Article(id=1148994040084882220, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-080, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1700409600000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-20, revisedDate=1704384000000, revisedDateStr=2024-01-05, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751871126432, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1719676800000, pubDateStr=2024-06-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751871126432, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751871126432, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751871126432, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148994036700078859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='3', pageStart='397', pageEnd='693', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751871125626, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057298298, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992417, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=571, endPage=592, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999709297979580, articleId=1148994040084882220, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of fungal non-ribosomal peptides, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

As natural products, non-ribosomal peptides (NRPs) exhibit biological activities with a broad spectrum, including anticancer, antibiotic and immunosuppression. Among U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs, fungal NRPs are a major category of pioneering pharmacological agents like immunosuppressive cyclosporine, antibacterial cephalosporin and antifungal echinocandins. Under the catalysis of complicated multimodular enzyme complexes known as non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs), NRPs are synthesized with three core domains: adenylation (A), thiolation domain/peptidyl carrier protein (T/PCP) and condensation (C), which collectively form repetitive modules responsible for activating and incorporating specific amino acids or hydroxycarboxylic acid building blocks into the growing peptide chains. Beyond the core domains, optional domains are exemplified by epimerization (E), heterocyclization (Cy) and oxidation (Ox), facilitating the customization of the building blocks. These domains and the variability in the number of modules with NRPs significantly contribute to the structural diversity of the skeletons. Furthermore, post-modifications to the structural skeletons yield potent pharmacological groups for NRPs, contributing significantly to their structural diversity and biological activities, which not only provide opportunities for discovering naturally sourced and active NRPs, but also opens avenues for modifications to create non-natural NRPs via synthetic biological technology. To date, numerous strategies have been employed for developing NRPs, including heterologous expression, transcriptional factor activation, precursor-directed biosynthesis, mutasynthesis, combinatorial biosynthesis and enzyme engineering. This review summarizes the progress in research on fungal NRPs, encompassing their bioactivities, biosynthetic pathways, enzymatic reaction mechanisms and metabolic engineering. A comprehensive understanding of fungal NRPs biosynthesis not only benefits for deciphering the corresponding enzymatic assembly mechanism, but also serves as a guidance for advancing novel fungal NRPs and their derivatives, thereby paving the way for developing potential drug candidates from NRPs.

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真菌源非核糖体肽类(NRP)药物因其活性优异、结构多样而备受关注。至今美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)已批准了数十种真菌NRP药物,包括环孢菌素、头孢菌素和棘白菌素等重磅药物。这些NRP药物均由非核糖体肽合成酶(NRPS)催化形成,其多样化的结构域和模块数量决定了产物骨架的多样性,从而为天然源活性NRP的开发提供了广阔的空间。此外,骨架结构上的特殊后修饰过程往往为NRP药物提供了强效的药效基团,进一步扩充了NRP结构与活性的多样性。本文综述了真菌NRP药物的研究进展,主要涵盖药物活性、生物合成途径、酶学机理和代谢工程改造等。深入了解真菌NRP药物生物合成途径不仅有助于理解相关的酶学组装机制,还有望为新型真菌NRP药物及其衍生物的深度开发提供重要的指导和参考。

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邹懿(1983—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为真菌天然药物生物合成与酶催化机理、真菌天然药物合成生物学与分子创新。E-mail:
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陈锡玮(1991—),男,博士,博士后。研究方向为真菌天然产物生物合成与酶催化机理、真菌新型非核糖体肽基因组挖掘。E-mail:

张华然(1993—),男,博士,讲师。研究方向为真菌活性次级代谢产物生物合成与酶学机制、真菌新颖次级代谢产物基因组挖掘。E-mail:

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陈锡玮(1991—),男,博士,博士后。研究方向为真菌天然产物生物合成与酶催化机理、真菌新型非核糖体肽基因组挖掘。E-mail:

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真菌源非核糖体肽类药物生物合成及代谢工程
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陈锡玮 , 张华然 , 邹懿
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(3): 571-592
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(3): 571-592
真菌源非核糖体肽类药物生物合成及代谢工程
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陈锡玮 , 张华然 , 邹懿
作者信息
  • 西南大学药学院,重庆 400715
  • 陈锡玮(1991—),男,博士,博士后。研究方向为真菌天然产物生物合成与酶催化机理、真菌新型非核糖体肽基因组挖掘。E-mail:

    张华然(1993—),男,博士,讲师。研究方向为真菌活性次级代谢产物生物合成与酶学机制、真菌新颖次级代谢产物基因组挖掘。E-mail:

通讯作者:

邹懿(1983—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为真菌天然药物生物合成与酶催化机理、真菌天然药物合成生物学与分子创新。E-mail:
Biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of fungal non-ribosomal peptides
Xiwei CHEN , Huaran ZHANG , Yi ZOU
Affiliations
  • College of Pharmaceutical Sciences,Southwest University,Chongqing 400715,China
出版时间: 2024-06-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-080
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真菌源非核糖体肽类(NRP)药物因其活性优异、结构多样而备受关注。至今美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)已批准了数十种真菌NRP药物,包括环孢菌素、头孢菌素和棘白菌素等重磅药物。这些NRP药物均由非核糖体肽合成酶(NRPS)催化形成,其多样化的结构域和模块数量决定了产物骨架的多样性,从而为天然源活性NRP的开发提供了广阔的空间。此外,骨架结构上的特殊后修饰过程往往为NRP药物提供了强效的药效基团,进一步扩充了NRP结构与活性的多样性。本文综述了真菌NRP药物的研究进展,主要涵盖药物活性、生物合成途径、酶学机理和代谢工程改造等。深入了解真菌NRP药物生物合成途径不仅有助于理解相关的酶学组装机制,还有望为新型真菌NRP药物及其衍生物的深度开发提供重要的指导和参考。

真菌非核糖体肽  /  非核糖体肽合成酶  /  生物合成  /  酶学组装机制  /  代谢工程

As natural products, non-ribosomal peptides (NRPs) exhibit biological activities with a broad spectrum, including anticancer, antibiotic and immunosuppression. Among U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs, fungal NRPs are a major category of pioneering pharmacological agents like immunosuppressive cyclosporine, antibacterial cephalosporin and antifungal echinocandins. Under the catalysis of complicated multimodular enzyme complexes known as non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs), NRPs are synthesized with three core domains: adenylation (A), thiolation domain/peptidyl carrier protein (T/PCP) and condensation (C), which collectively form repetitive modules responsible for activating and incorporating specific amino acids or hydroxycarboxylic acid building blocks into the growing peptide chains. Beyond the core domains, optional domains are exemplified by epimerization (E), heterocyclization (Cy) and oxidation (Ox), facilitating the customization of the building blocks. These domains and the variability in the number of modules with NRPs significantly contribute to the structural diversity of the skeletons. Furthermore, post-modifications to the structural skeletons yield potent pharmacological groups for NRPs, contributing significantly to their structural diversity and biological activities, which not only provide opportunities for discovering naturally sourced and active NRPs, but also opens avenues for modifications to create non-natural NRPs via synthetic biological technology. To date, numerous strategies have been employed for developing NRPs, including heterologous expression, transcriptional factor activation, precursor-directed biosynthesis, mutasynthesis, combinatorial biosynthesis and enzyme engineering. This review summarizes the progress in research on fungal NRPs, encompassing their bioactivities, biosynthetic pathways, enzymatic reaction mechanisms and metabolic engineering. A comprehensive understanding of fungal NRPs biosynthesis not only benefits for deciphering the corresponding enzymatic assembly mechanism, but also serves as a guidance for advancing novel fungal NRPs and their derivatives, thereby paving the way for developing potential drug candidates from NRPs.

fungal non-ribosomal peptide  /  non-ribosomal peptide synthetase  /  biosynthesis  /  enzymatic reaction mechanism  /  metabolic engineering
陈锡玮, 张华然, 邹懿. 真菌源非核糖体肽类药物生物合成及代谢工程. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (3) : 571 -592 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-080
Xiwei CHEN, Huaran ZHANG, Yi ZOU. Biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of fungal non-ribosomal peptides[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (3) : 571 -592 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-080
真菌天然产物在药物研发领域扮演着至关重要的角色,被誉为药物开发的重要源泉1-2。其中,真菌产生的大量天然化合物中肽类化合物尤为引人瞩目,其为医药界贡献了众多知名的药物,如青霉素(penicillin)、头孢菌素(cephamycin)和环孢菌素(cyclosporine)等,成为治疗真菌或细菌感染、免疫抑制的有力工具3。肽类药物之所以备受瞩目,主要归功于:①小分子肽(小于1000 Da)可以精准地结合靶点,从而实现高度特异性的药理作用;②大于1000 Da的大分子肽在体内可以展现类似于蛋白质互作的作用,从而实现多样化的生物效应4-5;③肽类药物通常具有较好的人体相容性和药物代谢属性,从而能更好地被利用和吸收6;④肽类化合物侧链为化学和生物合成提供了大量修饰位点,可改善药物的性质和拓宽应用范围,如提高稳定性、增强药效和减少副作用等7-8。综上,真菌肽类化合物的药用价值和结构可塑性决定了其在药物开发领域的特殊地位。
根据生物合成机制,真菌源肽类药物分为核糖体肽(ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide,RiPP)和非核糖体肽(non-ribosomal peptide,NRP)两大类9-10。在药物开发方面,NRP相较于RiPP具有独特的优势,主要体现在结构的多样性和丰富的后修饰,这些优势与NRP特殊的生物合成机制密切相关。首先,NRP结构中通常含有非蛋白源氨基酸,赋予了其骨架结构中更加丰富的结构单元,多样性的合成砌块(building block)使得NRP在药物开发中具有更广泛的应用空间11。其次,通过水平转移和独立进化获得的多样化后修饰基因赋予了NRP广泛的生物活性和药理学效应12-13。另外,NRP具有更高的蛋白酶稳定性、膜渗透性和靶点结合能力514。NRP骨架由非核糖体肽合成酶(non-ribosomal peptide synthetase,NRPS)催化合成,其组装过程包括结构单元加载、肽链延伸和产物释放、线上修饰15-17。后修饰如二聚、氧化和多环化等进一步丰富产物的结构类型18-19。NRPS除了单独合成多肽骨架以外,其可以与聚酮合酶(polyketide synthase,PKS)或萜环化酶(terpene cyclase,TC)等多种生物合成途径杂合形成更复杂的结构类型,为药物研发提供了更广阔的空间20-23。本文综述了代表性的真菌源NRP药物的结构及活性,重点论述了其生物合成酶学组装机制及代谢工程,并展望了真菌NRP的发展趋势。本文将为真菌NRP药物研发提供借鉴,并为其分子结构创新打下坚实的基础。
NRP具有广泛的抗炎、抗真菌、抗细菌、抗结核和抗肿瘤等药理活性221。据统计,截至2017年大约有30个天然来源的NRP作为药物被批准上市,为化学和制药行业带来了巨大的经济利益24。临床上已有大量细菌来源的多肽药物,如抗革兰氏阳性菌的脂肽类抗生素达托霉素(daptomycin,1)、抗肿瘤的糖肽类抗生素博来霉素A2(bleomycin A2,2)和抗革兰氏阳性菌的环状肽类抗生素短杆菌肽S(gramicidin S,3)等[图1(a)]。真菌NRP作为创新药物的主要来源,已广泛用于各种疾病的治疗和预防[图1(b)]。例如β-内酰胺类抗生素,其作为目前最常用的抗生素类型之一占据了大约65%的抗生素市场25-26。β-内酰胺类抗生素按照母核结构可分为青霉素类、头孢菌素类、碳青霉烯类(carbapenem)、氧头孢烯类(oxacephalosporin)和单环β-内酰胺类(monobactam)26。青霉素类的代表天然产物青霉素G(penicillin G,4)主要来源于青霉菌属(Penicillium),其结构与维持细菌细胞壁的黏肽末端结构丙氨酰丙氨酸相似,所以其能取代丙氨酰丙氨酸与转肽酶结合来阻止细菌细胞壁的合成,从而致使细菌死亡27。动物细胞没有细胞壁,故β-内酰胺类抗生素成为了治疗细菌感染的理想药物并沿用至今。另一大类天然来源的β-内酰胺类抗生素为头孢菌素类,由于母核结构的差异,其可以抵抗青霉素酶,从而具有更广的抗菌谱,如顶头孢霉(Acremonium chrysogenum)来源的头孢菌素C(cephalosporin C,528。β-内酰胺类抗生素作为最典型的化学半合成肽类药物,目前已研发至第五代,如头孢吡普(ceftobiprole,6)对耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,MRSA)具有良好的抑制作用29。碳青霉烯类抗生素与青霉素相比,结构中噻唑环上的硫原子被碳原子取代,同时还具有一个碳碳双键,结构的改变赋予了其更强的抗菌活性,如亚胺培南(imipenem,730。氧头孢烯类抗生素结构特点为头孢菌素母核上的硫原子被氧原子取代,如氟氧头孢(flomoxef,831。此外,还有用于治疗革兰氏阴性菌感染的单环β-内酰胺类抗生素,如氨曲南(aztreonam,932
棘白菌素类(芬净类)抗生素作为第一类靶向真菌细胞壁的抗真菌药物,能抑制β-1,3-D-葡聚糖合成酶活性来阻止真菌细胞壁组成成分β-1,3-D-葡聚糖的合成,从而致使真菌细胞破裂和死亡33。棘白菌素类抗生素结构由多个羟基化的非蛋白源氨基酸和一条脂肪链组成34。至今,已报道了数十种天然来源的棘白菌素类抗生素,如pneumocandin Ao、pneumocandin Bo、FR901379和echinocandin B(10)等,其结构的主要区别在于脂肪链的不同34-35。由于天然源的棘白菌素类抗生素具有溶血的副作用,从而阻碍了其成药性36。目前,市面上广泛应用的棘白菌素类抗生素均来源于化学半合成,如卡泊芬净(caspofungin,11)、米卡芬净(micafungin,12)、雷扎芬净(rezafungin,13)和阿尼芬净(anidulafungin),前两种衍生于pneumocandin Bo和FR901379,后二种衍生于echinocandin B37-40
脂肽类抗生素环孢菌素A(cyclosporine A,CsA,14)首次从膨大弯颈霉(Tolypocladium inflatum)中分离鉴定,随后发现CsA也存在于曲霉菌属(Aspergillus sp.)、镰刀菌属(Fusarium sp.)、白僵菌属(Beauveria sp.)和木霉菌属(Trichoderma sp.)中41。CsA结构中包含11个疏水氨基酸残基,其中7个存在N-甲基化42。1983年CsA被FDA批准上市,用于器官移植后的免疫抑制治疗43。CsA作为应用最广泛的免疫抑制剂之一,其主要作用靶点为T细胞中催化脯氨酸肽键顺反异构的亲环素(cyclophilin)。CsA结合亲环素后会抑制钙调磷酸酶的活性,从而抑制白细胞介素2(interleukin 2,IL-2)的产生和释放,阻断T细胞的激活和增殖以达到免疫抑制的作用43。此外,CsA还具有抗病毒、抗真菌、抗寄生虫、抗炎和抗肿瘤等多种药理活性44。基于CsA骨架的化学衍生物伏环孢素(voclosporin)具有更强的药效和代谢速率,用于治疗狼疮性肾炎45
恩镰孢菌素(enniatin,ENN)和白僵菌素(beauverin,BEA,15)属于非核糖体六环缩酚酸肽真菌毒素,其结构由D-羟基羧酸和N-甲基-L-氨基酸通过交替形成酰胺键和内酯键而成。1947年,报道了直喙镰孢(F. orthoceras)来源的第一个ENN46。ENN除了主要产生菌Fusarium以外,其还存在于链格孢菌(Alternaria)、海球菌(Halosarpheia)和轮枝菌(Verticillium)中47-48。至今,已研究报道了29个天然来源的ENN类似物,最常见的是恩镰孢菌素(enniatin)A、恩镰孢菌素A1、恩镰孢菌素B(16)和恩镰孢菌素B1 49。enniatin B具有多种生物活性,包括促进K+和Na+的跨膜运输、体外降血脂活性、抗细菌、杀虫和除草活性50。由多种ENN组分构成的夫沙芬净(fusafungine)能下调细胞间黏附分子-1(intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1,ICAM-1)和抑制促炎细胞因子的产生,从而用于治疗一系列上呼吸道疾病,包括鼻窦炎、鼻炎、鼻咽炎、心绞痛、喉炎和气管炎等51。1969年,首次从B. bassiana中分离鉴定了BEA的结构,此后在FusariumTrichoderma和棒束孢菌(Isaria)中也发现了该化合物的存在52-53。BEA及其类似物已超过20个,其具有杀虫、抗肿瘤、抑菌、抗病毒、抗惊厥和抗结核等生物活性54
麦角生物碱(ergot alkaloids,EAS)是由子囊菌(Ascomycota)产生的一类结构复杂的吲哚衍生物,包括麦角菌(Claviceps)、Aspergillus、香柱菌(Epichloe)、绿僵菌(Metarhizium)和Penicillium55-58。EAS结构特征为四环麦角碱环,其中A和B环来源于L-色氨酸(L-Trp),C和D环来源于二甲基烯丙基二磷酸(DMAPP)和L-Trp的环化,如麦角新碱(ergometrine,17)[图1(b)]。EAS结构主要分为ergoclavine、ergoamide(简单麦角酸酰胺衍生物)和ergopeptine(麦角酸肽衍生物)三大类59。天然来源的EAS因其显著的药理活性而广泛应用于临床,比如治疗炎症性肠病和动脉粥样硬化的fumigaclavine C、治疗产后子宫出血的ergometrine和治疗偏头痛的麦角胺(ergotamine,18)。
真菌NRP药物结构各异,但其多肽核心骨架均由NRPS催化合成。NRPS是一类由多模块(module)组成的多功能酶,每个模块中的不同结构域(domain)催化不同生化反应,包括底物识别和装载、肽链延伸和产物释放等,从而将简单的合成砌块组装成复杂的多肽产物。NRP的基本骨架由20种天然L-氨基酸、非蛋白源氨基酸、脂肪酸、α-羟酸、α-酮酸和杂环等组成,多样化的线上修饰(如还原、氧化和甲基化等)进一步丰富了产物的结构类型360。NRPS基本模块包括3个催化结构域,腺苷化结构域(A domain)、巯基化结构域(T domain)/肽酰载体蛋白(PCP domain)和缩合结构域(C domain),基本催化机制如图2(a)61-62。A结构域用于识别和激活底物,在腺嘌呤核苷三磷酸(ATP)作用下该结构域选择性识别氨基酸并将其转化为氨酰腺苷酸中间体。T结构域从非活化的apo形式转化为活化的holo形式,然后利用其磷酸泛酰巯基乙胺臂上的末端硫醇以硫酯键共价结合的方式承载氨酰基底物。C结构域通常位于每个延伸模块的N端,该结构域催化下游受体氨酰基底物的α-氨基亲核进攻上游供体氨酰基的硫酯基团形成酰胺键。NRPS除了3个基本结构域以外还具有其他修饰结构域,包括差向异构酶结构域(E domain)、甲基化结构域(MT domain)、杂环化结构域(Cy domain)、氧化结构域(Ox domain)和甲酰化结构域(F domain)等,这些结构域分别催化氨基酸的L-型到D-型的异构、N或者C上的甲基化、噻唑或𫫇唑环的形成、杂环的氧化以及甲酰化反应等61-62
在NRP组装过程中肽链延伸的终止和释放由末端的硫酯结构域(TE domain)、还原结构域(R domain)或C结构域催化[图2(b)]。TE结构域催化多肽释放形成游离酸、内酯或内酰胺。R结构域通常催化形成的产物为醇或者醛。C结构域除了催化形成常规的酰胺键以外还具有多样化功能,例如β-内酰胺的形成、脱水、水解、环加成、PS环化(Pictet-Spengler)和迪克曼缩合等63。真菌NRPS分为非迭代型和迭代型,非迭代NRPS按顺序应用每个模块且仅运行一次,如CsA和棘白菌素;迭代NRPS重复应用完整模块或部分结构域,如ENN和BEA。NRP生物合成过程中肽链延伸除了传统延伸机制以外,还存在逆向延伸机制,例如来源于α-变形菌的thalassospiramide A由3个生物合成酶(ttcA-C)的6个模块共同催化而成,其中当肽链延伸至模块4时,C结构域TtcB-C2催化模块4上的中间体返回模块2,再经过模块3~6组装形成终产物64。NRPS多样化的结构域和模块数量造就了多肽结构的多样性,从而为天然源活性NRP的开发提供了广阔的空间。
青霉素和头孢菌素均属于β-内酰胺类抗生素,其骨架结构分别为[4,5]环和[4,6]环,二者均来源于共同前体异青霉素N(isopenicillin N,1965。β-内酰胺类抗生素的生物合成主要分为3个阶段(图3):①NRPS催化线性三肽前体L-α-氨基己二酰-L-半胱氨酰-D-缬氨酸(ACV,20)的形成;②异青霉素合成酶(isopenicillin N synthase,PcbC)催化ACV关环形成19;③19结构中的α-氨基己二酸侧链经酰胺水解替换为苯乙酰结构单元,从而得到青霉素G(4),或19经异构、扩环和乙酰化反应得到头孢菌素C(52565
产黄青霉(P. chrysogenum)来源的三模块ACV合成酶(ACV synthetase)由基因pcbAB编码,其结构域组成为C1-A1-T1-C2-A2-T2-C3-A3-T3-E-TE,其中A1、A2和A3分别识别非蛋白源氨基酸L-α-氨基己二酸(L-α-aminoadipic acid,AAA,21)、L-Cys和L-Val,E结构域催化L-Val异构化为D-Val,TE结构域催化多肽水解释放[图3(a)66-67。真菌中,前体AAA是以α-酮戊二酸(α-ketoglutarate,α-KG)作为起始原料,经4步酶促反应催化形成68。首先,高柠檬酸合酶(homocitrate synthase,HCS)催化乙酰-CoA和α-KG发生羟醛缩合形成高柠檬酸-CoA,其进一步水解为高柠檬酸(25)。随后,顺乌头酸酶超家族的高乌头酸酶(homoaconitate hydratase,HAc)催化25的β-羟基异构至α位形成高异柠檬酸(27),期间经历脱水的高乌头酸中间体(26)。紧接着,烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(NAD+)依赖的高异柠檬酸脱氢酶(homoisocitrate dehydrogenase,HIDH)催化27氧化脱羧形成α-酮己二酸(28)。最后,PLP依赖的α-酮己二酸转氨酶(α-aminoadipate aminotransferase,AAT)以L-Glu作为氨基供体催化28的α-酮转氨形成AAA69。此外,AAA还可以依次在α-氨基己二酸还原酶(α-aminoadipate reductase,AAR)、酵母氨酸还原酶(saccharopine reductase,SR)和酵母氨酸脱氢酶(saccharopine dehydrogenase,SDH)的作用下继续转化为赖氨酸(L-Lys),期间经过化合物2930 69
线性三肽ACV形成β-内酰胺骨架还需经过闭环反应,该过程由PcbC催化完成。PcbC属于非血红素依赖的铁加氧酶家族蛋白,其催化ACV氧化闭环形成具有β-内酰胺并噻唑环骨架19的酶学机理如图3(c)70。首先,在静息状态下Fe2+活性中心与H214、H270、D216和E330的侧链配位。随后,底物ACV进入活性口袋后,其半胱氨酸中的硫原子与Fe2+配位,并根据活性口袋中的氨基酸作用力摆放成近似于β-内酰胺的空间构象。然后,Fe2+与O2结合生成Fe3+与过氧自由基,其攫取半胱氨酸β位的氢原子,触发Fe—S配位键均裂猝灭自由基形成C—S双键。紧接着,过氧根攫取Val酰胺上的氢离子,通过内环电子转移,脱水释放四价铁氧中间体,从而形成内酰胺环。最后,高价铁氧中心继续攫取Val的β位氢,引发Fe—S配位键第二次均裂闭环形成关键中间体19 71-72。PcbC的催化机制充分体现了非血红素依赖的铁加氧酶在催化多环结构合成方面的优势。研究表明PcbC具有较高的底物宽泛性,其能催化ACV类似物形成多种环系产物,从而拓宽了酶法合成β-内酰胺类抗生素的发展潜力73
青霉素和头孢菌素合成途径的分支点为19,在青霉素G的生物合成途径中,基因pcbDE编码的异青霉素N酰基转移酶(isopenicillin N acyltransferase,IAT)PcbDE具有酰胺水解和酰基转移双功能,其催化AAA侧链水解形成工业生产中化学半合成所使用的原料6-氨基青霉烷酸(6-aminopenicillanic acid,6-APA,24),并在相同位置利用苯乙酰- CoA替换AAA74。苯乙酸的CoA化由基因簇外的酰基-CoA连接酶负责合成,其与PcbDE同处于过氧化物酶体中,从而有利于酰基化反应的进行75-76。侧链替换后形成的产物青霉素G抗菌谱和对β-内酰胺酶稳定性显著高于异青霉素。
头孢菌素生物合成途径与青霉素在侧链修饰方面有着显著的差异,即AAA侧链不水解替换,而是从L-型异构化为D-型,形成青霉素N(penicillin N,22)。细菌中催化该反应为磷酸吡哆醛(pyridoxal-phosphate,PLP)依赖的酶,然而真菌中使用的是脂肪酰CoA连接酶CefD1和酰基- CoA消旋酶CefD2双酶体系75-78。首先,CefD1活化AAA的α-羧基为CoA形式;其次,CefD2催化CoA化底物异构化;最后,非特异性的硫酯酶水解CoA形成22 78-80
在外排泵膜蛋白CefM的作用下22从过氧化物酶内腔转运到细胞质中进一步合成23。头孢菌素的扩环反应和羟基化反应由双功能α-KG依赖的氧化酶CefEF负责催化,其酶学机制如图3(d)81:①在O2和α-KG脱羧的驱动下Fe2+形成Fe4+铁氧中心,并结合22形成酶底物复合物;②Fe4+铁氧中心攫取β-甲基上的氢原子形成亚甲基自由基,促使硫原子的一个孤电子与亚甲基自由基成键形成[4,5,3]三环中间体;③三元环进一步开环形成六元环,孤电子转移至Val的β位;④CefEF继续攫取Val的α-H,与β位的碳自由基形成双键,从而得到去氧乙酰头孢菌素C(deacetoxycephalosporin C,31);⑤CefEF催化31的甲基羟化形成去乙酰头孢菌素C(deacetycephalosporin C,232582。CefEF催化的反应总共涉及三次攫取氢原子和一次氧回补,是生物合成中特殊的催化案例。最后,乙酰转移酶CefG以乙酰-CoA作为酰基供体催化23的侧链羟基乙酰化形成终产物头孢菌素C(5)[图3(a)83-84
目前,生物合成基因簇已被报道的棘白菌素类化合物包括echinocandin B(6)、pneumocandin Bo(32)和FR901379(3385-87。这些化合物具有相似的生物合成途径,主要包括三个部分:①非天然氨基酸前体的合成;②多肽链的组装;③环六肽的羟化和磺基化后修饰(图4)。
棘白菌素类化合物结构中的非天然氨基酸前体包括3S-羟基-L-脯氨酸(3-Hyp)、4R-羟基-L-脯氨酸(4-Hyp)、3S-羟基-4S-甲基-L-脯氨酸(4-Me-3-Hyp)、3S,4S-二羟基-L-高酪氨酸(3hHyt)、3R-羟基-L-谷氨酰胺(3-Hyg)和4R,5R-二羟基-L-鸟氨酸(L-Orn)。3-Hyp和4-Hyp由α-KG依赖的加氧酶(脯氨酸-3-羟化酶或脯氨酸-4-羟化酶)催化L-Pro羟化形成,而4-Me-3-Hyp的合成底物为L-Leu,经关环、还原及羟化三步形成(图488。3hHyt由异丙基苹果酸合酶(HtyA)、转氨酶(HtyB)、异丙基苹果酸脱氢酶(HtyC)、顺乌头酸酶(HtyD)和α-KG依赖的氧化酶(EcdG)共同催化形成8589。根据HtyA-D的体内敲除实验推测L-高酪氨酸(38)的合成步骤:①HtyA催化4-羟基-苄基丙酮酸(34)与乙酰-CoA羟醛缩合,然后释放CoA形成(2S)-2-(4-羟基苄基)-苹果酸(35);②HtyD催化脱水和水合反应将羟基异构至邻位形成36;③HtyC以NAD+为辅因子催化36氧化脱羧形成α-酮酸(37);④HtyB催化37转氨形成38 85。体外生化实验证明EcdG催化38的C-3位羟基化形成3hHyt89
棘白菌素类化合物骨架由高度同源的NRPS和脂酰-AMP连接酶催化合成,其负责不完全保守的氨基酸和脂肪链的装载。echinocandin B多肽骨架由六模块NRPS EcdA催化形成,每个模块的结构域组成均为C-A-T,6个A结构域分别识别L-Orn、苏氨酸(L-Thr)、4-Hyp、3hHyt、L-Thr和4-Me-3-Hyp。pneumocandin Bo和FR901379的核心多肽骨架分别由GLNRPS4和McfA催化形成,与EcdA的区别在于活化的氨基酸种类不同,GLNRPS4中结构域GLNRPS4-A5和GLNRPS4-A6分别活化3-Hyg和3-Hyp,而McfA-A5和McfA-A6分别识别3-Hyg和4-Me-3-Hyp。三种NRPS的C端和N端均含有额外的缩合结构域CT和T结构域。C端缩合结构域CT用于大环化,N端T结构域用于接收脂酰-AMP连接酶(EcdI、McfI或GLligase)活化的脂肪酸链8590。echinocandin B和FR901379的脂肪酸直接来源于初级代谢,而pneumocandin Bo中的脂肪酸由聚酮合酶GLPKS4(KS-AT-DH-MT-ER-KR-ACP)催化合成86
环六肽骨架形成之后将经过多步羟基化或磺酸化修饰,形成更加复杂的结构单元。环六肽骨架中的L-Orn结构单元在细胞色素P450单氧化酶EcdH或McfH催化下形成保守的4R,5R-二羟基-L-Orn89-90。FR901379与其他棘白菌素类化合物相比具有额外的磺酸基团,使其表现出优异的水溶性,从而显著提高了其半合成药物的药理功效和药代动力学特性91。在FR901379途径中,环六肽骨架中L-高酪氨酸C-3磺基化由细胞色素P450单加氧酶McfP和磺基转移酶McfS共同催化完成。首先,McfP催化芳环C-3位羟化;其次,McfS以3′-磷酸腺苷-5′-磷酰硫酸(3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphosulfate,PAPS)作为磺基供体催化C-3羟基磺基化90。最后,细胞色素P450单氧化酶McfF催化磺酸化的L-高酪氨酸羟基化形成FR901379。将基因mcfSmcfP共同导入pneumocandin Bo的生产菌Glarea lozoyensis中产生了pneumocandin Bo的羟基化和磺基化产物、pneumocandin F及其羟化产物,其中pneumocandin B0的磺基化产物在不影响最小抑菌浓度(MIC)活性的情况下,其水溶性大于480 mg/mL,是原始产物的4000倍。棘白菌素类化合物具有多个羟基,通过化学方式磺酸化难度较大,故McfS和McfP可以作为芬净类药物磺基化的生物酶90
CsA生物合成包括非蛋白源氨基酸前体的合成和NRPS催化的肽链组装两个部分[图5(a)(b)]。两个非蛋白源氨基酸为D-丙氨酸(D-Ala)和(4R)-4-[(E)-2-丁烯]-4-甲基-L-苏氨酸(Bmt)。CsA生物合成基因簇(Sim)含有12个基因SimASimL,其中PLP-依赖的丙氨酸异构酶(SimB)能够催化L-Ala异构化形成D-Ala,但体内D-Ala的合成具有一个复杂的生物合成网络4192-93。体内基因敲除和底物化学喂养证明了type Ⅱ型聚酮合酶(SimG)、细胞色素P450(SimI)和氨基转移酶(SimJ)与Bmt的形成有关,从而提出了Bmt可能的合成路径[图5(b)93。首先,SimG(KS-AT-DH-MT-ER-KR-ACP)催化1分子乙酰-CoA、3分子丙二酰-CoA和1分子S-腺苷甲硫氨酸(SAM)形成3R-羟基-4R-甲基-6E-辛烯酸(39);随后,SimI和SimJ依次催化39的α位发生氧化和转氨反应形成Bmt,期间经过中间体4041。NRPS(SimA)由11个模块组成,其中模块1、6和9的结构域组成为C-A-T,其余模块还存在N-甲基转移酶结构域负责对应氨基酸的N-甲基化,而末端缩合结构域SimA-CT催化肽链成环释放94-95。通过基因敲除提出了转录调控因子(SimL)、亲环素蛋白(SimC)和ABC转运蛋白(SimD)的功能93。SimL控制整个基因簇的转录。SimC与人体中的CsA直接靶点CypA具有62%的高度同源性,其缺失后菌株生长变慢,故SimC可能是CsA的自抗性基因。SimD缺失后体内CsA产量升高,而培养基中产量降低,故菌株可能以外排的方式达到自抗性效果。
ENN和BEA结构均是由非天然源氨基酸D-2-羟基异戊酸(D-Hiv)和N-甲基-L-氨基酸交替缩合形成。D-Hiv合成的起始原料2-酮异戊酸(2-ketoisovalerate,2-Kiv)来源于L-Val或丙酮酸。2-Kiv还原酶KivR(EC 1.2.7.7)以烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(NADPH)为辅因子催化2-Kiv还原形成D-Hiv96。ENN和BEA结构中的环六肽骨架分别由双模块NRPS Esyn1(F. oxysporum)和BbBEAS(B. bassiana)催化形成,其结构域组成均为C1-A1-T1-C2-A2-MT-T2a-T2b-C3 97-98。Esyn1催化形成enniatin B的酶学组装过程为:首先Esyn1-A1识别D-Hiv上载到Esyn1-T1,Esyn1-A2识别L-Val上载到Esyn1-T2a后经N-甲基转移酶结构域催化N-甲基化形成N-Me-L-Leu;随后Esyn1-C2催化两个硫酯单元缩合形成二肽醇D-Hiv-MeVal-S-T2a,其转移至Esyn1-T2b;Esyn1-C3可能催化3分子二肽醇缩合和环化后释放终产物(图6)。Esyn1-C1和Esyn1-C3的催化活性位点均为SHxxxD,其在ENN合成中的详细催化作用还不清楚。虽然BbBEAS催化形成BEA的酶学组装机制与Esyn1相同,但是其中A结构域识别的不同底物决定了产物结构的显著性差异。Esyn1-A1和BbBEAS-A1主要识别D-Hiv,但其也能激活D-2-羟基-3-甲基-戊酸(D-Hmp)。Esyn1-A2能够识别L-亮氨酸(L-Leu)、L-异亮氨酸(L-Ile)、L-Val或L-酪氨酸(L-Tyr),但是BbBEAS-A2更加偏好于苯丙氨酸(L-Phe),其也能激活L-Leu、去甲基亮氨酸和L-Ile。Esyn1和BbBEAS良好的底物宽泛性造就了产物结构的多样化。虽然负责ENN和BEA的NRPS已被鉴定,但其中二肽醇缩合和环化形成六环肽的酶学组装机制还需进一步深入研究。
来源于麦角菌(C. purpurea 20.1)的麦角生物碱生物合成基因簇由13个基因组成,包括4个NRPS(lpsBlpsClpsA1lpsA2)、1个异戊烯基转移酶(dmaW)、3个氧化酶(cloAeasCeasH1),4个氧化还原酶(easAeasDeasEeasG)和1个甲基转移酶(easF99。麦角碱的生物合成共用中间体D-麦角酸(DLA,42)由8个生物酶催化L-色氨酸(L-Trp)形成,包括DmaW、EasF、EasC、EasE、EasD、EasA、EasG和CloA[图7(a)100。首先,异戊烯基转移酶DmaW以DMAPP为异戊烯基供体催化L-Trp的C-4位异戊烯基化形成4-二甲基烯丙基-L-色氨酸(DMAT,43),甲基转移酶EasF以SAM为辅因子催化DMAT转化为4-二甲基烯丙基-L-红豆碱(4DMA,44101-102。随后,核黄素依赖的氧化还原酶EasE和过氧化氢酶/脱羧酶EasC催化4DMA环化、脱羧和羟基化形成三环化合物chanoclavine-Ⅰ(45103-104。最后,在NAD+存在下短链脱氢还原酶EasD催化45的羟基氧化形成chanoclavine-Ⅰ-aldehyde(46105。以上途径中,DmaW、EasF、EasE、EasC和EasD在烟曲霉(A. fumigatus)中的同源蛋白分别为FgaPT2、FgaMT、FgaOx1、FagCat和FgaDH106
EasA和EasG以还原型谷胱甘肽(reduced glutathione,GSH)为辅因子共同催化46中NH进攻羰基形成C—N键并脱水形成C-8和C-9位为双键的agroclavine(47107。此外,在体外不存在EasA条件下,EasG作为一个氧化还原酶能够以GSH和NADPH为辅因子独立催化希夫碱还原生成47 107。在NADPH和O2的条件下,细胞色素P450单加氧酶CloA催化47连续发生三步氧化反应形成paspalic acid(49),其经过羟化中间体elymoclavine(48),49的双键自发移位形成42 108
ergometrine和ergotamine为NRPS以42为合成砌块进一步延伸而成。ergometrine(17)由单模块NRPS LpsB和LpsC共同催化形成,其结构域组成分别为A-T-C和A-T-C-R[图7(b)109-112。首先,LpsB-A和LpsC-A分别识别底物DLA和L-Ala,随后LpsB-C催化二者缩合形成酰胺键,最后LpsC-R以NADPH为辅因子催化肽链还原释放形成ergometrine。LpsC-C可能与LpsC-R共同作用参与产物释放,但是其具体生化功能还需要进一步研究。ergotamine(18)骨架结构ergotamam(50)由LpsB和LpsA1共同催化形成111。三模块NRPS LpsA1的结构域组成为A1-T1-C1-A2-T2-C2-A3-T3-C3,其中A结构域分别识别L-Ala、L-Phe和L-Pro。LpsA1-C3催化线性四肽链DLA-Ala-Phe-Pro中Phe-NH进攻硫酯羰基碳形成β-内酰胺。最后,α-KG依赖的双加氧酶EasH催化50结构中氨酰基的α-C羟化,其与末端内酰胺羰基自发环化形成终产物ergotamine(8112
NRP多样性结构和良好的药理活性吸引了研究者开发新型NRP及其衍生物的广泛研究兴趣。生物方法作为获得NRP的有效手段之一,其主要包括基因组指导下的新型NRP挖掘技术(如转录调控因子过表达和基因簇异源表达),以及基于生物合成理论的药物分子改造或高产技术(前体导向和突变生物合成、组合生物合成和化学酶法等)113。针对在常规实验室培养条件下沉默的真菌NRPS基因簇,若其含有全局调控因子(hdaAVeALaeA),可对其进行过表达以激活基因簇,获得新生多肽产物。例如,敲除Calcarisporium arbuscular中编码组氨酸去乙酰化酶(HDAC)的基因hdaA成功激活了42个基因簇,从中获得了2个新生环肽arbumycin和arbumelin114。此外,利用异源表达系统对真菌NRP进行生产是挖掘新型NRP或提高产量的重要手段,包括原核生物表达系统(Escherichia coli)、酵母表达系统(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)及丝状真菌表达系统(A. nidulansA. oryzaeA. nigerNeurospora crassa)。将土曲霉(A. terreu)来源的NRPS-like(PgnA)在A. nidulans中异源表达产生二肽产物phenguignardic acid115。在A. niger中异源表达尖孢镰刀菌(Fusarium oxysporum)来源的Esyn1,成功使enniatin的产量高达5 g/L116
前体导向的生物合成则通过向生产菌株中添加化学合成的前体类似物,从而定向合成多肽类似物。1989年,在T. infatum体内喂养非蛋白源氨基酸DL-α-丙基甘氨酸(DL-α-allylglycine)、L-β-环己基丙氨酸(L-β-cyclohexylalanine)和D-Ser成功合成了3个CsA类似物,分别为[Allygly2]CsA、[MeCyclohexylala1]CsA和[D-Ser8]CsA,其中[D-Ser8]CsA具有较强的免疫抑制活性117。同样,在V. hemipterigenum中喂养L-Leu积累了产物enniatins H和enniatins I,喂养L-Ile产生MK1688118。此外,在B. bassiana ATCC 7159菌中喂养30个D-2-Hiv和L-Phe类似物,成功获得了6个新颖的BEA类似物beauvericins H1-3和beauvericins G1-3,其中beauvericins G1-3的抑制细胞迁移活性和细胞毒活性均下降,而beauvericins H1-3提高了细胞毒活性119
前体导向生物合成存在喂养的前体与天然底物有竞争关系,导致目标产物产量低和分离难度较大等问题,难以实现量产。然而,突变合成技术阻断了天然底物的生产,作为组合生物合成中最成功的方法之一,其已用于NRP的生物合成120。体内敲除B. bassiana ATCC 7159中基因kivR消除了天然前体D-Hiv的产生,组合喂养4个非同源羟基羧酸(D-Hbu,D-Hmv,L-2-F-Phe和L-3-F-Phe)获得了14个非天然BEA类似物,其中一些化合物具有良好的抗增殖活性121。此外,突变菌株GlareaG lozoyensis-ΔGLPKS4中分别喂养不同链长的脂肪酸底物,包括十四烷酰(myristoyl)、十五烷酰(pentadecanoyl)和棕榈酰(palmitoyl),成功合成了4个不同链长的pneumocandin类似物pneumocandin H-K(5154),其中52与pneumocandin B具有相似的溶血性,但其具有更高的抗真菌活性[图8(a)122。将委内瑞拉链霉菌(Streptomyces venezuelae)中催化合成对氨基苯丙酮酸(p-aminophenylpyruvate)的三个基因(papAC)导入分支酸途径缺陷的白纹羽菌(Rosellinia sp.)中,使对氨基苯丙酮酸转化为对氨基苯乳酸(p-amino-phenyllactate)和对硝基苯乳酸(p-nitrophenyllactate),从而合成了4个PF1002类似物,包括PF1022-220、PF1022-260、PF1022-268和PF1022-269123
基于NRPS结构域的功能及组装机制,其蛋白结构改造手段包括:①A结构域或A-T结构域的替换;②A结构域底物结合口袋的氨基酸残基定向突变;③结构域C-A、C-A-T或T-C-A的替换、缺失和插入124-126。通过酶工程改造将PF1022合成酶PSYN(Rosellinia abscondita)中识别β-OH-Ala和β-OH-Phe的模块1分别与Esyn1和BbBEAS中识别D-Hiv的模块1进行互换得到人工合成酶hPESYN和hPBEAS,从而合成了4个ENN和2个BEA类似物,包括[PheLac]-ENN(55)和[PheLac]- BEAS(56)等[图8(b)127。末端缩合结构域CT催化不同链长的多肽大环化,故不同NRPS的CT互换可以实现不同数量单体的NRP合成。应用Bassianolide合酶(BaSYN)的CT替换BbBEAS-CT形成BbBEAS-BaCT合酶和BbBEAS-BaT2bCT,其均催化合成Octa-beauvericin(Hiv-Phe×4)128。此外,应用整个BaSYN替换BbBEAS-CT的得到BeBaSYN2,其同样产生Octa-beauvericin。应用BaSYN替换Esyn1-CT得到EnSYN-BaCT和EnSYN-BaT2bCT,其催化形成Octa-enniatin B(Hiv-Val×4)128
NRPS生物合成途径的体外重组和工程化可以有效地合成复杂的NRP衍生物。应用体外化学酶法或bbBeasE. coli表达菌株的全细胞生物酶法合成了11个新的BEA类似物129。利用tyrocidine的NRPS-TE结构域(TycC-TE)的底物宽泛性,成功合成了300多种线性tyrocidine类似物[图8(c)130。体外重组土曲霉(A. terreus)来源的PKS-NRPS中单独NRPS模块以不同的氨基酸和游离硫醇为底物合成了60多个thiopyrazine化合物131。NRPS模块中的KR结构域催化化学合成的SNAC-前体与α-酮异己酸形成cryptophycin类似物132。NRPS-like酶IvoA(A-T-E-R)能够催化吲哚环上各种取代的色氨酸类似物立体异构化为D-构型产物133
结构复杂和活性多样的真菌NRP是创新药物研究与开发历史长河中最重要的来源之一,如β-内酰胺类抗生素已作为临床一线抗感染药物使用近百年,而CsA、BEA、ENN、棘白菌素和麦角生物碱等在治疗真菌或细菌感染、器官移植、肿瘤和神经疾病等领域发挥着重要作用。随着病原菌耐药性的广泛传播和肿瘤细胞发病率不断上升,现有多肽药物开发速度远不能满足社会的需求134。此外,尽管通过发酵分离技术持续发现新型NRP,但较难获得新颖NRP骨架药物,限制了NRP药物开发速率。而利用化学修饰活性NRP骨架存在着非蛋白源氨基酸的不可得性、肽环化效率低、官能团相容性差、耗时长和构效难以控制等诸多问题和挑战。因此开发高效合成NRP衍生物的生物酶法至关重要。
真菌NRP药物生物合成的研究对于揭示复杂结构的组装过程和新颖生物酶的酶学机制至关重要。目前,通过基因组挖掘、靶向基因敲除、同位素标记、体内化学喂养、异源宿主表达和体外酶生化表征等手段阐明了众多真菌NRP药物完整的生物合成途径,包括β-内酰胺类抗生素、CsA和麦角生物碱。随着真菌NRP生物合成的不断研究,大量天然来源的具有新型催化作用的生物酶被揭示,如非血红素依赖的铁加氧酶PcbC、α-KG依赖的氧化酶CefEF、磺基转移酶McfS和氧化还原酶EasG等。新型生物酶的发现为生物酶法合成新型NRP衍生物提供了更多的酶选择性,有助于开发新的生物活性药物或药效更优的药物先导化合物。此外,新功能生物酶的发现有助于解决化学合成中无法完成的反应。通过生物酶的定向进化,突破限速酶限制,结合组合生物合成改造途径,实现NRP衍生物的绿色合成与高效创制。
随着基因组测序技术的跨越式发展,研究报道了大量的真菌基因组序列,其中大部分NRP生物合成基因簇仍处于沉默状态,仅鉴定了部分NRP的结构,因此大量潜在的新型多肽化合物资源未被充分挖掘。未来,通过生物信息学分析工具对NRP基因簇产物进行预测,可以定向开发具有特定结构或者活性的NRP。利用合成生物技术如转录调控因子过表达、启动子工程及异源系统表达等激活沉默基因簇,从而挖掘和开发新型天然源NRP。虽然应用生物手段(前体导向和突变生物合成、NRPS工程化改造)获得了大量的非天然NRP,但是并未得到很好的发展。真菌NRPS结构域工程化改造还处于初步研究阶段,未来NRPS的结构和酶学组装机制的深入研究将有助于理解各模块之间或结构域之间的相互作用关系,从而实现新型人工NRP药物分子的定向设计和高效创制。
  • 国家自然科学基金青年科学基金(22307105)
  • 重庆市博士后研究项目(2212013361956563)
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2024年第5卷第3期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-080
  • 接收时间:2023-11-20
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-06-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-20
  • 修回日期:2024-01-05
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国家自然科学基金青年科学基金(22307105)
重庆市博士后研究项目(2212013361956563)
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    西南大学药学院,重庆 400715

通讯作者:

邹懿(1983—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为真菌天然药物生物合成与酶催化机理、真菌天然药物合成生物学与分子创新。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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