Article(id=1148994040940524087, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-089, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1701100800000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-28, revisedDate=1709136000000, revisedDateStr=2024-02-29, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751871126637, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1719676800000, pubDateStr=2024-06-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751871126637, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751871126637, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751871126637, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148994036700078859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='3', pageStart='397', pageEnd='693', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751871125626, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057298298, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992417, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=593, endPage=611, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999705137704994, articleId=1148994040940524087, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Research advances in the biosynthesis of nonribosomal peptides within the bisintercalator family as anticancer drugs, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Natural products with the bisintercalator family are a group of C2-symmetric cyclic non-ribosomal peptides produced by actinobacteria, possessing potent antimicrobe, antitumor and other bioactivities. Bisintercalators can be divided into two groups based on the size of their macrocycles: the minor and major scaffold types with eight and ten amino acid residues, respectively. Structure diversity with bisintercalators arises from variations in aromatic heterocycles, amino acid residue identities and quantities, and post-assembly line modifications. The major scaffold type bisintercalators harbor two structurally rigid six-membered nitrogen heterocycle-containing amino acids, which can further undergo oxidative and acylation tailorings. The minor scaffold type bisintercalators seemingly derive their rigidity from disulfide or thioacetal bridges formed by sulfydryls of two cysteines, and the thioacetal bridges allow variable S-alkyl elongation and conversion of S-alkyl sulfur into sulfoxide moiety. In addition, bisintercalators also exhibit differences in other amino acid identities, which further contribute to their diverse activities, including antimicrobial, antitumor, antifungal, anti-malarial, or antiviral effects. The chemical synthesis of these nonribosomal peptides is complex due to their intricate architectures, making microbial fermentation a more efficient production method. On the other hand, structural optimization can be achieved for bisintercalators through combinatorial and precursor-guided biosynthesis. Therefore, understanding the biosynthetic pathways of bisintercalators is crucial for yield enhancement via the pathway-specific regulation and also offering biocatalytic parts for structural modifications. This knowledge will facilitate future discovery and drug development for this promising natural product family.

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双嵌入家族(bisintercalator)非核糖体肽是一类由放线菌产生的C2中心对称的环状肽类化合物,能够通过其结构中两个独特的发色基团插入到DNA分子中,因此具有良好的抗菌和抗肿瘤等生物活性。这些家族化合物的结构多样性主要源于芳香杂环、氨基酸种类和数量以及修饰基团的不同。这些结构差异不仅导致其抗菌和抗肿瘤活性的强度和选择性的不同,还赋予了它们抗真菌、抗疟、抗病毒等其他活性。本文总结了双嵌入家族非核糖体肽的结构与活性和生物合成途径,展望了其未来发展方向以及面对的挑战。双嵌入家族非核糖体肽的分子结构复杂,化学合成非常具有挑战性,微生物发酵是生产此家族化合物的主要方法。近年来,双嵌入非核糖体肽类家族的生物合成途径得到了较为系统的研究,该家族主要代表性分子的肽链骨架组装、起始单元的生物合成以及后修饰过程已被基本阐明。这些研究成果不仅揭示了一系列微生物次级代谢中新颖的生物合成酶家族和酶催化机理,也为通过合成生物技术对该家族分子进行分子结构创新提供了珍贵的生物催化组件。这些生物合成的理论知识将进一步推动这一具有前景的天然产物家族的精准发现与后续的药物开发研究。

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杜艺岭(1983—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物次级代谢的生物化学机理、微生物药源分子的发现与生物合成、微生物合成生物学与化学生物学等。E-mail:
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施鑫杰(1996—),男,博士。研究方向为微生物天然产物生物合成。E-mail:

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双嵌入家族抗肿瘤非核糖体肽的生物合成研究进展
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施鑫杰 , 杜艺岭
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(3): 593-611
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(3): 593-611
双嵌入家族抗肿瘤非核糖体肽的生物合成研究进展
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施鑫杰 , 杜艺岭
作者信息
  • 浙江大学基础医学院微生物系,药物生物技术研究所,浙江 杭州 310058
  • 施鑫杰(1996—),男,博士。研究方向为微生物天然产物生物合成。E-mail:

通讯作者:

杜艺岭(1983—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物次级代谢的生物化学机理、微生物药源分子的发现与生物合成、微生物合成生物学与化学生物学等。E-mail:
Research advances in the biosynthesis of nonribosomal peptides within the bisintercalator family as anticancer drugs
Xinjie SHI , Yiling DU
Affiliations
  • Institute of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology,Department of Microbiology,School of Basic Medical Science,Zhejiang University,Hangzhou 310058,Zhejiang,China
出版时间: 2024-06-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-089
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双嵌入家族(bisintercalator)非核糖体肽是一类由放线菌产生的C2中心对称的环状肽类化合物,能够通过其结构中两个独特的发色基团插入到DNA分子中,因此具有良好的抗菌和抗肿瘤等生物活性。这些家族化合物的结构多样性主要源于芳香杂环、氨基酸种类和数量以及修饰基团的不同。这些结构差异不仅导致其抗菌和抗肿瘤活性的强度和选择性的不同,还赋予了它们抗真菌、抗疟、抗病毒等其他活性。本文总结了双嵌入家族非核糖体肽的结构与活性和生物合成途径,展望了其未来发展方向以及面对的挑战。双嵌入家族非核糖体肽的分子结构复杂,化学合成非常具有挑战性,微生物发酵是生产此家族化合物的主要方法。近年来,双嵌入非核糖体肽类家族的生物合成途径得到了较为系统的研究,该家族主要代表性分子的肽链骨架组装、起始单元的生物合成以及后修饰过程已被基本阐明。这些研究成果不仅揭示了一系列微生物次级代谢中新颖的生物合成酶家族和酶催化机理,也为通过合成生物技术对该家族分子进行分子结构创新提供了珍贵的生物催化组件。这些生物合成的理论知识将进一步推动这一具有前景的天然产物家族的精准发现与后续的药物开发研究。

非核糖体肽  /  双嵌入家族  /  天然产物  /  抗肿瘤化合物  /  生物合成

Natural products with the bisintercalator family are a group of C2-symmetric cyclic non-ribosomal peptides produced by actinobacteria, possessing potent antimicrobe, antitumor and other bioactivities. Bisintercalators can be divided into two groups based on the size of their macrocycles: the minor and major scaffold types with eight and ten amino acid residues, respectively. Structure diversity with bisintercalators arises from variations in aromatic heterocycles, amino acid residue identities and quantities, and post-assembly line modifications. The major scaffold type bisintercalators harbor two structurally rigid six-membered nitrogen heterocycle-containing amino acids, which can further undergo oxidative and acylation tailorings. The minor scaffold type bisintercalators seemingly derive their rigidity from disulfide or thioacetal bridges formed by sulfydryls of two cysteines, and the thioacetal bridges allow variable S-alkyl elongation and conversion of S-alkyl sulfur into sulfoxide moiety. In addition, bisintercalators also exhibit differences in other amino acid identities, which further contribute to their diverse activities, including antimicrobial, antitumor, antifungal, anti-malarial, or antiviral effects. The chemical synthesis of these nonribosomal peptides is complex due to their intricate architectures, making microbial fermentation a more efficient production method. On the other hand, structural optimization can be achieved for bisintercalators through combinatorial and precursor-guided biosynthesis. Therefore, understanding the biosynthetic pathways of bisintercalators is crucial for yield enhancement via the pathway-specific regulation and also offering biocatalytic parts for structural modifications. This knowledge will facilitate future discovery and drug development for this promising natural product family.

nonribosomal peptides  /  bisintercalator family  /  natural products  /  antitumor agents  /  biosynthesis
施鑫杰, 杜艺岭. 双嵌入家族抗肿瘤非核糖体肽的生物合成研究进展. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (3) : 593 -611 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-089
Xinjie SHI, Yiling DU. Research advances in the biosynthesis of nonribosomal peptides within the bisintercalator family as anticancer drugs[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (3) : 593 -611 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-089
在细菌和真菌中,存在着一种不用核糖体催化、不以mRNA为模板、不以tRNA为转运工具,利用氨基酸及其他化合物合成肽类的特殊多肽合成系统1,其中的关键酶称为非核糖体肽合成酶(nonribosomal peptide synthetase,NRPS),它合成的产物称为非核糖体肽(nonribosomal peptide,NRP)。抗感染药万古霉素2和青霉素3、免疫抑制剂环孢菌素4、抗肿瘤药博来霉素5等重要的药用天然产物都属于NRP。
一些放线菌可以产生一类中心对称或近似中心对称的环状非核糖体肽。这类化合物可以以两侧的含氮芳杂环同时插入DNA双螺旋相邻的两个小沟中,影响DNA的复制、转录等多个过程,最终导致细胞死亡,因此被称为双嵌入家族(bisintercalator family)非核糖体肽6-7。从1954年第1个化合物棘霉素(Echinomycin)被发现至今8-9,该类化合物共有三十余种,分布于多个科属的放线菌中。
双嵌入家族非核糖体肽一般由两条相同的肽链通过酯键彼此首尾相连构成环肽(图1)。每条肽链含有四个或五个氨基酸结构单元,因此可以根据其所含氨基酸的数量,将双嵌入家族的化合物分为两类,即十肽类(the major scaffold type)和八肽类(the minor scaffold type)10。其中吕宋肽菌素(Luzopeptins)11-12、江西肽菌素(Jiangxipeptins)13、Sandramycin14、Quinaldopeptin15、Quinoxapeptins16和Korkormicins17属于十肽类,其他双嵌入家族化合物属于八肽类。八肽类化合物可以根据结构的相似性进一步分为棘霉素、SW-163和Thiocoraline三类。
双嵌入家族化合物具有良好的抗肿瘤和其他生物活性,展现出较好的药物开发前景,已经有该家族的分子进入过临床研究。2019年,辉瑞公司研究了以双嵌入家族化合物作为小分子部分的抗体偶联药物的稳定性和有效性,证明了此类化合物具有开发成抗体偶联药物的潜能18。由模块化NRPS催化不同氨基酸结构单元聚合成双嵌入家族非核糖体肽的生物合成机理的阐明,使合成生物技术有望成为该家族化合物分子结构创新和药物研发的有效工具。
基于双嵌入家族非核糖体肽的结构特征,可以将十肽类化合物每条肽链的氨基酸从N端开始编为氨基酸A~E(图1)。氨基酸B是类似于脯氨酸的环状α-亚氨基酸,而八肽类化合物没有氨基酸B。每条肽链的N端有一个含氮芳杂环与氨基酸A的α-氨基以肽键相连,其结构一般是3-羟基喹啉-2-羧酸(3HQA)或喹喔啉-2-羧酸(QXCA)。这个杂环正是双嵌入家族化合物用以嵌入DNA的关键结构19-23。氨基酸A一般是D-丝氨酸,与另一条肽链的氨基酸E形成酯键,从而使两条相同的肽链首尾相连形成环肽。氨基酸C是甘氨酸或L-丙氨酸。氨基酸D是N-甲基-L-半胱氨酸或肌氨酸(N-甲基甘氨酸)。氨基酸E种类较多,差异较大。
棘霉素(Echinomycin)是第一个被发现的双嵌入家族非核糖体肽(图2)。棘霉素在放线菌中分布十分广泛,仅在1954年、1957年、1961年,就4次在不同地点被分离纯化8-924-25。之后的结构研究表明,这4个化合物是同一化合物26。接下来的60年里,又有许多研究人员从各种不同的放线菌中分离到棘霉素27-31
棘霉素的肽链组成为QXCA、D-丝氨酸、L-丙氨酸、N-甲基-L-半胱氨酸和N-甲基-L-缬氨酸。其中,两个N-甲基-L-半胱氨酸的侧链形成了硫缩醛桥(thioacetal bridge)32。棘霉素又名Quinomycin A。Quinomycin B中两个氨基酸E是N-甲基-L-别异亮氨酸,Quinomycin C中则是N,γ-二甲基-L-别异亮氨酸(图22533-34。此外,还有一些棘霉素类似物的两条肽链中氨基酸E不同。如Quinomycin B0中氨基酸E是N-甲基-L-缬氨酸和N,γ-二甲基-L-别异亮氨酸,Quinomycin D中氨基酸E是N-甲基-L-缬氨酸和N-甲基-L-别异亮氨酸,Quinomycin E中氨基酸E是N,γ-二甲基-L-别异亮氨酸和N-甲基-L-别异亮氨酸35。不过,因为硫缩醛桥本身已经使得分子结构不对称,两个不同的氨基酸E可以有两种不同的排布方式,但是Quinomycin B0和D的真正结构并没有报道。有研究表明,早先分离到的Quinomycin E是两种异构体的混合物36
棘霉素有很强的抗肿瘤活性24,曾经进入Ⅱ期临床试验37。棘霉素的抗肿瘤活性不仅来源于它对DNA的双嵌入作用,还来源于它对低氧诱导因子1(hypoxia inducible factor-1,HIF-1)的选择性抑制38。棘霉素对HIF-1的抑制活性使它还能够抑制异位骨化39。棘霉素对耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus)、肺炎链球菌(Streptococcus pneumoniae)、单核细胞增生李斯特氏菌(Listeria monocytogenes)、耐万古霉素粪肠球菌(vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis)等革兰氏阳性菌有很好的抑制活性40-42。棘霉素还对流感病毒和HIV有一定的抑制活性43-45,对恶性疟原虫(Plasmodium falciparum)和溶组织内阿米巴(Entamoeba histolytica)两种寄生虫有很好的抑制活性46-47。棘霉素的氨基酸E侧链的延长会降低生物活性,导致Quinomycin系列化合物的抗菌活性和抗肿瘤活性A>B>C>E29
2018年,日本Yoichi Hayakawa课题组从日本土壤的链霉菌Streptomyces sp. RAL404中分离到了两种特殊的棘霉素类似物Quinomycin H1和H2(图348。它们两条肽链的芳杂环不一样,一个是3HQA,另一个是QXCA。而硫缩醛桥的存在使得棘霉素的结构本身就不对称,因此3HQA和QXCA位置互换就产生了Quinomycin H1和H2这两种异构体。绝大多数双嵌入家族化合物都只含有3HQA和QXCA中的一种,生物合成途径已知的双嵌入家族化合物的生物合成基因簇(biosynthetic gene cluster,BGC)中也只有用以合成3HQA和QXCA中其中一种的一系列酶10。而Streptomyces sp. RAL404中Quinomycin H1和H2的BGC可能同时含有合成3HQA和QXCA的酶。考虑到合成3HQA和QXCA只有两个酶的差距,Streptomyces sp. RAL404通过基因水平转移额外获得合成3HQA的两个酶是很有可能的。Quinomycin H1和H2的细胞毒性总体上与棘霉素相当,但是对肿瘤细胞系的选择性有所不同48
2015年,朱平课题组从南海海绵共生菌Streptomyces sp. LS298中发现了另一种棘霉素类似物Quinomycin G49。它的两条肽链没有首尾相连,在其中一处本应形成酯键的地方,对应的D-丝氨酸脱水形成了脱氢丙氨酸(图4)。如果没有硫缩醛桥的存在,Quinomycin G仅是一个线型八肽。棘霉素的类似物不仅有缺少一个酯键的,还有缺少两个酯键的。澳大利亚土壤链霉菌Streptomyces tendae Tü4031产生的Echinoserine中,两条肽链仅以硫缩醛桥相连,相当于棘霉素两个酯键水解的产物(图450。Quinomycin G的抗肿瘤和抗菌活性均稍弱于棘霉素49,而Echinoserine只有微弱的抗菌活性50,说明棘霉素的两处酯键对生物活性至关重要。
棘霉素硫缩醛桥的甲硫基的硫原子还可以被氧化形成亚砜结构(图5)。西藏土壤分离出来的Streptomyces sp. 2215、广西红树林分离出来的Micromonospora strain B475、安徽土壤分离出来的Streptomyces sp. HCCB11876都可以产生单亚砜棘霉素(monosulfoxide Quinomycin),也就是形成亚砜结构的棘霉素(Quinomycin A)272951Stretomyces sp. HCCB11876还可以产生含亚砜结构的Quinomycin B和Quinomycin C,称为Quinomycin I和Quinomycin J(图5)。单亚砜棘霉素的细胞毒性和抗菌活性弱于棘霉素,Quinomycin I和Quinomycin J的活性也弱于Quinomycin B和Quinomycin C,说明甲硫基硫原子的氧化会降低生物活性2951
三骨菌素A(Triostin A)是Streptomyces triostinicusStreptomyces aureus S-2-210-L等链霉菌产生的棘霉素类似物,不含硫缩醛桥,只在对应位置含有二硫键(图6),同样有很强的抗肿瘤和抗菌活性3252-53。三骨菌素B和C与Quinomycin B和C的结构也是仅有此处不同。实际上,三骨菌素A就是棘霉素(Quinomycin A)的生物合成前体。两个N-甲基-L-半胱氨酸先形成二硫键,然后经过甲基化和重排反应进一步转化为硫缩醛桥54-56
SW-163 C~G这5个化合物由Streptomyces braegensis subsp. japonicusStreptomyces sp. SNA15896两种链霉菌产生(图757-59。SW-163C的结构与三骨菌素A有两处区别:SW-163C的芳杂环是3HQA,且氨基酸E是2-甲基-1-甲氨基环丙烷-1-羧酸,又称为N-甲基-去甲基冠烷酸(N-methyl-norcoronamic acid)。SW-163D则是在SW-163C的基础上将二硫键转化为硫缩醛桥,类似于棘霉素的结构。延长SW-163D硫缩醛桥上的S烷基就得到了SW-163E(S上为乙基)、SW-163F(S上为异丙基)和SW-163G(S上为仲丁基)。
SW-163在体外对许多肿瘤细胞系有很强的抗肿瘤活性58-59。其中,SW-163C活性最弱,含有硫缩醛桥的SW-163D活性强于SW-163C;随着硫缩醛桥硫原子上的烷基的延长,从SW-163D到SW-163G,抗肿瘤活性逐渐增强。SW-163还对牛莫拉氏菌(Moraxella bovis)、草分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium phlei)、金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)、红斑丹毒丝菌(Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae)等革兰氏阳性菌有很强的抑制活性58-59。在辉瑞公司进行的抗体偶联药物研究中,SW-163D与抗Her2抗体形成的抗体偶联药物药效和稳定性都很强,可以进行进一步开发18
SW-163也有亚砜类似物(图8)。日本土壤链霉菌Streptomyces sp. RK88-1355不仅可以产生SW-163D,还可以SW-163D和SW-163E的亚砜类似物,称为RK-1355A和RK-1355B60。但是RK-1355A和RK-1355B的抗肿瘤活性和抗菌活性均弱于SW-163D,且RK-1355A活性弱于RK-1355B60。这说明亚砜的形成会使得生物活性降低,这个规律在SW-163系列和Quinomycin系列中是一致的。斐济海域分离到的放线菌Salinispora arenicola CNT-005可以产生含亚砜结构的双嵌入家族化合物Retimycin A61。它和RK-1355A区别只有一处:RK-1355A的氨基酸A是D-丝氨酸,Retimycin A的氨基酸A是D-别苏氨酸。Retimycin A对HCT-116细胞系的细胞毒性与棘霉素相当61Salinispora arenicola CNT-005还可以产生分子量比Retimycin A大14的类似物,但是目前结构未知。
Thiocoraline由Micromonospora sp. ML1和Micromonospora sp. ACM2-092两种小单孢菌产生(图9),有很强的抗肿瘤和抗菌活性62-65。其肽链组成为3HQA、D-半胱氨酸、甘氨酸、N-甲基-D-半胱氨酸、NS-二甲基-L-半胱氨酸。由于氨基酸A不是D-丝氨酸而是D-半胱氨酸,Thiocoraline的两条肽链不是以酯键首尾相连,而是形成了硫酯键。和三骨菌素一样,Thiocoraline用两个N-甲基- L-半胱氨酸形成了二硫键。
Thiocoraline的类似物包括22′-deoxythiocoraline和12′-sulfoxythiocoraline(图966。这两个化合物由Verrucosispora sp. strain WMMA107产生。22′-Deoxythiocoraline的一个芳杂环是3HQA,另一个是没有3位羟基喹啉-2-羧酸(quinaldic acid,QA)。12′-sulfoxythiocoraline含有亚砜结构。RK-1355A、RK-1355B、Retimycin A、单亚砜棘霉素的亚砜结构都位于硫缩醛桥的甲硫基上,而Thiocoraline只有二硫键而没有硫缩醛桥,12′-sulfoxythiocoraline的亚砜结构位于其中一条肽链的NS-二甲基-L-半胱氨酸的甲硫基上。12′-sulfoxythiocoraline的抗肿瘤活性弱于22′-deoxythiocoraline,而22′-deoxythiocoraline的活性弱于Thiocoraline66
Verrucosispora sp. strain WMMA107还可以产生只有一条肽链的Thiocoraline类似物Thiochondrilline A~C(图1066。Thiochondrilline A和B是一对无法分离的肽键顺反异构体,其氨基酸组成为3HQA、S-甲基-D-半胱氨酸、甘氨酸、NS-二甲基-L-半胱氨酸、NS-二甲基-L-半胱氨酸甲酯。Thiochondrilline C的氨基酸组成为3HQA、D-半胱氨酸、甘氨酸、N-甲基-L-半胱氨酸、NS-二甲基-L-半胱氨酸甲酯,其中D-半胱氨酸和N-甲基-D-半胱氨酸的侧链巯基会形成二硫键。按照双嵌入家族化合物的定义,Thiochondrilline A~C不属于双嵌入家族化合物,但显然其生源与Thiocoraline密切相关。Thiocoraline中形成硫酯键的巯基和羧基在Thiochondrilline A~C中都发生了甲基化,而没有形成硫酯键。Thiochondrilline A~C也是唯一一类分离到的只有一条肽链的双嵌入家族化合物类似物。它们的抗肿瘤活性弱于12′-sulfoxythiocoraline。
Thiocoraline的类似物还有Verrucosamide和 BE-22179(图11)。Verrucosamide由Verrucosispora sp. CNX-026产生,它没有在两条肽链之间形成二硫键67。Verrucosamide的同一条肽链的氨基酸C和氨基酸D的侧链以硫醚键连在一起,形成了1,4-硫氮杂环庚烷(1,4-thiazepane)结构。据推测,Verrucosamide的氨基酸D和BE-22179一样是N-甲基脱氢丙氨酸,而氨基酸C即N-甲基-L-半胱氨酸的侧链巯基没有形成二硫键而是亲核进攻N-甲基脱氢丙氨酸的β碳,从而形成1,4-硫氮杂环庚烷结构。Verrucosamide是唯一一种不含二硫键或硫缩醛桥的八肽类双嵌入家族化合物,具有一定的抗肿瘤活性。BE-22179由Streptomyces sp. A22179产生68,它和Thiocoraline的区别在于BE-22179的氨基酸D是N-甲基脱氢丙氨酸。BE-22179是很强的拓扑异构酶Ⅱ抑制剂68-69
十肽类化合物的显著特征是包含氨基酸B。氨基酸B是含六元氮杂环结构的氨基酸,在Sandramycin、Quinaldopeptin、江西肽菌素(Jiangxipeptins)中是哌啶酸(Pipecolinic acid,Pip),在吕宋肽菌素(Luzopeptins)、Quinoxapeptins、Korkormicins中是4-羟基-2,3,4,5-四氢哒嗪-3-羧酸(4-hydroxyl-dehydropiperazic acid,4OHdPiz)(图12)。Pip和dPiz都可以像脯氨酸一样引发肽链转角,因此它们在十肽类双嵌入家族化合物中的作用可能是增加结构刚性70-71。而八肽类化合物绝大多数是用二硫键或硫缩醛桥来加固大环结构,Verrucosamide用1,4-硫氮杂环庚烷结构来加固大环结构。
Sandramycin由Kribbella sandramycini产生,其氨基酸组成为3HQA、D-丝氨酸、L-Pip、甘氨酸、肌氨酸、N-甲基-L-缬氨酸14。Sandramycin除了抗肿瘤和抗菌活性外还是HIV-1逆转录酶抑制剂1472。Quinaldopeptin由Streptoverticillium album Q132-6产生,其氨基酸组成为3HQA、D-2,3-二氨基丁酸、L-Pip、甘氨酸、肌氨酸、L-Pip,与Sandramycin仅有两处不同15。其中D-2,3-二氨基丁酸的存在使得Quinaldopeptin的两条肽链不是以酯键首尾相连,而是形成了肽键。Quinaldopeptin对致病真菌新型隐球菌(Cryptococcus neoformans)有很好的活性,除此之外的生物活性与Sandramycin类似15
江西肽菌素由Lentzea jiangxiensis产生13,它的两个芳杂环都是QA,是仅有的不含3HQA或QXCA结构的双嵌入家族化合物。江西肽菌素A的氨基酸组成为QA、D-丝氨酸、(3S,5R)-L-3,5-二羟基哌啶酸(diOHPip)、甘氨酸、肌氨酸、(2S,3S)-L-β-羟基-N,γ-二甲基别异亮氨酸。江西肽菌素B和C是diOHPip的3位羟基上有异丁酰化修饰的江西肽菌素A。
吕宋肽菌素由Actinomadura luzonensis产生11-12,Korkormicin由Micromonospora sp. ATCC 55011产生17,Quinoxapeptin由Nocardioform actinomycete ATCC55599产生16。这三组化合物的芳杂环上有额外的6位甲氧基修饰。吕宋肽菌素C的氨基酸组成为6-甲氧基-3HQA、D-丝氨酸、4-羟基-2,3,4,5-四氢哒嗪-3-羧酸(4-hydroxyl-dehydropiperazic acid,4OHdPiz)、甘氨酸、肌氨酸、L-β-羟基-N-甲基缬氨酸11-12。吕宋肽菌素B和吕宋肽菌素A相当于单乙酰化和双乙酰化的吕宋肽菌素,乙酰化的位置是4OHdPiz结构的羟基。实际上4OHdPiz的4位羟基在整个分子中的相对位置相当于江西肽菌素diOHPip的3位羟基,4OHdPiz的腙结构的碳原子的相对位置相当于江西肽菌素diOHPip有羟基修饰的5位碳,4OHdPiz可以看做是多一个氮原子并发生脱水的diOHPip。
Quinoxapeptin、Korkormicin的芳杂环是6-甲氧基-QXCA,其氨基酸A~E除了4OHdPiz上的酰基化修饰外与吕宋肽菌素C完全一致16-17。实际上Quinoxapeptins A、B和Korkormicin可以看做是酰基化的Quinoxapeptin C。但是Quinoxapeptin C是人工合成的产物73。从生物合成角度讲,Quinoxapeptin C是Quinoxapeptins A、B和Korkormicin的前体,但是目前还未有人从细菌中分离到Quinoxapeptin C。Korkormicins A~G中4OHdPiz上的酰基包括了乙酰基、丙酰基、异丁酰基、异戊酰基,说明Korkormicin的BGC中的酰基转移酶底物选择性较为宽泛。Quinoxapeptin A中4OHdPiz上的酰基是两个2-甲基环丙烷-1-羧酸的酰基,Quinoxapeptin B则含有一个乙酰基。
Korkormicin A在小鼠模型中有很好的抗肿瘤活性,对革兰氏阴性菌没有活性,对革兰氏阳性菌有抑菌活性17。吕宋肽菌素和棘霉素一样,对恶性疟原虫(Plasmodium falciparum)有很好的活性74。吕宋肽菌素、Quinoxapeptin除了有抗菌和抗肿瘤活性外都是HIV-1逆转录酶抑制剂164575。构效关系研究表明,4OHdPiz上的乙酰化程度对活性有显著影响7375。吕宋肽菌素中,双乙酰化的吕宋肽菌素A细胞毒性最强,而没有乙酰化的吕宋肽菌素C最弱;人工合成的没有乙酰化的Quinoxapeptin C的细胞毒性同样弱于Quinoxapeptin A和B。对多种细菌的抑菌活性同样是吕宋肽菌素A强于吕宋肽菌素B,而吕宋肽菌素C最弱。对HIV-1逆转录酶的抑制活性却是吕宋肽菌素C最强,而吕宋肽菌素A最弱;Quinoxapeptin C的HIV-1逆转录酶抑制活性同样强于Quinoxapeptin A和B。
双嵌入家族化合物的结构多样性主要来源于芳杂环的差异、氨基酸种类和数量的差异以及修饰的差异。芳杂环大部分情况下是3HQA或QXCA,有时候会出现QA、6-甲氧基-3HQA或6-甲氧基-QXCA,个别化合物的两处芳杂环不同。十肽类化合物中六元氮杂环的氨基酸B增加了结构刚性,八肽类化合物虽然没有氨基酸B,但氨基酸D都是半胱氨酸,两个半胱氨酸的侧链巯基可以形成二硫键,或进一步转化为硫缩醛桥,这可能是另一种增强结构刚性的方法。Verrucosamide是唯一一种不含二硫键或硫缩醛桥的八肽类化合物,它的同一条肽链上氨基酸C和氨基酸D的侧链以硫醚键连在一起,形成了特殊的1,4-硫氮杂环庚烷结构。十肽类化合物的氨基酸B上还可以发生氧化和酰基化修饰,八肽类化合物的硫缩醛桥上S-烷基也可以延伸到不同的长度,硫原子还可以被氧化成亚砜结构。此外,氨基酸A、C、E也各有差异,连接两条肽链的酯键也可以发生水解。以上这些因素都使得双嵌入家族化合物的结构更加多样化。
双嵌入家族非核糖体肽以分子内的两个芳杂环嵌入DNA双螺旋相邻的两个小沟之中,干扰DNA的复制、转录等过程,因而具有良好的生物活性。所有双嵌入家族化合物都有良好的抗肿瘤活性。其中,棘霉素曾经进入治疗软组织肉瘤的Ⅱ期临床试验37。双嵌入家族化合物的抗菌活性则主要针对革兰氏阳性菌,因为分子太大使得它们难以进入革兰氏阴性菌细胞内67,比如棘霉素对耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌和耐万古霉素粪肠球菌都有很强的抗菌效果40-42。此外,一些双嵌入家族化合物还有抗真菌、抗疟、抗病毒等额外的活性。
双嵌入家族化合物的结构差异使得它们在抗菌和抗肿瘤活性上的强弱和选择性有所不同。八肽类化合物中酯键的水解、亚砜结构的形成都使得分子结构更加新颖,却使得生物活性降低。棘霉素氨基酸E侧链烷基延长也会导致活性下降,这应该也是在Quinomycin系列化合物中棘霉素产量最高的原因。SW-163系列化合物中硫缩醛桥结构的形成可以增强生物活性,硫原子上烷基的延长可以进一步提高活性。Thiocoraline的只含一条肽链的类似物活性显著弱于Thiocoraline。十肽类化合物普遍具有HIV-1逆转录酶抑制活性,氨基酸B上的酰基化修饰也对生物活性有重大影响。
双嵌入家族非核糖体肽分子结构复杂,化学合成困难,微生物发酵是生产此类化合物的重要方法。因此,研究它们的生物合成途径有重大意义。目前,已经有很多双嵌入家族化合物的生物合成基因簇被报道,其中已知八肽类的基因簇包括Streptomyces griseovariabilis subsp. bandungensis中棘霉素的BGC(qui基因簇)30Streptomyces lasaliensis中棘霉素的BGC(ecm基因簇)76Micromonospora sp. ML1中Thiocoraline的BGC(tio基因簇)63Streptomyces triostinicus中三骨菌素的BGC(trs基因簇)55Streptomyces sp. SNA15896中SW-163的BGC(swb基因簇)77图13);已知十肽类的基因簇包括Actinomadura luzonensis中吕宋肽菌素的BGC(luz基因簇)13Micromonospora sp. ATCC 55011中Korkormicins的BGC(kor基因簇)13Lentzea jiangxiensis中江西肽菌素的BGC(jxp基因簇)13Kribbella sandramycini中Sandramycin的BGC(sdm基因簇)13图14)。经过大量的研究,这些化合物的生物合成途径已经基本得到阐明。与这些化合物的结构相似性相对应,它们的基因簇以及生物合成途径也存在许多共同之处10
双嵌入家族化合物的肽链由NRPS组装。NRPS可以在同一个酶中包含一个或多个结构域,一个或多个NRPS组成一条包含多个结构域的装配线(assembly line),负责一条肽链的合成1。NRPS装配线中相邻的若干个结构域组成一个模块,每个模块负责将一个氨基酸连到肽链C端。每个模块含有3个基本的结构域:硫醇化结构域(thiolation domain,T结构域),其活性位点的丝氨酸残基侧链的羟基会被磷酸泛酰巯基乙胺(phosphopantethein)修饰,磷酸泛酰巯基乙胺的巯基通过与氨基酸形成硫酯键使氨基酸或延伸中的肽链结合在T结构域上;腺苷化结构域(adenylation domain,A结构域),可以特异性地活化氨基酸,并将其结合到T结构域上;缩合结构域(condensation domain,C结构域),催化上一个模块T结构域上的肽链与本模块T结构域上的氨基酸形成肽键,使肽链延长。NRPS装配线的最后一般有一个硫酯酶结构域(thioesterase domain,TE结构域),负责通过水解或肽链内亲核基团引发的环合来使延伸完成的肽链从最后一个T结构域上解离下来。NRPS装配线的每个模块中都有可能存在C、A、T三个结构域以外的修饰结构域,如差向异构化结构域(epimerization domain,E结构域)和N-甲基转移酶结构域(methyltransferase domain,M结构域)。E结构域可以将L构型的氨基酸转化为D构型,M结构域可以催化氨基酸的N-甲基化。
八肽类双嵌入家族化合物的肽链合成起始于3HQA和QXCA这两种芳杂环10。3HQA或QXCA在连接酶(TioJ、Swb12、TrsA、Ecm1、Qui16)催化下,结合到参与脂肪酸生物合成的酰基载体蛋白FabC上(图15)。qui基因簇、ecm基因簇、tio基因簇、trs基因簇、swb基因簇中都有两个巨大的NRPS,即Qui7和Qui6、Ecm6和Ecm7、TioR和TioS、TrsI和TrsJ、Swb16和Swb17,这些NRPS均含两个模块,模块数量及其中的结构域分布符合相应化合物的肽链结构。其中第一个模块的C结构域催化FabC上的3HQA或QXCA与第一个模块T结构域上的丝氨酸或半胱氨酸形成肽键,然后经过两个NRPS的其余模块的催化形成完整的肽链,而Qui6、Ecm7、TioS、TrsJ、Swb17末端的TE结构域催化肽链的二聚,形成双嵌入家族化合物基本的中心对称大环结构。
十肽类化合物的BGC中也有两个巨大的NRPS,即Luz1和Luz2、Kor1和Kor2、JxpA和JxpB、Sdm11和Sdm12(图14)。其中Luz2、Kor2、JxpB和Sdm12的结构域组成与来源于八肽类化合物BGC的Qui6、Ecm7、TioS、TrsJ和Swb17完全相同,而Luz1、Kor1、JxpA和Sdm11的结构域组成是C-A-T-E-C-A-T-C-A-T,相比Qui7、Ecm6、TioR、TrsI、Swb16在中间多了一个模块,这一模块应当是对应氨基酸B的组装13。此外,不同于八肽类化合物,目前已知的十肽类化合物作为肽链合成起始单元的芳杂环包括6-甲氧基-QXCA、6-甲氧基-3HQA、QA和3HQA四种。但是这些芳杂环的活化以及后续肽链的组装、二聚、释放应该与八肽类化合物类似。
3HQA和QXCA这两种芳杂环都由L-色氨酸转化而来(图1610。TioK、Swb11、TrsR、Ecm13、Qui18是包含一个A结构域和一个T结构域的NRPS,它会用A结构域将L-色氨酸活化并连接到T结构域上30。细胞色素P450(TioI、Swb13、TrsB、Ecm12、Qui15)催化L-色氨酸的β-羟化。之后,只含一个TE结构域的NRPS(TioQ、Swb14、TrsQ、Ecm2、Qui14)催化L-β-羟基色氨酸与T结构域形成的硫酯键的水解,得到游离的L-β-羟基色氨酸。色氨酸双加氧酶(TioF、Swb10、TrsC、Ecm11、Qui17)催化L-β-羟基色氨酸的吲哚环的氧化开环,形成N-醛基-β-羟基犬尿氨酸,再经N-甲酰基的水解形成β-羟基犬尿氨酸78。在SW-163和Thiocoraline的生物合成中,β-羟基犬尿氨酸先经犬尿氨酸转氨酶(TioG、Swb1)催化转氨环合,形成3,4-二羟基喹啉-2-羧酸,再在氧化还原酶(TioH、Swb2)的催化下,脱去4位羟基形成3HQA。在三骨菌素、棘霉素的生物合成中,β-羟基犬尿氨酸经氧化重排、脱氢、环合、脱羧、芳香化,形成QXCA。在3HQA的生物合成中,β-羟基犬尿氨酸的β-羟基最终转化为3HQA中的3位羟基78。江西肽菌素的芳杂环是QA,没有3位羟基,原因是jxp基因簇中缺少催化L-色氨酸的β-羟化的三个酶13
吕宋肽菌素、Quinoxapeptin、Korkormicin的芳杂环是6-甲氧基-3HQA或6-甲氧基-QXCA,它们的生物合成同样起始于L-色氨酸(图17)。首先是新型的血红素依赖的色氨酸-5-羟化酶(Luz15、Kor15)将L-色氨酸转化为L-5-羟基色氨酸,然后甲基转移酶(Luz16、Kor16)将L-5-羟基色氨酸转化为L-5-甲氧基色氨酸79。之后的反应几乎与3HQA和QXCA的生物合成途径一致。吕宋肽菌素和Korkormicin的BGC中有TioK、TioI、TioQ、TioE的同源蛋白(Luz3和Kor3、Luz20和Kor20、Luz4和Kor4、Luz14和Kor14),将L-5-甲氧基色氨酸经β-羟化和开环氧化转化为N-醛基-L-β-羟基-5-甲氧基犬尿氨酸,进而水解得到L-β-羟基-5-甲氧基犬尿氨酸。在吕宋肽菌素的生物合成中,TioG、TioH的同源蛋白Luz22和Luz21将β-羟基-5-甲氧基犬尿氨酸转化为6-甲氧基-3HQA;在Korkormicin的生物合成中,β-羟基-5-甲氧基犬尿氨酸则转化为6-甲氧基-QXCA。Quinoxapeptin的BGC目前还未鉴定,但可以推测Quinoxapeptin、Korkormicin的起始单元生物合成、肽链组装过程完全一致。
NRPS催化大环结构形成后,肽链上还会发生进一步的修饰,如Thiocoraline、三骨菌素、SW-163C中会形成二硫键546377。三骨菌素A中二硫键经甲基化转化为硫缩醛桥就形成了棘霉素,而SW-163C中二硫键变为硫缩醛桥则形成SW-163D,SW-163D的进一步甲基化会形成SW-163E~G5477
在江西肽菌素(Jiangxipeptin)、吕宋肽菌素(Luzopeptin)、Quinoxapeptin、Korkormicin的生物合成中,后修饰发生在氨基酸B(Piz或Pip)和氨基酸E上,由细胞色素P450(cytochrome P450,CYP450)和酰基转移酶催化13。在吕宋肽菌素和Korkormicin的生物合成中,CYP450酶Luz25和Kor25催化两个氨基酸E(缬氨酸)的β-羟化,双功能酶Luz26和Kor26催化β-羟化和脱氢反应将两个Piz转化为4OHdPiz13。江西肽菌素的BGC同样有多个CYP450,催化两个氨基酸E(γ-甲基别异亮氨酸)的β-羟化以及两个Pip上的四处羟化,而且Pip上羟化的位置刚好对应Piz羟化和脱氢的位置(图1813。之后,酰基转移酶(Luz27、Kor27、JxpN)催化4OHdPiz和diOHPip上β-羟基的酰基化。Luz27特异性地使用乙酰辅酶A催化乙酰化反应,JxpN特异性地催化异丁酰化反应,而Kor27对酰基辅酶A的选择性较差。
双嵌入家族化合物是一类来源于放线菌的具有独特结构和良好生物活性的非核糖体肽。良好的抗肿瘤活性使该类化合物有望开发成为药物。双嵌入家族化合物的结构差异既使得它们在抗菌和抗肿瘤活性上的强弱和选择性有所不同,又赋予了它们抗真菌、抗疟、抗病毒等额外的活性。双嵌入家族非核糖体肽分子结构复杂,化学合成困难,微生物发酵是生产此类化合物的重要方法,组合生物合成以及前体导向的生物合成都是对此类化合物进行结构改进的重要方法。而生物合成途径的解析有助于通过控制调控基因提高产量,并为结构改造提供基础元件。目前,已经有很多双嵌入家族化合物的生物合成途径得到研究,肽链组装、起始单元(芳杂环)的生物合成、后修饰过程已基本阐明。其中,芳杂环由色氨酸经过修饰和氧化开环、合环等过程转化而来;肽链的合成需要NRPS以及脂肪酸生物合成过程中的酰基载体蛋白FabC的参与,并由TE结构域实现二聚;而后修饰过程在八肽类化合物和十肽类化合物中截然不同,前者主要是二硫键和硫缩醛桥的形成,后者主要是含六元氮杂环结构的氨基酸B上的修饰。
但是,目前双嵌入家族化合物的生物合成仍有许多地方不清楚,比如QXCA的合成过程、十肽类化合物的酰基化机理、Verrucosamide的1,4-硫氮杂环庚烷结构的形成机理。这些问题仍然亟待回答,从而彻底阐明双嵌入家族化合物的生物合成途径。这一过程既可以为双嵌入家族化合物的结构改造奠定基础,又可以帮助发现一些具有全新催化活性的酶。
微生物天然产物的组合生物合成是增加化合物多样性从而获取活性更好、副作用更小的化合物的重要方法。有关于非核糖体肽的组合生物合成的研究非常多,但是极少有关于双嵌入家族化合物的组合生物合成的报道。近年来新发现的十肽类化合物的BGC极大丰富了双嵌入家族化合物的生物合成元件,为组合生物合成奠定了良好的基础。未来有望通过这种方法高效增加双嵌入家族化合物的多样性。而已有的关于构效关系的知识可以指导组合生物合成的方向。
除了组合生物合成,自然界的演化也可以增加化合物的多样性。传统的菌株发酵和分离方法会导致已知化合物的反复分离,如棘霉素光是在公开报道中就被分离了近20次。随着双嵌入家族化合物的生物合成途径的解析,在数据库的基因组数据中进行靶向挖掘可以提高发现新化合物的效率,提前排除已知化合物,从而发现更多大自然为人们准备的双嵌入家族化合物。江西肽菌素的发现就是这样一个案例。通过靶向挖掘和组合生物合成增加双嵌入家族化合物的种类,将有力推动这类化合物开发成药。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32122005)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32370051)
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-089
  • 接收时间:2023-11-28
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-06-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-28
  • 修回日期:2024-02-29
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国家自然科学基金(32122005)
国家自然科学基金(32370051)
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    浙江大学基础医学院微生物系,药物生物技术研究所,浙江 杭州 310058

通讯作者:

杜艺岭(1983—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物次级代谢的生物化学机理、微生物药源分子的发现与生物合成、微生物合成生物学与化学生物学等。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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