粗糙脉孢菌 (Neurospora crassa)和构巢曲霉(Aspergillus nidulans)逐渐被开发为模式真菌用于研究真核生物遗传学和细胞生物学的基础问题2-3。丝状真菌既是人类的朋友也是敌人。如烟曲霉(A. fumigatus)可能在免疫低下患者中引起侵袭性曲霉病,黄曲霉(A. flavus)和镰孢菌属(Fusarium sp.)等产生的真菌毒素对人体健康有严重的危害,稻瘟病菌(Magnaporthe oryzae)和玉米黑粉菌(Ustilago maydis)等植物致病菌可能降低作物的产量和质量,因此,深入研究不同病原菌的致病机理对解决真菌引起的人类和植物等病害问题意义重大4。另一方面,米曲霉(A. oryzae)、黑曲霉(A. niger)和土曲霉(A. terreus)等工业丝状真菌因其强大的天然产物合成和蛋白分泌能力以及独特的工业发酵优势,可开发成高效生产抗生素、酶制剂等产品的“细胞工厂”5。更为重要的是,各种特殊生境来源的丝状真菌能合成各种结构复杂、生物活性新颖的次级代谢物。但由于大量次级基因簇处于沉默状态,激活沉默基因簇在药物开发方面具有重要意义。不论是丝状真菌基础生物学和致病机制的研究,还是“细胞工厂”的开发和神秘基因簇的激活均离不开高效的遗传操作体系。
基因编辑(gene editing)是指可以在基因组水平上对靶标DNA序列定点改造的遗传操作技术,是基因功能研究与遗传改造重要的手段,可为探究真菌生理特性、细胞工厂改造、次级代谢物挖掘等提供重要的技术支持。丝状真菌由于更为复杂的遗传背景、多变的形态以及较厚的细胞壁,对其的基因编辑要比对酵母的难度大且展开得较晚。早期,研究者主要采用同源重组介导的基因打靶技术对丝状真菌进行基因编辑,但是在非模式菌株中,同源重组的效率极低,且存在较多的非特异性编辑,严重限制了该技术的应用。近年来,各种人工核酸内切酶(engineered endo-nuclease,EEN)的应用,极大地提高了丝状真菌中的基因编辑效率。EEN主要包括锌指核酸酶(zinc finger nuclease,ZFN)、转录激活因子样效应物核酸酶 (transcription activator-like effector nuclease,TALEN)、规律性成簇间隔的短回文重复序列 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats,CRISPR)及相关蛋白(CRISPR/Cas)系统6-8。其中,ZFN和TALEN技术是通过DNA结合蛋白与核酸内切酶FokⅠ组成蛋白复合物对靶点进行特异性的识别和切割。由于ZFN和TALEN技术操作过程烦琐,且对操作技术要求很高,因而普适性较低。CRISPR/Cas系统具有设计简单、特异性强、效率高等优点,迅速在丝状真菌中得到广泛应用(图1)。本文简要综述了CRISPR/Cas系统的类型和作用机理,详细总结了现有丝状真菌中CRISPR/Cas9功能组分和应用情况,并重点围绕新兴CRISPR技术、海洋真菌应用等方面介绍其进展,最后,对该技术可能出现的问题及应用前景进行了展望,以期为不同类型的丝状真菌基因编辑研究提供参考。
成簇规律间隔短回文重复序列(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, CRISPR)的发现始于1987年9,日本科学家在大肠杆菌(E. coli)中偶然发现iap的3′端存在含有 29个碱基的高度同源重复序列。随后的几年,陆续有相关研究指出类似的重复序列存在于多种细菌及古生菌中,2002年,由Jansen等将其正式命名9-10。随着研究的不断深入,研究者揭示CRISPR在细菌的免疫功能中起重要作用11。CRISPR序列包含外源噬菌体的DNA片段,与一系列编码Cas蛋白的基因共同形成CRISPR/Cas基因座,通过编码Cas蛋白及RNA共同对抗噬菌体和质粒等外来DNA的入侵。2012年两位科学家Jennifer A. Doudna和Emmanuelle Charpentier首次将CRISPR/Cas系统应用于基因编辑。她们通过体外实验证明,在RNA指导下Cas9蛋白能够在目标DNA上引起双链断裂12。在2013年,麻省理工学院张锋团队率先证实CRISPR/Cas系统同样能够在真核细胞中起作用,正式开启了CRISPR/Cas系统在生命科学领域的运用13
CRISPR/Cas系统主要可分为两大类(ClassⅠ和ClassⅡ),第一大类系统需要多个Cas蛋白形成复合体协同工作,包括TypeⅠ、Ⅲ和Ⅳ型,而第二大类系统仅需一个Cas蛋白就能够切割目标DNA,包括TypeⅡ、Ⅴ和Ⅵ类型14,这类系统较为简单,研究也更加透彻,是生物技术应用的首选。目前应用比较广泛的CRISPR/Cas,如CRISPR/Cas9、CRISPR/Cas12、CRISPR/Cas13等均为ClassⅡ系统。CRISPR/Cas9因具有简单、快捷等优势,已成为CRISPR/Cas系统中应用最为广泛的技术。来自化脓性链球菌(Streptococcus pyogenes)的Cas9(SpCas9)系统是双RNA引导的——trans-activating crRNA(tracrRNA)靶向DNA,CRISPR associated RNA(crRNA)负责与Cas9形成复合物,并因其识别简单的NGG PAM序列,获得了广泛性应用。此外,研究者们仍一直积极地探索其他具有不同的蛋白分子量、PAM要求和底物偏好的CRISPR系统,仅Cas9的同源蛋白就有70多种已被详细评估过理化活性15。在过去的几年里,已经有超过20种不同的Cas同源蛋白被应用于基因编辑,为识别不同PAM序列提供了更多的靶点选择,其中一些典型性代表汇总于表1
与Cas9需要两个单独的短RNA不同,来自乳酸球菌和毛螺科菌的Cas12a蛋白只需要一个gRNA,并在目标DNA位点上切割形成黏性末端,而不是像Cas9那样产生平末端24-2537-38。近两年,由转座子编码的可编程RNA引导核酸酶(IscB、IsrB、TnpB和Fz)的发现更是为基因编辑工具箱再添神奇。转座子家族的核酸酶很可能是Cas12核酸内切酶的祖先,这类核酸酶的最大优势是体积非常小,为递送提供了极大的便利33-35。其中,Fanzor蛋白是一种来自于真核生物体内的RNA引导的核酸内切酶,有助于减轻其在人类中的免疫原性,并且它们起源于真核生物,这可能有助于减轻其在人类中的免疫原性,有望扩大在丝状真菌中的应用范围,为未来开发新的基因编辑技术提供了丰富的资源。
CRISPR/Cas基因编辑系统已经改变了我们在不同物种的细胞中编辑特定DNA和RNA的能力,并激发了研究者将其进一步升级改造。天然的Cas蛋白在编辑效率和特异性等方面仍存在许多局限性,显著影响其实际应用。研究者们通过开发不同的Cas9变体增加DNA序列识别范围、提高编辑效率、增强特异性等,从而获得更佳的编辑效果39。CRISPR技术在基因功能筛选、基因诊断技术、疾病治疗、工业丝状真菌遗传改造等领域都显示出巨大的潜力和应用前景。
CRISPR/Cas9系统介导的丝状真菌基因编辑技术始于2015年40,丝状真菌中的CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑系统由经密码子优化并添加核定位序列(NLS)的Cas9蛋白和gRNA组成。其中,gRNA是由crRNA和tracrRNA融合而成。Cas9可在gRNA引导下准确剪切目标基因,基因碱基的剪切可激发细胞内DNA的同源修复(HDR)或非同源末端连接 (NHEJ)修复,从而导致目标位点的删除、插入或替换。CRISPR/Cas9在丝状真菌中的应用过程,不仅继承了CRISPR系统在其他物种中的优势,还逐步建立了一系列适用于不同种属的丝状真菌的CRISPR系统41。选择合适的筛选标记、表达方法以及Cas9和gRNA的递送策略是成功进行基因编辑的关键,本章节将重点针对这些关键因素进行系统性的综述。
丝状真菌,尤其是各种特殊生境来源的野生真菌,选择性标记的缺乏是突变体筛选的主要障碍之一。常用的筛选标记包括:抗性标记、营养标记和表型报告标记。表型报告基因通常来源于特定物种中的独特表型,如一些色素合成基因、生长关键基因等,这些基因通常不具有通用性。综合现有的综述数据和研究论文41,现将丝状真菌中应用于CRISPR/Cas9的筛选标记总结于表2中。
抗性基因是发展最早、应用最广的一类筛选标记,具有应用方便、选择效率高、功能稳定等特点。抗性基因编码可使抗生素、除草剂等药物失活的酶(如潮霉素磷酸转移酶),从而使导入抗性基因的重组细胞可以在含有相应药物的培养基中生长。目前丝状真菌可使用的抗生素主要有:潮霉素(hygromycin)、遗传霉素(geneticin)、博来霉素(bleomycin)、吡啶硫胺素(pyrithiamine)、草铵膦(glufosinate)和萎锈灵(carboxin)等4163。其中,潮霉素应用最为广泛,本课题组利用潮霉素抗性基因为筛选标记结合CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑系统系统,成功在两株不同种属的海洋真菌中实现基因敲除,激活了一系列沉默次级代谢物并解析了缩酚酸类化合物的生物合成5964
营养缺陷型标记主要应用在营养代谢基因缺失的受体菌株中,通过回补/导入营养代谢基因可以使转化子在不含有特定营养成分的培养基上生长,从而达到筛选的目的。这类筛选标记需要先构建营养缺陷型受体菌株,通常应用于构巢曲霉(A. nidulans)、米曲霉(A. oryzae)、烟曲霉(A. fumigatus)等科学/工业研究模式菌55。在野生菌菌株中,特别是对于一些研究相对较少的非模式真菌,营养缺陷菌株获得较为困难,进而限制了营养缺陷型标记在遗传转化中的应用。此外,突变产生的营养缺陷型菌株不稳定,可能会恢复为野生型65-66
由于筛选标记的稀缺性,研究者通常采取各种策略回收标记基因。其中,pyrG营养缺陷型基因是最为常用的可循环筛选标记。pyrG基因编码乳清酸核苷-5′-磷酸脱羧酶,是尿嘧啶核苷酸生物合成中的关键基因67。该基因的敲除可导致尿苷/尿嘧啶营养缺陷型菌株只能在补充有尿苷/尿嘧啶的培养基上生长。此外,乳清酸核苷-5′-磷酸脱羧酶能够利用5-氟尿酸(5-FOA)产生有毒物质5-氟尿苷。因此,只有pyrG突变菌株可以在添加尿嘧啶和5-FOA的培养基中生长,而野生型菌株不能。利用5-FOA的筛选压力可以实现pyrG标记的回收。以pyrG为筛选标记的CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑系统已经在多个不同菌株中成功应用5468-69。乙酰胺代谢酶AmdS是另外一个使用较多的可双向选择的筛选标记。自然界中有一部分真菌细胞内缺乏乙酰胺代谢酶基因amdS,导致无法在以乙酰胺为唯一氮源的培养基中生长,而导入amdS可赋予转化菌株在以乙酰胺为唯一氮源的培养基上生长的能力,同时乙酰胺酶还可以分解氟乙酰胺(FAA),生成对细胞有毒害作用的物质,使含有乙酰胺酶标记的菌株不能生长,利用这一原理可以实现该筛选标记的回收和重复利用46amdS双向筛选标记在黑曲霉中应用较多,近期,本课题组也构建了以pyrGamdS为筛选标记的CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑系统,并成功应用于多个次级代谢产物基因簇的灭活4670
此外,Foster等71在稻瘟病菌(M. oryzae)中利用野生型菌株和微管蛋白突变株对乙霉威(diethofencarb)和苯菌灵(benomyl)的不同敏感性,实现筛选标记的无限循环使用。在该体系中,野生菌株可在含乙霉威的培养基中正常生长,而微管蛋白E198A突变株则无法生长,但可以在含苯菌灵的培养基中生长。利用CRISPR/Cas9系统通过短序列模版来回替换微管蛋白突变位点,并结合共转染和共编辑策略实现了多基因编辑。类似地,Leisen等52利用共转染和共编辑的筛选标记循环替换策略在灰霉病菌(B. cinerea)中成功实现无痕基因编辑。Leisen团队还在灰葡萄球菌中开发了一种在有或没有供体模板的情况下共转化含端粒质粒和Cas9-RNP的策略,以实现无标记的CRISPR/Cas编辑。其基本原理是,含有着丝粒(CEN 4)、复制起始序列(ARS 1)和一对端粒(pTEL),并携带选择性标记环酰菌胺(fenhexamid)的质粒,不仅可以有效地转化到丝状真菌细胞内以无着丝粒的微型染色体形式进行自我复制,还可以在没有选择压力的情况下迅速丢失,从而实现循环使用52。除了灰霉病菌,端粒介导的可循环CRISPR/Cas编辑体系还成功应用于烟曲霉72
Cas9蛋白是CRISPR/Cas9系统的重要组成部分,具有切割目标靶点的作用。目前被广泛应用的CRISPR/Cas9系统来自于原核生物化脓性链球菌。由于不同的物种在编码蛋白质时具有密码子偏好性,当CRISPR/Cas9系统被用于丝状真菌的基因编辑时,需根据真菌密码子偏好性,重新设计优化Cas9基因序列。在丝状真菌中,常用的Cas9的氨基酸序列主要有人类密码子优化和真菌密码子优化来源(图2)。人源密码子优化的Cas9在烟曲霉(A. fumigatus)、大豆疫霉(P. sojae)、产黄青霉(Penicillium. chrysogenum)等菌株中都可以正常表达并发挥DNA剪切功能434773。然而,人源密码子优化的Cas9在一些真菌中无法正常表达,研究者们因此根据不同真菌的密码子的偏好性,又合成了一系列不同真菌密码子优化的Cas9序列,包括里氏木霉(T. reesei)、黑曲霉(A. niger)、米曲霉(A. oryzae)、白僵菌(B. bassiana)等40455574。其中,根据里氏木霉和黑曲霉进行密码子优化的Cas9在其他真菌种属中有着较为广泛的应用,不同种属密码子优化的Cas9在丝状真菌中的应用情况已总结于图2
由于Cas9蛋白来源于细菌,不具备核定位信号,因此,CRISPR/Cas9系统被应用于真核生物时,需要在Cas9蛋白两端添加核定位信号(nuclear localization signal,NLS)来引导Cas9蛋白进入细胞核。来自于猿猴空泡病毒(Simian vacuolating virus 40,SV40)的核定位序列(PKKKRKV)已被证明在许多生物体中发挥作用55,然而,在尖孢镰刀菌(F. oxysporum)和大豆疫霉(P. sojae)中,SV40核定位信号则不适用。为此,研究者在尖孢镰刀菌中使用组蛋白H2B的核定位信号与Cas9融合75,在大豆疫霉中则采用bZIP转录因子的核定位信号与Cas9融合47,成功在这些菌株中进行Cas9的核定位表达。此外,研究人员还将SV40核定位信号和核质蛋白核定位信号分别置于Cas9的N末端和C末端,或者将多拷贝的SV40与Cas9蛋白融合,从而提高入核效率52-53
在丝状真菌中,Cas9蛋白有体外和体内表达两种不同的方式。体外表达体系是指在体外表达纯化Cas9蛋白,并将其与体外转录/化学合成的gRNA进行孵育,在体外形成核糖核蛋白(RNP)体系,随后,通过物理或化学方法将RNP与供体DNA共导入细胞中,从而实现基因编辑56。直接导入RNP可避免外源基因插入的风险,且Cas9蛋白在一定时间内即会降解,在一定程度上可以降低脱靶效应。目前,利用体外合成RNP进行基因编辑已应用于稻瘟病菌(M. oryzae)、绿僵菌(M. Brunneum)、黑曲霉(A. niger)、禾谷镰孢菌(F. graminearum)、烟曲霉(A. fumigatus)、尖端赛多孢子菌(Scedosporium apiospermum)等菌株7276-80。由于体外转录成本较高、RNP复合物转化效率较低、在转化过程中容易降解等问题,与体内体系相比,目前体外表达体系在丝状真菌中的应用还相对较少。
体内表达体系是将密码子优化过的Cas9蛋白表达序列置于真菌适用的启动子后面,并将组装好的DNA序列导入真菌细胞中在体内进行表达。启动子驱动表达能力的强弱是影响外源性Cas9蛋白表达效率的重要因素,因此选择合适的启动子对CRISPR/Cas9系统的功能发挥具有重要意义。用于Cas9表达的启动子为RNA聚合酶Ⅱ启动子,其主要分为组成型启动子和诱导型启动子。由于组成型启动子驱动基因表达不受空间和时间因素的影响,可在真菌细胞稳定持续表达,大多数研究中会优先选用其来驱动Cas9蛋白在丝状真菌中的表达。丝状真菌CRISPR/Cas9系统常用的组成型启动子主要是真菌来源的启动子序列,如tef1启动子、gpdA启动子和trpC启动子556081,目前已应用CRISPR/Cas9的启动子具体信息在已有综述的基础上4182总结更新于表3
在部分真菌中也可直接使用哺乳动物细胞中的表达系统,如在竹黄菌(S. bambusicola)中,研究者则直接利用人延长因子1α启动子来驱动Cas9蛋白的表达1389。由于Cas9的持续表达会增加非特异性编辑的风险,同时对一些菌株还可能会产生细胞毒性,而可诱导型启动子能够在基因编辑期间调节CRISPR/Cas9系统的活力,并减少脱靶效应,所以在有特殊需求的情况下,研究者通常会选择可诱导型启动子。常用的可诱导型启动子包括淀粉诱导的启动子amyB、木聚糖诱导的启动子xylA、四环素诱导的启动子tetON等(表373-7492。已有研究表明,构建不同丝状真菌的CRISPR/Cas9的基因编辑体系时,要根据菌株特性和实际情况选择最佳Cas9蛋白表达启动子,以保证CRISPR/Cas9系统能够在目标菌株中高效合理地发挥作用。
gRNA的高效表达也是CRISPR/Cas9系统发挥作用的关键因素。与Cas9的表达一致,gRNA的表达也分为体内和体外表达。gRNA的体外表达通常利用体外转录试剂盒由T7 RNA聚合酶转录而成98。gRNA的体外表达,尤其是在非模式真菌中,可以免去启动子的选择问题,但由于体外转录gRNA成本较高,且转化过程中容易降解,体内表达gRNA更受研究者的青睐。与Cas9蛋白体内表达不一样的是,驱动gRNA的启动子既可以是RNA聚合酶Ⅱ型启动子,也可以是Ⅲ型启动子。由于RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子主要表达非编码短序列RNA,因此,在丝状真菌中用于体内表达 gRNA的启动子多为RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子。目前常用的RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子主要包括U6、5S rRNA、tRNA和SNR52启动子(表3)。不同类型的启动子的表达效率因菌株而异,如在烟曲霉中使用U6启动子建立的CRISPR/Cas9系统的基因编辑可达100%60,但在节孢霉属的编辑效率仅为16%84。与RNA聚合酶Ⅱ型启动子相比,在丝状真菌中,对RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子作用机制的研究相对较少,且由于RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子序列的低保守性使得难以在许多物种中鉴定RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子,如果使用异源RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子,通常会导致基因编辑低效。因此,选择合适的gRNA表达启动子是CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑系统开发中的技术关键。
为了解决RNA聚合酶Ⅲ型启动子在个别种属中的不适用问题,研究者构建了由RNA聚合酶Ⅱ介导的gRNA表达体系。由于gRNA序列不含有polyA尾巴,RNA聚合酶Ⅱ用于小RNA转录时往往引起序列的连续表达,无法直接转录获得gRNA序列。因此,需将gRNA置于大的转录片段中间,并在gRNA的5′端与3′端各自添加可用于自我切割的核酶序列[5′端是Hammerhead(HH)核酶,3′端是hepatitis delta virus(HDV)核酶],从而保障转录后gRNA的正确释放55。2015年,Nødvig 等55首次利用来自于构巢曲霉的RNA聚合酶Ⅱ所识别的强启动子PgpdA来进行gRNA的表达。这两年,本课题组也采用类似策略成功在多株海洋来源真菌中实现基因的高效编辑59。由于RNA聚合酶Ⅱ启动子具有更高的保守性,为新种属真菌CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑系统开发提供了重要保障。
将外源组装的Cas9蛋白与gRNA表达质粒(DNA)、体外转录的gRNA(RNA)或RNP蛋白导入真菌细胞中是CRISPR/Cas9系统高效编辑的另一关键步骤。CRISPR/Cas9系统转化到真菌细胞中的方法有聚乙二醇介导的转化(PMT)、农杆菌 (Agrobacterium tumefaciens)介导的转化(AMT)、电穿孔转化和基因枪转化法4199,其中,PMT和AMT转化法在丝状真菌中应用相对较广。PMT 是将原生质体与外源DNA在含有CaCl2的聚乙二醇缓冲液中混合,待宿主细胞膜通透性发生变化后,外源DNA进入宿主细胞,通过原生质体再生和转化子筛选获得重组菌株。PMT介导的CRISPR/Cas9递送系统已成功应用于一系列真菌,包括米曲霉(A. oryzae)、黑曲霉(A. niger)和烟曲霉(A. fumigatus)等434955。PMT转化法对菌株的生长阶段、细胞壁消化酶的选择都有较高的要求,部分真菌因此较难获得高质量原生质体,从而影响基因编辑效率。由于农杆菌介导的转化可直接作用于孢子和各种生长状态的菌丝体,可避免原生质制备困难等阻碍,已成为CRISPR/Cas9递送的另一选择。根癌农杆菌可以感染任何高等生物,并通过vir基因产物的活性将DNA片段从肿瘤诱导(Ti)质粒转移到宿主基因组中。转化后,通过使用头孢噻肟作为选择压力,可将根癌农杆菌从培养物中除去。利用这一特性,AMT已被应用于各种真菌的转化,目前,农杆菌介导CRISPR/Cas9递送系统的在植物病原菌中应用较多,包括:甘蔗黑穗病真菌(Sporisorium scitamineum)、稻瘟病菌(M. oryzae)、炭黑曲霉(A. carbonarius)等6171100。虽然根癌农杆菌已成功介导多种真菌的转化,但该方法操作过程非常烦琐,且根癌农杆菌株和双元载体的选择等因素都可影响农杆菌介导真菌转化的效率。Weyda等61曾在炭黑曲霉(A. carbonarius)中系统地比较了PMT和AMT对CRISPR/Cas9转导的影响,该研究发现这两种方法都可以有效介导CRISPR/Cas9的基因编辑,两种方法均存在各自的优缺点,具体选用哪种方法要结合菌株特性、操作难易程度和试剂价格等综合考虑。此外,基因枪转化法101、电穿孔转化法102等也被应用到丝状真菌CRISPR/Cas9系统的遗传转化中,但由于基因枪转化法价格昂贵,电穿孔转化法变量较多且容易对细胞造成伤害等,这两种方法在丝状真菌中的普及程度远不如PMT和AMT 103
除了上述不同转化方法可影响CRISPR/Cas9系统的递送效率,递送内容物的优化和菌体生长状态的控制也对递送效率有着显著影响。在丝状真菌中,Cas9蛋白表达序列和gRNA表达序列可由单个载体或双载体携带,在烟曲霉中的研究表明,使用单载体表达系统的CRISPR/Cas9编辑的准确性和效率明显高于双载体表达系统60。这可能是由于使用双载体时,很多时候只有单一载体进入细胞,从而导致CRISPR/Cas9无法起作用。因此,大多数研究首选将Cas9和gRNA表达序列构建到同一个载体上。针对大分子RNP复合物低穿透性的问题,华中农业大学韩鹤友团队78开发了一种仿生矿化的RNP递送系统,可将CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑效率提高20%。在多核孢子和多核原生质体的丝状真菌中,从RNP瞬时转化子中分离纯合转化子较困难,中国科学院分子植物科学卓越创新中心周志华团队56在菌丝培养过程中添加肌醇和苯菌灵来控制细胞分裂和有丝分裂周期,并在PEG介导的转化过程加入低浓度的Triton X‐100以提高细胞膜的通透性,从而极大地提高了基因编辑效率。
自2012年CRISPR/Cas技术开发以来,科学家们不断地为CRISPR工具箱添砖加瓦,目前以CRISPR/Cas为基础开发的多个基因编辑/调控技术,如CRISPR/Cas12a、CRISPR单碱基编辑器(CRISPR base editor)、CRISPR基因调控技术等都在丝状真菌中得以应用(图3),推动并加速了丝状真菌的遗传改造和基因功能解析。
Cas12a核酸内切酶功能由张锋实验室在2015年首次鉴定25,Cas12a的识别序列(5′-TTTV-3′)和切割方式(切割DNA双链产生黏性末端)与Cas9有较大的差异,因此,CRISPR/Cas12a作为进阶版基因编辑工具可扩充CRISPR/Cas系统及其衍生技术体系的基因编辑范围38。在编辑效率方面,Cas12a的编辑效率要低于Cas9,但Cas12a具有更低的容错率和更高的特异性104。Cas12a比较重要的一个特点是其只需单一RNA引导,且Cas12a自带的RNA酶结构域可处理preCrRNAs产生成熟CrRNAs,利用该特性,Cas12a系统则可以在一个质粒上仅用一个启动子串联多个CrRNA,由Cas12a剪切合成多个单独的成熟CrRNA,为多基因编辑提供便利105。基于CRISPR/Cas12a的多基因编辑系统,中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所田朝光团队44在嗜热毁丝菌(M. thermophila)成功实现高效的多基因编辑,并进一步开发了CRISPR/Cas12辅助的标记回收技术。类似地,Jimenez等106利用CRISPR/Cas12a多基因编辑系统在阿舒氏囊霉(A. gossypii)中敲除了5个营养缺陷标记基因。Cas12a还具有PAM特异性识别和对单链DNA的非特异性切割的独特属性,在DNA诊断方面拥有巨大潜力107。基于此,研究人员将PCR扩增技术与CRISPR/Cas12a相结合开发了一种检测系统,可用于监测小麦中禾谷镰刀菌(F. graminearum)侵染情况108。此外,研究者们还在构巢曲霉(A. nidulans)、棘孢曲霉(A. aculeatus)等丝状真菌中建立了基于CRISPR/Cas12a的基因编辑工具,具体信息详见表4。CRISPR/Cas12a和CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑技术相互补充,研究者可根据实际需求选择最适合的编辑工具,保障丝状真菌的基因编辑工作高效进行。
碱基编辑器是在CRISPR/Cas系统基础上,将突变型Cas与脱氨酶等其他功能蛋白融合,实现不同碱基的转换,最初是由David Liu团队在2016年 开发116-118。武汉大学孙宇辉团队119已针对碱基编辑器的具体作用原理和发展历程做了详细介绍,在此将不作过多复述。在碱基编辑器未应用于真菌之前,丝状真菌中的碱基替换主要是由CRISPR/Cas介导的外源片段插入(knock-in)并替换完成69120。虽然利用Cas9介导的敲入技术也可以实现单碱基的替换,但其效率较低。与之相比,单碱基编辑工具则表现出极高的编辑特异性和编辑效率,在高效率定向转换基因组方面具有巨大的应用前景121。迄今为止,研究者已经开发出多种不同类型的碱基编辑器,其中使用较为广泛的主要有两种类型:腺嘌呤碱基编辑器(Adenine base editor,ABE)和胞嘧啶碱基编辑器(Cytosine base editor,CBE),分别可以实现A-to-G和C-to-T此类碱基之间的转变122。目前,碱基编辑器在丝状真菌中的应用相对较少,且只有胞嘧啶碱基编辑器在有相关应用。
胞嘧啶碱基编辑器是将nCas9(nickase Cas9)与胞嘧啶脱氨酶和尿嘧啶糖基化酶抑制子融合,gRNA引导融合蛋白到靶位点时,暴露出来的非靶向DNA单链上的胞嘧啶C可被脱氨酶转换为尿嘧啶U,而U与胸腺嘧啶T的具有相同的碱基配对规则,在DNA修复时,尿嘧啶糖基化酶抑制子会抑制U→C的修复,提高U转换为T的修复效率,从而完成C→T的碱基转换60-63。2019年,华南理工大学潘力团队58首次将胞嘧啶碱基编辑器应用于黑曲霉中,其编辑效率可达47.36%~100%,且胞嘧啶碱基编辑器在黑曲霉中的靶向编辑窗口略大于其他物种。随后,中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所田朝光团队123又进一步在嗜热毁丝霉中构建了三个不同类型的胞嘧啶碱基编辑器(Mtevo-BE4max、MtGAM-BE4max和Mtevo-CDA1)。测试结果显示,由海七鳃鳗胞嘧啶脱氨酶融合而成的胞嘧啶碱基编辑器(Mtevo-CDA1)在嗜热毁丝霉中编辑效率要高于另外两个由大鼠嘧啶脱氨酶融合而成的编辑器(Mtevo-BE4max和MtGAM-BE4max)。研究人员还利用Mtevo-CDA1深入研究了嗜热毁丝霉中转录调控因子Mtclr-2的功能,发现该蛋白的DNA结合结构域对培养基中纤维素的响应起关键作用,而真菌特异性结构域则与菌丝生长存在密切关系。该研究说明碱基编辑器可为研究丝状真菌中蛋白特殊结构域功能提供另一种高效的编辑工具。近期,美国莱斯大学的高雪团队124在丝状真菌中开发了基于胞嘧啶单碱基编辑器的多位点基因编辑系统,该体系利用CBE对功能基因中密码子CAG、CAA、CGA以及反义链中的CCA进行C→T的碱基转换,将终止密码子引入基因序列,致使基因失活,并结合tRNA-gRNA阵列表达体系,实现多个基因的同时失活。该研究利用CBE编辑系统对构巢曲霉中的表观遗传因子进行组合灭活,揭示了多种表观遗传调控因子在真菌次级代谢中的协同调控作用,还筛选到4种新型的天然产物。基于CBE的多位点基因编辑系统显著提高了丝状真菌基因组操作的能力,同时也为挖掘新型真菌活性天然产物提供了新的思路和策略。
CRISPR/Cas除了可用上述的基因编辑功能来灭活各种调控因子或替换启动子进而影响基因的表达,还可将丧失切割活性但仍具有RNA引导下与DNA结合能力的Cas蛋白突变体(dCas9/12)与各种效应因子融合来实现位点特异性基因调控125。由dCas介导的转录调控不会引起双链或单链的断裂,从而避免对宿主细胞的伤害,在转录调控方面具有巨大的应用前景。目前,已与dCas9/12融合并应用于丝状真菌的调控因子主要包括转录激活因子、抑制因子和表观遗传修饰因子(图3),具体信息综述如下。
CRISPR介导的转录激活(CRISPRa)主要是通过将核酸内切酶失活的dCas9/12与转录激活因子融合,并在gRNA指导下结合到目标基因的启动子区域,从而增强特定基因的表达126。目前已有多种不同CRISPRa系统被开发出来,这些系统不仅包括转录激活效应子,如VP16、TV(VP128-TALE)、VPR(VP64-p65-Rta)、SunTag(通过抗体募集各种激活因子)等与dCas9融合的系统127-129,还包括以gRNA为支架的转录激活效应子招募系统129。虽然各种CRISPRa系统不断被开发出来并表现出良好的调控效果,但是在丝状真菌中的相关研究报道较少,且只有VPR系统有相关应用。VPR系统包含3个转录激活因子:VP64、p65和Rta。其中,VP64是单纯疱疹蛋白16的TAD四聚体,p65是核因子NF-κB蛋白质家族中的成员,Rta(replication and transcription activator,Rta)则是由Y疱疹病毒所编码的转录激活蛋白。将这三种激活因子融合构成的激活元件VP64-p65-Rta(VPR)可显著提高内源性靶标激活水平127。2020年,Roux等130在构巢曲霉中构建了首个CRISPRa系统,该研究将VPR激活元件分别与dCas9和dCas12融合构成CRISPR/dSpCas9-VPR和CRISPR/dLbCas12a-VPR,并分别测试了这两种系统在构巢曲霉中的激活效率。结果表明,dCas12a体系比dCas9具有更好的多基因激活效果,并且通过使用CRISPR/dLbCas12a-VPR激活非核糖体肽合成酶micA基因,提高了微呋喃酮的产量130。在鲁本斯青霉(P. rubens)中,研究人员则利用CRISPR/dSpCas9-VPR系统,将dSpCas9-VPR结合到转录调控因子macR的启动子上,进而激活沉默基因簇的表达,诱导产生macrophorin类次级代谢物90。上述研究表明CRISPRa工具在激活真菌沉默基因簇中发挥重要作用,进一步拓展各种CRISPRa激活工具在丝状真菌中的应用将为高值次级代谢产物的挖掘奠定重要基础。
将催化失活的Cas蛋白与目标DNA的靶向结合形成空间位阻效应可导致基因表达的抑制,若将dCas9与转录阻遏因子融合则能实现高效的转录沉默,这个过程被称为CRISPR干扰(CRISPRi)131-132。CRISPRi系统既可结合于目标基因的启动子以阻止RNA聚合酶结合从而抑制转录起始,还可与开放阅读框靶向结合,抑制转录延伸131133。目前,CRISPRi系统已应用于多种模式生物,然而在真菌微生物中,该基因干扰工具主要应用于酵母菌,在丝状真菌中的应用研究极少。2023年,华中农业大学谢卡斌团队134分别将dCas9与两个不同的转录阻遏结构域SRDX(SUPERMAN Repression domain)和Mxi1(repressor domain)融合,并测试了这两个体系在植物病原菌中的转录抑制效果。研究发现,在稻瘟病菌中CRISPR/dCas9-MxI1的抑制效果要高于CRISPR/dCas9-SRDX,且由MoRP27启动子驱动的dCas9-SRDX表达体系与MoTEF1启动子相比,可将抑制效率提高上百倍。此外,该研究还揭示gRNA结合于转录起始位点-100 bp到-200 bp之间可起到最佳的转录抑制效果,并利用tRNA-gRNA组装成多gRNA表达体系,在两株不同的植物病原菌中实现多基因高效抑制。相较于shRNA干扰和CRISPR介导的敲除,CRISPRi具有不损伤基因序列、特异性高、抑制效果强和实用性广等优势,在真菌基因功能研究尤其是必需关键基因的功能研究方面,具有巨大应用前景。
表观遗传修饰是指染色体DNA和组蛋白上的化学修饰,包括DNA甲基化、组蛋白甲基化、组蛋白乙酰化、组蛋白磷酸化等,在不改变DNA序列的情况下,这些修饰可以通过改变染色质状态来控制基因的表达,并具有可遗传性。CRISPR表观遗传编辑是指将失去切割活性的Cas蛋白与表观遗传修饰因子融合来靶向改变目标区域的表观遗传修饰标记,从而影响基因的转录135。与传统的作用于全基因组的表观遗传调控手段相比,CRISPR表观遗传编辑因其可实现高效的靶向特异性表观遗传修饰,在生命科学研究中具有极大的应用前景。CRISPR表观遗传编辑系统的改造对象主要包括DNA的甲基化修饰和染色质上组蛋白的表观修饰。基于人源E1A相关蛋白p300的组蛋白乙酰转移酶(HAT)核心结构域与dCas9融合的基因激活系统,在人类细胞和多个物种表现出精准且高效的基因诱导活性136-137。2021年,研究人员首次将dCas9-p300表观编辑系统应用于丝状真菌中138。在黑曲霉中,dCas9-p300可诱导多个次级代谢产物合成基因的表达,并提高了伏马毒素B2的产量。此外,研究人员还将dCas9分别与黑曲霉内源性组蛋白乙酰化酶GcnE、组蛋白去乙酰化酶HosA和RpdA融合,构建了多个CRISPR表观遗传编辑系统。测试结果发现dCas9-GcnE/HosA/RpdA编辑体系均可抑制次级代谢产物合成基breF的表达,dCas9-HosA还可上调色素合成基因fwnA的表达138 这些研究结果表明丝状真菌中还存在其他因素可影响内源性表观遗传调控因子的调控效果,在推广应用丝状真菌来源的各种表观调控因子之前,还需更深入地研究这些表观调控因子的作用机制。
CRISPRoff/on是另外一个划时代的表观遗传调控系统,是由美国加州大学旧金山分校和麻省理工学院的研究团队联合开发139。CRISPRoff系统将转录抑制因子KRAB和DNA甲基转移酶D3A-D3L分别融合到dCas9的N末端/C末端,能够高特异性地持续沉默基因表达。为了逆转CRISPRoff系统介导的基因沉默,该团队还利用DNA去甲基化酶TET1与dCas9融合,并结合MS2-MCP转录激活系统,开发出一种可介导靶位点DNA去甲基化和基因转录激活的新工具CRISPRon系统,该系统可有效逆转人源细胞中由CRISPRoff介导的DNA甲基化修饰和转录抑制。近期,荷兰乌得勒支大学的研究人员首次将CRISPRoff/on应用于黑曲霉中140,CRISPRoff系统对黑曲霉中的flbA基因的抑制效率高达100%,即便在去除CRISPRoff编辑质粒之后,仍表现出可持续和可传代的抑制效果,且这些抑制效果可被导入的CRISPRon编辑质粒高效逆转。
海洋真菌因在特殊的生境下,如低温、高压、高盐、缺乏光照和寡营养等,进化出奇特的代谢途径和防御体制以适应各种极端环境。为此,海洋真菌能够产生各种结构新颖、功能丰富的代谢产物,已逐渐成为筛选具有新颖骨架和独特作用机制的化学药物的分子库,即当前最具开发前景的海洋天然产物新药库。在CRISPR/Cas技术出现之前,各种模式丝状真菌中的基因编辑主要是通过同源重组法,由于海洋来源的野生真菌中非同源末端链接(non-homologous end joining,NHEJ)修复机制十分活跃,导致同源重组法在这些野生真菌中的基因编辑效率非常低,从而限制了对海洋来源真菌的基础生物学和应用研究。本课题组长期从事海洋来源微生物的天然产物的挖掘和生物合成研究,并于近两年建立了适用于不同海洋来源真菌的CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑技术5970。本课题将PtrpC启动子驱动的Cas9表达元件和PgpdA启动子驱动的gRNA表达元件共同组装在同一质粒上,并通过PEG介导的转化,将质粒导入真菌细胞并随机整合到真菌基因组,实现基因编辑。该体系在海洋真菌中的编辑效率因基因和gRNA结合位点而异,总体编辑效率介于30%~100%之间。利用该体系,本课题组不仅成功敲除海洋真菌Aspergillus sp. SCSIO SX7S7中的表观遗传调控调控基因rpd3,并激活了一系列新化合物,还敲除了一系列缩酚酸环迷生物合成相关基因,助力其生物合成机制的研究5964。在CRISPR/Cas9的基础上,本课题组还利用pryGamdS这两个可循环筛选标记,构建了多基因编辑体系,并灭活了海洋真菌中Aspergillus sp. SCSIO SX7S7和Spiromastix sp. SCSIO F190中多个高丰度次级代谢产物的基因簇,获得代谢背景较为干净的菌株,且以此为基础通过过表达途径特异性转录调控因子或敲除全局性调控因子等手段激活了大量沉默基因簇7。类似地,闽江大学陈建明团队54也利用CRISPR/Cas9体系和pryG筛选标记在海洋来源土曲霉(A. terreus RA2905)建立了无痕基因编辑系统。东京大学阿部郁朗团队则借助CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑技术成功解析了海洋真菌T. purpureogenus 中六环萜类化合物Talaromyolides的生物合成141。近期,广东省科学院微生物研究所章卫民团队142综合利用CRISPR/Cas9基因敲除体系和CRISPR/dCas基因激活技术对深海真菌D. cejpii中胶霉毒素的生物合成途径进行了改造,将其产量提高了十几倍。上述研究表明 CRISPR/Cas 技术在海洋真菌次级代谢物的生物合成研究、产量提升和沉默基因簇激活等方面都起着重要作用,进一步拓展 CRISPR/Cas 技术在海洋真菌中的应用将具有重要研究意义。
CRISPR/Cas系统一经开发,便迅速风靡全球,因其能够实现高度灵活和特异性的靶向基因编辑,赢得了全世界科学家的热切关注并对其进行各种巧妙的改造和升级,在生命科学和医学研究的各个领域都展现出巨大的应用前景。自2015年起,CRISPR/Cas系统陆续被应用于各种丝状真菌中,极大地促进丝状真菌基因功能分析和遗传改良研究,并对丝状真菌沉默次级代谢产物的挖掘和合成生物学的发展起着非常重要作用。至今,CRISPR/Cas在丝状真菌中的相关研究论文已从最初的5篇上涨到160多篇(图1)。但是,相比当前20 000多篇的CRISPR/Cas相关研究论文,CRISPR/Cas在丝状真菌的应用进展仍相对缓慢,很可能是因为不同种属的丝状真菌遗传背景差异较大,尤其是各种特殊生境来源的野生菌株,人们对其细胞结构、代谢调控、防御机制等生理功能认识有限,难以建立在各种真菌中通用的CRISPR/Cas 编辑体系。
CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑系统因其组成简单、操作简便、效率高等优点,是目前在丝状真菌中应用最广的CRISPR基因编辑体系。虽然CRISPR/Cas9在丝状真菌中具有广阔的应用前景,但也仍然面临着一些挑战。例如,在大多数非模式丝状真菌中,CRISPR/Cas系统的基因编辑效率并不高61143。造成编辑效率低的因素十分多样:Cas9序列的来源、Cas9和gRNA 表达启动子的选择、递送方法、gRNA结合位点等的选择不当均有可能影响其编辑效率,因此,在新的真菌种属中建立CRISPR/Cas9编辑体系,需综合考虑上述因素以获得最佳编辑效率。此外,CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑还存在脱靶风险,即gRNA的识别序列可能会结合非靶点DNA导致非特异性编辑和不可控的基因组变异。为降低CRISPR/Cas9系统的脱靶效应,研究者不仅开发了多种专业软件用于寻找CRISPR/Cas9靶位点以提高gRNA结合位点的特异性144-145,还开发出各种Cas9蛋白的高度特异性的突变体146-147,若能将这些软件和突变体进一步应用于丝状真菌中,将有望降低其脱靶效应。
CRISPR/Cas9技术的成功应用促使研究者们不断开发新系统和新工具,以突破原有技术的限制并拓展其应用范围。在过去的几年中,以CRISPR/Cas为基础的各种高精度和高效率的新一代CRISPR技术正在迅猛发展,为研究人员提供了各种前所未有的工具箱39。然而这些新兴技术在丝状真菌中的应用方面还处于初级阶段,仅CRISPR/Cas12、碱基编辑器、基于CRISPR/dCas的基因调控等少数技术在个别丝状真菌中得以应用。若能将其他新兴CRISPR/Cas技术,如CRISPR/Cas13/14/X/Fz基因编辑系统、prime editors、CRISPR筛选等技术,进一步在丝状真菌中应用,将会促进对丝状真菌基因编辑技术的发展。
综上所述,虽然CRISPR/Cas技术在丝状真菌中的应用才刚开始,相信在不久的将来,随着 CRISPR/Cas技术的改进和完善,真菌的基因编辑和遗传改造将会变得越来越简单,将使得大规模和全面地深入了解各种丝状真菌基因功能、代谢工程、致病机制、生物合成机制和菌株性状改良的研究成为可能。
  • 国家自然科学基金(22037006)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82022067)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32300070)
  • 广东省自然科学基金(20023A1515011840)
  • 广东省重点领域研发计划(2020B111103005)
  • 广东省本土创新创业团队项目(2019BT02Y262)
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2024年第5卷第3期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-097
  • 接收时间:2023-12-01
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-06-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-12-01
  • 修回日期:2024-03-08
基金
国家自然科学基金(22037006)
国家自然科学基金(82022067)
国家自然科学基金(32300070)
广东省自然科学基金(20023A1515011840)
广东省重点领域研发计划(2020B111103005)
广东省本土创新创业团队项目(2019BT02Y262)
作者信息
    1 中国科学院南海海洋研究所,中国科学院热带海洋生物资源与生态重点实验室,广东省海洋药物重点实验室,广东 广州 510301
    2 山东大学药学院,天然产物化学生物学教育部重点实验室,山东省基础科学研究中心(药学),山东省高等学校药物化学生物学重点实验室,山东 济南 250012

通讯作者:

鞠建华(1972─),男,博士,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物活性次级代谢产物的发现、生物合成和抗感染、抗肿瘤创新药物研发。E-mail:
马俊英(1980─),女,博士,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为结构新颖、活性显著的海洋微生物活性次级代谢产物的生物合成。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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