Article(id=1148993299551154895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993296258626224, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2024-044, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1716998400000, receivedDateStr=2024-05-30, revisedDate=1719244800000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-25, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751870949875, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1725033600000, pubDateStr=2024-08-31, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751870949875, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751870949875, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751870949875, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148993296258626224, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='4', pageStart='695', pageEnd='907', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751870949091, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057276828, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774811473342492, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993296258626224, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774811473342493, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993296258626224, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=831, endPage=850, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999721709400246, articleId=1148993299551154895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Advances in placenta-on-a-chip for reproductive medicine research, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The placenta is an indispensable organ that connects the mother and fetus, playing various roles during pregnancy such as material exchange, hormone secretion, immune regulation, and barrier defense, which are crucial for maintaining normal fetal development. The placental barrier, composed of multiply layers including trophoblasts, basal lamina and fetal capillaries, plays a crucial role in protecting fetus from direct exposure to xenobiotics. Dysfunction of the placenta can lead to various pregnancy complications, such as preeclampsia, fetal growth restriction, and preterm birth, increasing both maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality rates. Although conventional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and animal models have been utilized to study placental physiology and pathology, they still have limitations, such as aberrant cell phenotypes and immature functions in 2D cultures as well as inter-species disparities in animal models. Organ-on-a-chip is a microfluidic cell culture device that allows to mimic the tissue microenvironment by control of biochemical signals and dynamic fluid flow, recapitulating the essential structural and functional characteristics of human tissues or organs. It combines bioengineering techniques with biological strategies, holding potential applications in organ development, disease modeling, and drug evaluation. In this review, we outline current progress in placenta-on-a-chip models, focusing on their construction and applications in studying pregnancy-related disorders, developmental toxicity assessment, and maternal-fetal drug transport at the interface. Based on the human placental development process and the features of in vivo tissue microenvironment, we emphasize the design principles and key elements in constructing placenta-on-a-chip models, such as multicellular components, placental barrier, oxygen tension, fluid shear stress, and extracellular matrix microenvironment. We then introduce other engineering strategies including organoids, bioprinting, and hydrogel materials, providing new perspectives for the construction of in vitro biomimetic placental models. We finally discuss the limitations and challenges faced by existing placental models in terms of tissue complexity and functional maturity, and look ahead to future developments of advanced in vitro placental models to accelerate their applications in the field of reproductive medicine.

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胎盘是连接母体与胎儿的重要器官,在孕期发挥着物质交换、激素分泌、免疫调控和屏障防御等多种功能,对维持胎儿正常发育起着关键作用。胎盘功能障碍可能会导致多种妊娠并发症,如先兆子痫、胎儿生长受限和早产等,增加母胎发病率和死亡率。尽管传统的二维细胞培养和动物模型已被用于研究胎盘生理或病理,但仍存在一定局限。器官芯片是一种新型体外模型系统,它将工程学技术与生物学策略相结合,能够在体外模拟人体组织器官的关键结构和功能特点,在组织器官发育、疾病建模和药物评价等方面具有广泛的应用潜力。本文概述了目前胎盘芯片模型的构建及其在妊娠相关疾病、发育毒性评估和母胎界面药物转运等应用中的研究进展。依据人体胎盘发育过程和组织微环境特点,重点介绍了胎盘芯片模型的构筑原理和关键要素,如多细胞组分、胎盘屏障、氧张力、流体剪切力和细胞外基质微环境等,以及其他工程策略包括类器官、生物打印和水凝胶材料等,为实现仿生胎盘模型的体外构建提供了新的思路。此外,本文还讨论了现有胎盘模型在复杂性和功能成熟度等方面面临的局限和挑战,最后展望了未来发展先进的体外胎盘模型并推动其在生殖医学领域的应用前景。

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王亚清(1989—),女,博士,副研究员。研究方向为类器官工程及其生物医学应用。E-mail:
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曹荣凯(1996—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为人胎盘模型的体外构建及其在生物医学领域的应用。E-mail:

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曹荣凯(1996—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为人胎盘模型的体外构建及其在生物医学领域的应用。E-mail:

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胎盘芯片及其在生殖医学领域的研究进展
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曹荣凯 1, 2 , 秦建华 1 , 王亚清 3, 4
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(4): 831-850
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(4): 831-850
胎盘芯片及其在生殖医学领域的研究进展
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曹荣凯1, 2 , 秦建华1, 王亚清3, 4
作者信息
  • 1 中国科学院大连化学物理研究所,辽宁 大连 116023
  • 2 中国科学院大学,北京 100049
  • 3 中国科学技术大学,安徽 合肥 230026
  • 4 中国科学技术大学苏州高等研究院,江苏 苏州 215123
  • 曹荣凯(1996—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为人胎盘模型的体外构建及其在生物医学领域的应用。E-mail:

通讯作者:

王亚清(1989—),女,博士,副研究员。研究方向为类器官工程及其生物医学应用。E-mail:
Advances in placenta-on-a-chip for reproductive medicine research
Rongkai CAO1, 2 , Jianhua QIN1, Yaqing WANG3, 4
Affiliations
  • 1 Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Dalian 116023,Liaoning,China
  • 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100049,China
  • 3 University of Science and Technology of China,Hefei 230026,Anhui,China
  • 4 Suzhou Institute for Advanced Research,University of Science and Technology of China,Suzhou 215123,Jiangsu,China
出版时间: 2024-08-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-044
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胎盘是连接母体与胎儿的重要器官,在孕期发挥着物质交换、激素分泌、免疫调控和屏障防御等多种功能,对维持胎儿正常发育起着关键作用。胎盘功能障碍可能会导致多种妊娠并发症,如先兆子痫、胎儿生长受限和早产等,增加母胎发病率和死亡率。尽管传统的二维细胞培养和动物模型已被用于研究胎盘生理或病理,但仍存在一定局限。器官芯片是一种新型体外模型系统,它将工程学技术与生物学策略相结合,能够在体外模拟人体组织器官的关键结构和功能特点,在组织器官发育、疾病建模和药物评价等方面具有广泛的应用潜力。本文概述了目前胎盘芯片模型的构建及其在妊娠相关疾病、发育毒性评估和母胎界面药物转运等应用中的研究进展。依据人体胎盘发育过程和组织微环境特点,重点介绍了胎盘芯片模型的构筑原理和关键要素,如多细胞组分、胎盘屏障、氧张力、流体剪切力和细胞外基质微环境等,以及其他工程策略包括类器官、生物打印和水凝胶材料等,为实现仿生胎盘模型的体外构建提供了新的思路。此外,本文还讨论了现有胎盘模型在复杂性和功能成熟度等方面面临的局限和挑战,最后展望了未来发展先进的体外胎盘模型并推动其在生殖医学领域的应用前景。

胎盘  /  干细胞  /  器官芯片  /  类器官  /  生殖医学

The placenta is an indispensable organ that connects the mother and fetus, playing various roles during pregnancy such as material exchange, hormone secretion, immune regulation, and barrier defense, which are crucial for maintaining normal fetal development. The placental barrier, composed of multiply layers including trophoblasts, basal lamina and fetal capillaries, plays a crucial role in protecting fetus from direct exposure to xenobiotics. Dysfunction of the placenta can lead to various pregnancy complications, such as preeclampsia, fetal growth restriction, and preterm birth, increasing both maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality rates. Although conventional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and animal models have been utilized to study placental physiology and pathology, they still have limitations, such as aberrant cell phenotypes and immature functions in 2D cultures as well as inter-species disparities in animal models. Organ-on-a-chip is a microfluidic cell culture device that allows to mimic the tissue microenvironment by control of biochemical signals and dynamic fluid flow, recapitulating the essential structural and functional characteristics of human tissues or organs. It combines bioengineering techniques with biological strategies, holding potential applications in organ development, disease modeling, and drug evaluation. In this review, we outline current progress in placenta-on-a-chip models, focusing on their construction and applications in studying pregnancy-related disorders, developmental toxicity assessment, and maternal-fetal drug transport at the interface. Based on the human placental development process and the features of in vivo tissue microenvironment, we emphasize the design principles and key elements in constructing placenta-on-a-chip models, such as multicellular components, placental barrier, oxygen tension, fluid shear stress, and extracellular matrix microenvironment. We then introduce other engineering strategies including organoids, bioprinting, and hydrogel materials, providing new perspectives for the construction of in vitro biomimetic placental models. We finally discuss the limitations and challenges faced by existing placental models in terms of tissue complexity and functional maturity, and look ahead to future developments of advanced in vitro placental models to accelerate their applications in the field of reproductive medicine.

human placenta  /  stem cell  /  placenta-on-a-chip  /  organoid  /  reproductive medicine
曹荣凯, 秦建华, 王亚清. 胎盘芯片及其在生殖医学领域的研究进展. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (4) : 831 -850 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-044
Rongkai CAO, Jianhua QIN, Yaqing WANG. Advances in placenta-on-a-chip for reproductive medicine research[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (4) : 831 -850 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-044
胎盘是维持母体正常妊娠和胎儿健康发育的重要器官1。它不仅能促进氧气、营养物质的输送以及代谢废物的清除,还可分泌妊娠相关的激素和因子,调节母胎之间的交流,从而确保胎儿的正常发育。胎盘结构分为三层:胎儿侧的绒毛膜板、中间层的绒毛和含有母体血液的绒毛间隙。胎盘屏障作为母体血液和胎儿循环之间的组织界面,由多层结构组成,包括胎盘滋养层、基底膜和胎儿毛细血管内皮(图1)。胎盘屏障能够调节母体和胎儿之间内源和外源物质的转运和交换,减少有害物质对胎儿发育的不利影响,在胎儿的发育和健康中发挥着重要作用2。此外,胎盘通过调节母胎界面处的免疫微环境,避免了母体对胎儿的排斥反应,维持正常的妊娠3
胎盘异常发育与多种妊娠并发症和不良妊娠结果密切相关4-6,如先兆子痫(PE)、妊娠糖尿病、胎儿生长受限、复发性流产、早产和死产等。目前,临床研究方法主要以动物模型为主,尽管这些模型为了解胎盘发育和与妊娠相关疾病提供了宝贵证据,但大多数动物模型在胎盘结构和功能上与人类存在显著差异,难以准确反映人类胎盘的生理特征7-8。此外,许多妊娠并发症,如PE,无法在动物体内复制,使得用于研究PE的动物模型难以真实反映人类PE的病理特征9-10。体外细胞培养模型通常使用细胞系,如绒毛膜癌细胞系BeWo、JEG-3和绒毛外滋养层细胞系HTR8等11-12。然而,这些细胞系通常在静态或二维条件下培养,难以真实反映胎盘的三维(3D)结构和生理动态环境。取样于原代组织的体外胎盘灌注模型通常用于研究跨胎盘运输等功能,但其维持细胞活性的时间较短,且样本大多取自孕晚期胎盘,来源有限且存在个体间差异13-14。目前,体外细胞模型主要基于Transwell,无法重现母胎蜕膜的复杂微环境因素,如母体螺旋动脉和生化信号15,而这些因素对胎膜早破和PE的发展至关重要。因此,这些模型的局限在一定程度上限制了其广泛应用。
随着器官芯片、类器官和生物材料等领域的迅速发展,构建工程化的3D功能性组织器官模型成为可能。通过结合这些工程技术和策略,有望实现对仿生细胞微环境的精准调控,构建高保真的胎盘模型,从而为胎盘发育和功能异常提供新的洞见。本文概述了构建体外胎盘芯片模型的关键要素,重点介绍了基于器官芯片等工程手段构建的仿生胎盘模型的最新进展,以及这些模型在妊娠相关疾病、发育毒性评估和母胎界面药物转运研究中的应用。最后,讨论了现有胎盘模型面临的挑战,并展望了其发展前景。
胎盘由滋养外胚层发育而来,滋养层细胞是胎盘的主要组分和功能承担者16。胎盘发育过程中包含两种分化的滋养层上皮,细胞滋养层细胞(CT)和合胞体滋养层细胞(ST)。CT细胞经历细胞融合,形成多核的ST,进一步形成胎盘绒毛浸润在母体血液中17-18。ST细胞表面富含微绒毛和多种转运蛋白表达19-20,在母体和胎儿循环之间承担运输养分和氧气的责任,并产生维持妊娠所需的激素,如绒毛膜促性腺激素(hCG)、胎盘催乳素、孕激素以及多种蛋白质和类固醇21-22。在胎盘绒毛发育过程中,部分CT可在绒毛顶端生长成增殖的细胞滋养层细胞柱(CCC),附着于母体蜕膜并分化为绒毛膜外滋养层细胞(EVT)。EVT具有较强的侵袭能力,能够侵入母体子宫基质和螺旋动脉23-24。EVT细胞包括两种类型:侵入子宫蜕膜的间质 EVT 细胞以及侵入并重塑螺旋动脉的血管内EVT124。螺旋动脉的重塑促进了血流流向发育中的胎盘,为胎儿提供生长所需的氧气和营养。
妊娠期间,滋养层细胞与母体血液直接接触,浸润在母体血液中的胎盘绒毛持续发育,提高了母胎界面物质交换的效率,并且由血液流动产生的流体剪切力对滋养层细胞功能和胎盘发育起着重要作用25。在胎盘发育早期,缺氧和低流体剪切力微环境至关重要26。EVT细胞开始在母体螺旋动脉定居并进行血管重塑。滋养层细胞在血管中形成,只有少量母体血液能够流入绒毛膜间隙27,因此产生的流体剪切力较小,约为0.001~0.1 dyn/cm2(1 dyn=10-5 N)。由于滋养层细胞栓塞阻塞血流产生氧梯度,维持绒毛间隙的低氧张力,从而保护胎盘免受高流体剪切力的影响28。氧梯度可驱动滋养层细胞的侵袭和分化29。不同位置的滋养层细胞受到的剪切力是不均匀的,而且胎盘处的流体剪切力会随着妊娠的进程不断变化。大约在孕10周时,滋养层细胞栓塞的溶解或移位,母体螺旋动脉重塑,导致绒毛间隙中的氧合血流逐渐增加2730-31。这种血流量的增加使入侵的滋养层细胞暴露于高剪切力(>2 dyn /cm2),防止进一步的血管内入侵31,并将氧水平从8~10周的约2%~3%增加到妊娠中期和晚期的6%以上32。值得注意的是,受损的滋养层细胞栓塞可导致妊娠早期血流增加,导致绒毛组织的机械损伤和滋养层诱导的螺旋动脉重塑减少31。不良的螺旋动脉重塑如PE,会导致血流紊乱和中断33,随后引起炎症、异常氧张力和内皮功能障碍的级联反应34,并彻底改变胎盘的血流动态35
仿生胎盘模型的构筑可为胎盘发育和功能障碍的研究提供新的见解,以更好地理解妊娠健康和疾病。胎盘组织微环境因素,包括细胞-细胞相互作用、氧气水平、流体剪切力、细胞外基质等动态调控,对指导滋养层细胞分化和胎盘组织形态发生具有重要作用。为了确保构建的胎盘模型具有更高生理相关性,在设计模型构建方法时需考虑胎盘组织微环境因素、组织屏障结构及其生物学功能特征。
目前,体外胎盘模型构建所需的细胞来源主要包括绒毛膜癌细胞系、原代滋养层细胞和干细胞来源滋养层细胞等。不同的细胞系适用于特定的情况,可以依据胎盘模型的应用需求来选择恰当的细胞类型和来源。例如,JEG3细胞具有上皮细胞的特征,常用于研究胎盘功能和相关妊娠疾病。与JEG3细胞不同,BeWo细胞具有细胞融合的性质,可在forskolin作用下分化形成具有ST功能特征的细胞36,常用来研究滋养层融合过程,模拟胎盘屏障在药物渗透中的作用37-38。HTR8细胞具备类似于EVT的侵袭能力,一般应用于滋养层细胞迁移和螺旋动脉重塑相关的研究39-40。相比于细胞系,原代细胞的功能更成熟,但不同个体来源的细胞会存在一定的批次间差异,此外,原代细胞通常取自围产期胎盘41,难以反映早期胎盘的发育特征。近年来,随着干细胞领域的发展,人多能干细胞或体细胞重编程诱导的滋养层干细胞(hiTSC)被用来研究胎盘发育42-45,其在分子特征和功能上与来源于囊胚或妊娠早期胎盘的人滋养层干细胞(hTSC)相似,并具有分化为CT、ST和EVT细胞的能力。最近,从人囊胚和原代胎盘组织中分离出具有双潜能分化的hTSC 46,在确定的培养条件下可在体外进行长期增殖和分化。这些滋养层谱系的建立为体外建立仿生胎盘模型提供了有价值的细胞来源,并可通过使用病人样本或基因编辑研究胎盘功能障碍等。
除了滋养层细胞以外,胎盘组织还包含血管内皮细胞、基质细胞以及免疫细胞等多种细胞类型。目前,体外胎盘模型中常用的内皮细胞包括人脐静脉内皮细胞(HUVEC)47-48和胎盘血管内皮细胞(HPVEC)49-50,一般用于胎盘屏障建立及螺旋动脉重塑的研究。母胎界面存在大量的免疫细胞,在胎盘发育和妊娠相关疾病中起重要作用。建立包含免疫细胞的胎盘模型可用于研究胎盘炎症反应和母胎病原体感染等。例如,在胎盘炎症模型中加入巨噬细胞51-52,在PE模型中加入自然杀伤(NK)细胞53-54,使胎盘模型的病理特征更类似体内,并在母胎界面表现出对外界刺激更准确的反应。
胎盘形成期间,母胎界面处的氧张力在整个妊娠期会受到机体的严格控制,处于不同孕龄的胎盘内氧气浓度存在明显差别。滋养层细胞周围的氧气浓度在孕早期阶段约为1%~2%,足月期的氧气水平则达到了8%26,但均与体外培养常用的21%氧气浓度相差甚远。体外研究也证实了滋养层细胞的功能会随氧气浓度的变化发生改变55-56。例如,HTR-8/SVneo细胞的侵袭能力随着氧气水平的增加(从1%到21%)显著降低2655。氧气水平也会改变基因表达和缺氧诱导因子(HIF)激活。BeWo屏障模型证明3%的氧气增加HIF1α mRNA的表达,刺激滋养层多核化,降低对小分子的通透性,使其成为更具有生理相关性的胎盘屏障模型56。此外,胎盘内氧气水平的失调可能与妊娠并发症的发生相关,PE的病理特征之一就是胎盘缺氧3057。Woo等58建立了一种微流体装置,在常氧或低氧条件下共培养HUVEC和滋养层(HTR-8/SVneo)细胞,该装置可用于研究氧在滋养层入侵和包括PE在内的疾病发展中的作用。因此,通过精确调控氧气条件有利于构建更符合生理或病理特征的胎盘模型。此外,精确控制其他关键培养参数,如温度、pH、气体和细胞特异性营养物/废物,也有利于胎盘发育和功能。
胎盘是一个机械敏感器官,流体剪切力在正常妊娠中至关重要,尤其是在妊娠早期血液开始流入绒毛间隙时25。然而,人们对胎盘组织在整个妊娠期所经历的特定剪切力的了解是有限的。体外构建的胎盘屏障模型已证明微流体可调节滋养层细胞的蛋白质表达和组织屏障功能254749,包括葡萄糖转运和代谢。基于磁共振成像的计算机建模设计的体外模型证明了绒毛间隙和绒毛膜壁剪切力的作用,在体外研究中预测剪切力为0.5~2.3 dyn/cm2[59。Brugger等60强调了剪切力在胎盘细胞的代谢、更新、分化和内分泌活动中的重要性。研究表明,流体剪切力(0.001~0.1 dyn/cm2)可触发滋养层细胞形成微绒毛,随后影响上皮吸收、信号感知和机械转导61,0.001~2.3 dyn/cm2的剪切力可以促进胎盘生长因子(如hCG-β)的产生、脂滴积累和细胞融合62。此外,胎盘组织中的细胞所经受的剪切力是不均匀的,并且将取决于细胞的位置和外部因素。
流体剪切力还会影响胎盘微绒毛的形成,符合生理水平的流体剪切力会促进微绒毛的生长,但过高的剪切力反而会导致微绒毛变短61。值得注意的是,PE病人的胎盘表现出微绒毛的变化,包括微绒毛的丧失63或异常形状(短或棒状)64。据报道,在PE和宫内生长受限中,ST微绒毛显示下调的细胞骨架蛋白、肌动蛋白、微绒毛蛋白和CK7表达65。此外,血管内侧的内皮细胞也是机械敏感的,可通过离子通道(如Piezo 1)进行机械转导,影响内皮和血管平滑肌重塑,在PE中缺乏Peizo 1可能导致血管功能障碍66。考虑到剪切力与胎盘发育和功能障碍之间的联系,体外精确控制流体剪切力有助于开发构建更仿生的胎盘模型。
细胞外基质(ECM)微环境也是影响胎盘发育和功能的重要因素67。ECM通常由多种大分子组成,包括胶原蛋白、层粘连蛋白、糖胺聚糖和蛋白聚糖等68,被认为是妊娠发育和功能障碍的关键调节因子。常用于体外模型构建的ECM包括纤连蛋白49-5069-70、层粘连蛋白、Matrigel5271-73和胶原蛋白74-77等。已知胎盘组织主要由层粘连蛋白和一些纤维连接蛋白组成,而胶原蛋白是螺旋动脉外层和血管周围区域的主要ECM成分。根据各种ECM蛋白的特性,将不同类型的ECM按一定比例联用有助于更好地模拟体内胎盘复杂的基质微环境。例如,在着床模型中,利用胶原与Matrigel混合基质研究EVT侵袭的最佳生理相关ECM条件54。此外,在胎盘屏障模型中,层粘连蛋白与胶原混合基质作为基底膜被用于胎盘绒毛侧的构建,而纤连蛋白与明胶混合基质被用于血管内皮层的构建69。一项研究表明,在3D水凝胶模型中,妊娠特异性糖蛋白改变了滋养层的运动性,揭示了包括PE在内的疾病病理特征70。此外,模型中的生理环境可能会改变细胞对基质的需求。考虑富含ECM的胎盘材料的相对可获得性,胎盘来源的ECM的应用可提升胎盘模型的生理相关性。例如,已证明人类胎盘来源的基底膜蛋白在3D生物打印侵袭模型中具有重要性。
已知胎盘的厚度在妊娠期间会发生变化。有研究利用微流体屏障模型研究胎盘厚度(低至25 μm)和渗透性之间的关系,该模型很好地模拟了妊娠期间的变化71。尽管在屏障研究中通常不讨论厚度,但在模型设计中应该仔细考虑。有研究表明,与2D细胞相比,3D滋养层球体中ECM厚度会影响细胞的存活、增殖、融合和基因表达72。此外,基质厚度还影响细胞形态和金属蛋白酶基因表达谱,可能部分通过细胞硬度感应机制介导,揭示了包括PE在内的病理机制。人体非妊娠分泌期子宫内膜、妊娠早期蜕膜和早期胎盘的基质硬度均不同73。已知PE与胎盘硬度变化有关,有研究利用硬度可调的聚丙烯酰胺基底模拟类似于正常和疾病状态的胎盘基质,研究了不同基质硬度对滋养层细胞形态、融合和功能的影响67,揭示了组织形态、合胞体融合和激素释放是受机械调控的。因此,体外建模需考虑基质软硬度,可以使用不同的基底和不同的ECM类型来调节基质微环境。正常情况下,基质硬度应与健康胎盘组织相似,而与病人组织相似的基质硬度可能会抑制合胞体的融合。
胎盘屏障在母体向胎儿输送营养物质方面发挥着关键作用,并且保护胎儿免受外源干扰物的影响。人体胎盘屏障结构主要由ST、CT、基底膜以及胎儿毛细血管内皮细胞组成74-75。ST直接暴露在母体血液中,其表面覆盖着微绒毛结构,大大提高了胎盘组织与母体血液接触的表面积,促进了滋养层细胞的吸收和分泌功能76。此外,人体胎盘屏障结构会随着妊娠阶段的变化而变化,孕早期的胎盘滋养层呈双层细胞结构,CT细胞覆盖在基底膜上,而ST暴露在外侧。之后,CT细胞逐渐融合形成ST,在孕晚期时只剩下带有少量CT细胞的单层ST结构77。此外,胎盘屏障具有一定的完整性和渗透性。细胞间紧密连接蛋白的表达78以及滋养层细胞的合体化79都与胎盘的生物屏障功能密切相关,母胎间物质交换主要由细胞表面的转运蛋白介导,如葡萄糖转运蛋白(GLUT)和脂肪酸转运蛋白等80。胎盘能够分泌多种妊娠相关激素来促进胎儿发育和胎盘成熟,其中最具代表性的就是hCG81。hCG是由胎盘滋养层细胞分泌的糖蛋白,可以刺激月经黄体转换为妊娠黄体,并促进雌激素和孕酮的持续分泌,对维持正常妊娠至关重要82。因为hCG主要由ST细胞分泌,所以可作为滋养层细胞合体化的标志物。当CT细胞融合形成ST后,hCG的分泌量会显著增加83-84。因此,在体外构建胎盘模型时,需要考虑人体胎盘屏障的关键结构和功能特征。
随着组织工程、生物材料、器官芯片、干细胞生物学和生物打印等领域的快速发展,构建工程化功能器官模型成为可能。特别是器官芯片和类器官技术为实现仿生细胞微环境的调控和胎盘模型的体外构建提供了新的思路。此外,其他工程技术和策略,包括生物打印、水凝胶材料支架和生物反应器等,也为胎盘模型的构筑和生物医学研究提供了良好的平台。结合这些工程技术和策略,建立胎盘模型所需的关键参数包括多细胞组分、生物化学和生物物理微环境因素等,将有可能实现仿生组织微环境的调控模拟和高保真胎盘模型的构建,并有助于研究胎盘发育、疾病模拟以及药物开发,更好地干预和治疗妊娠相关疾病。
器官芯片技术通过结合细胞生物学和组织工程方法,为体外构筑更具生理相关性的人体器官模型提供了新策略85。器官芯片技术具有精确的流体控制、多细胞共培养和组织屏障模拟等优势,能够高度可控地再现复杂的动态培养微环境,近年来,器官芯片技术已成功应用于多种组织器官模型的构建86-89。胎盘芯片是基于器官芯片技术建立起来的一种体外胎盘模型,可通过模拟人体胎盘组织的微环境特征,概括胎盘组织的关键结构和功能。常用于构建胎盘芯片的细胞来源主要包括滋养层细胞系、多能干细胞以及类器官等,依据组织结构和功能特点可分为胎盘屏障模型和滋养层细胞侵袭模型(图2)。
器官芯片的优势之一在于可以直观地模拟组织界面处的生物屏障特征。Lee等47在2016年首次提出了胎盘屏障芯片的构建方法,基于软光刻技术建立了具有多层结构的聚二甲基硅氧烷(PDMS)芯片,包含可用于不同类型细胞培养的上下层通道以及中间的多孔膜。为了体现胎盘屏障的结构特征,研究人员将JEG-3细胞和HUVEC分别接种在多孔膜两侧的微通道中,分别代表胎盘滋养层和胎儿毛细血管侧,多孔膜上提前包被了ECM以模拟基底膜。培养基的灌流流速通过注射泵来调控,为胎盘屏障的形成提供了动态微环境。该模型的葡萄糖转运功能与已报道的人体胎盘代谢数据相符,展现了胎盘屏障芯片在母胎间物质转运研究中的应用潜力。滋养层细胞的融合和ST的形成对于胎盘屏障的功能影响重大。为了在芯片上实现滋养层细胞的合体化,Blundell等50在夹膜式芯片的多孔膜两侧接种BeWo细胞和HPVEC构建了胎盘屏障模型。他们利用forskolin诱导了BeWo细胞的合体化,并通过鉴定滋养层细胞间紧密连接蛋白的表达、屏障渗透性以及hCG分泌水平等对ST细胞的形成进行了充分验证。该模型中,GLUT1主要表达在ST细胞的上表面,与人体胎盘滋养层中葡萄糖转运体的极性分布类似,这也证明了该胎盘屏障模型具有人体生理相关性的关键结构和功能特征。
Cao等48利用hTSC建立了一种新型的胎盘屏障芯片模型[图2(a)],以解决传统滋养层细胞系来源的胎盘屏障模型难以真实体现早期胎盘发育特征的局限。通过优化培养体系和动态流体微环境,诱导了hTSC自组装形成包含CT和ST的双层滋养层结构,符合人体早期胎盘屏障的结构特征。在该模型上,研究人员探究了流体剪切力对滋养层细胞分化、脂代谢、葡萄糖转运和激素分泌功能的影响,并证明了符合生理条件的流体作用能够更好地促进滋养层细胞的合体化。这种hTSC来源的胎盘屏障模型反映了胎盘滋养层的早期发育特征,可用于研究妊娠早期外界因素对胎盘屏障形成的影响以及病原体的垂直传播过程等。
利用器官芯片研究细胞迁移的方法最初主要应用于肿瘤侵袭相关的研究,Pu等90参考此类芯片设计建立了一种用于实时监测和评估滋养层细胞侵袭能力的体外模型。该芯片主体由中央的圆形腔室与周围的环形通道构成,通道与中央腔室间通过微柱阵列间隔。标记有荧光蛋白的HUVEC和HTR8细胞分别接种在圆形腔室与环形通道中,滋养层细胞向内皮侧的迁移和侵袭行为可以利用免疫荧光成像记录并定量分析。该模型结合成像设备可以在线监测多种因素对滋养层细胞侵袭行为的影响,但由于HTR8细胞难以完全体现EVT细胞的功能特征,可能存在一定局限性。
细胞因子或因子梯度是诱导细胞迁移的重要因素之一。Abbas等91利用三平行通道结构的器官芯片,通过在中间通道灌注含有原代胎盘组织来源EVT细胞的Matrigel基质胶,并在两侧通道加入不同组分的培养基,形成粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落因子(GM-CSF)浓度梯度,探究了蜕膜NK细胞激活后分泌的GM-CSF对滋养层细胞侵袭能力的影响,并对相关的分子机制进行了深入解析。尽管这一体系便于构建因子浓度梯度来研究细胞分泌因子对EVT侵袭的作用,但它忽略了内皮细胞与滋养层细胞之间的相互作用。因此,在未来的研究中,可以考虑整合内皮细胞,以更全面地模拟胎盘屏障的微环境,并深入了解细胞因子在胎盘发育和功能调节中的作用。
EVT的侵袭功能会受到微环境中各种细胞间相互作用的影响。Park等54利用平行通道结构的微流控系统构建了植入芯片模型[图2(b)]。芯片中间通道加入ECM形成3D水凝胶支架,两侧通道分别接种人源原代EVT细胞和子宫内皮细胞,用于模拟EVT向母体螺旋动脉的侵袭过程。研究人员探究了母体内皮细胞对EVT侵袭功能的调控作用,并通过在ECM水凝胶中培养蜕膜基质细胞(DSC)或子宫NK细胞,阐明了它们在母体螺旋动脉重塑过程中的功能。植入芯片模型充分体现了螺旋动脉重塑过程中涉及的复杂多细胞环境,3D共培养体系也便于直接研究免疫细胞及基质细胞对EVT侵袭行为的影响。
类器官是由干细胞或组织前体在体外自组装形成的3D细胞结构,能够在一定程度上模拟来源组织和器官的发育过程及其关键结构和功能特征92。胎盘类器官主要来源于原代胎盘组织或干细胞,其中包括hTSC、hiTSC和人诱导多能干细胞(hiPSC)等。依据发育学原理,这些干细胞能够在特定3D培养条件下自我更新和分化,形成与人体胎盘绒毛类似的组织结构和生理功能的类器官,可用于体外研究胎盘发育过程。
滋养层类器官主要由维持干性的绒毛膜滋养层细胞增殖分化形成。Turco和Haider等93-94 在2018年成功建立了人原代胎盘组织来源的滋养层类器官。这些类器官包含CT和ST细胞,也可向EVT细胞分化,与体内胎盘绒毛组织结构和生理功能类似。研究人员从孕早期胎盘组织中解离并纯化绒毛膜CT细胞,将其包埋于Matrigel基质胶中,在含有EGF、FGF2、CHIR99021、A83-01和RSPO1等多种生长因子和小分子抑制剂的培养基中进行3D培养产生滋养层类器官。其中,肝细胞生长因子(HGF)、PGE2和Y-27632能增加细胞活力并维持类器官增殖。WNT信号通路激活剂RSPO1和CHIR99021的缺失会促进EVT的分化。产生的滋养层类器官可以传代培养和低温保存,并可长期培养超过5个月,具有遗传稳定性。滋养层类器官可表达CT和ST滋养层细胞特异性基因如GATA3CGB3PSG6等,其基因表达谱与人原代胎盘滋养层高度相似。此外,在含有A83-01和NRG1因子的分化培养基中滋养层类器官可向EVT方向分化9395。同时,Haider等94发现去除WNT激活剂(RSPO1和CHIR99021)足以启动NOTCH1+ EVT前体细胞的分化,而EVT的进一步分化需要WNT信号。利用液相色谱-质谱对类器官培养基进行蛋白质组学分析,证实了滋养层类器官的分泌功能,包括分泌多种胎盘特异性肽、人绒毛膜促性腺激素(hCG)和醛糖还原酶等9395。滋养层类器官的结构与体内胎盘绒毛的组织结构密切相关,包括基底膜、类器官外围的CT层和中心的ST层、丰富的分泌细胞器和表面微绒毛。
然而这些类器官模型中,ST细胞主要分布在内腔,CT细胞排列在外表面,其形态与体内胎盘绒毛滋养层的排布结构相反,在一定程度上限制了该模型的应用范围。Yang等96利用悬浮培养的方法实现了滋养层类器官的极性反转。将分化的滋养层类器官从Matrigel中释放出来,在轻度搅拌条件下进行悬浮培养,类器官中CT细胞自发地分布在内腔,而ST细胞主要排列在外表面,这种生理极性分布的滋养层类器官可以更好地反映胎盘的生理和病理过程。最近,Hori等97建立了基于滋养层类器官的胎盘屏障模型。通过优化分化培养条件,利用hTSC产生了滋养层类器官,其外层是具有屏障功能的ST细胞。在此基础上建立了柱型ST屏障模型,通过测量跨膜电阻值(TEER)和hCG水平,证实了该模型屏障的完整性和组织成熟度。该模型并可用于评估化合物跨胎盘转运和毒性预测,在药物开发方面具有潜在应用。
除了原代胎盘组织,近年来hiPSC或naïve hPSC分化产生的TSC细胞也建立起来4498-99,可作为滋养层类器官产生的重要细胞来源。此外,研究人员还通过体细胞重编程的方法诱导成纤维细胞转化为hiTSC45,进一步构建了滋养层类器官。hiTSC的转录组与囊胚来源的hTSC高度相近,其衍生的滋养层类器官在结构和功能上也与hTSC和绒毛CT来源的类器官相似。这些滋养层类器官模型为研究人类胎盘发育和滋养层功能障碍提供了有价值的工具。
目前单一的滋养层类器官尚缺乏除滋养层细胞外的其他细胞类型,如免疫细胞和血管内皮细胞等。原代组织或多能干细胞来源的胎盘样类器官的建立为研究母胎界面多种细胞间的相互作用提供了更为复杂的模型。例如,Huang等100采用气液界面培养的方式,将原代胎盘组织来源的绒毛分支接种在胶原凝胶表面进行3D培养,构建了包含免疫细胞的胎盘绒毛类器官。该方法不仅适用于不同妊娠阶段以及病理状态的体外胎盘模型构建,而且有助于研究母胎界面宿主-免疫相互作用。
由于胎盘是富含血管的组织,血管化在胎盘类器官构建中具有重要意义。为解决缺乏血液灌注可能导致类器官中心细胞坏死和发育受限等问题,Cui等101利用hiPSC构建了具有血管样结构的胎盘类器官。他们将hiPSC接种在微柱阵列芯片上,通过BMP4诱导hPSC自组织形成含有滋养层和中胚层谱系的细胞簇。进一步包埋于Matrigel中进行3D培养,在含有特定因子的分化培养基中形成包含多种滋养层细胞亚型(CT、ST和EVT)、血管样结构和组织关键功能的胎盘样类器官。该模型具有与妊娠早期胎盘滋养层相近的转录组特征,为研究人类早期胎盘发育、胎盘相关疾病和病原体感染等提供了新的思路。
尽管现有胎盘类器官包含多种滋养层细胞类型,具有胎盘组织特异性功能,可部分反映早期胎盘发育的特征,但其仍存在一定局限性,如缺乏胎盘屏障结构、缺乏血管内皮或免疫系统等重要组成部分。体内胎盘发育受到复杂组织微环境(如生物物理和生物化学因素)的影响,包含多种细胞/组织间相互作用、细胞-基质相互作用以及机械流体等。上文已述胎盘芯片具有模拟复杂组织微环境的优势,包括胎盘屏障界面、机械流体和细胞-细胞/细胞-基质相互作用等,有利于更直观地重现母胎界面的物质交换和信息传递过程。为了克服现有胎盘类器官的局限,胎盘类器官芯片作为胎盘芯片的一种新的形式发展起来。它是将胎盘类器官与器官芯片各自的优势特点整合,更好地模拟胎盘组织发育的动态微环境,引导干细胞的生长分化及类器官的形态发生,从而构筑更具生理相关性的复杂胎盘模型系统。
在妊娠早期,血液开始流入胎盘的绒毛间隙,因此,流体剪切力在早期胎盘发育过程中至关重要。Deng等102建立了一种可灌注培养的器官芯片装置,可实现hiPSC向滋养层谱系的原位分化和滋养层样类器官形成。结果显示,近生理的流体剪切力(0.0028 dyn/cm2)可促进滋养层类器官的紧密连接蛋白ZO-1和葡萄糖转运体GLUT-4的表达。同时,激活了钙离子、丝裂原激活蛋白激酶和流体剪切力相关的信号通路,揭示了流体因素对促进滋养层分化和早期胎盘发育的重要性。近年来,研究人员还建立了母体组织来源的子宫内膜类器官模型103。通过3D培养,子宫内膜腺体可以形成自组织的囊腔样结构,并对性激素(如雌激素和黄体酮)产生反应。这种类器官不仅可用于子宫内膜相关疾病研究,而且对于妊娠早期胚胎着床和胎盘发育研究至关重要。未来通过结合类器官和器官芯片技术,可以开发一种包含子宫内膜类器官和滋养层类器官的先进共培养系统,模拟胚胎、滋养层细胞和子宫内膜的相互作用。这将有助于研究人员更深入地了解孕期母胎相互作用的机制,从而加深对生命早期发育过程的理解。
除了器官芯片和类器官技术,许多其他组织工程学手段也被用于仿生胎盘模型的构建,其中最为常见的是依赖3D水凝胶支架的方法。Nishiguchi等69利用ECM水凝胶,在Transwell中构建了带有血管网的胎盘屏障模型。他们在HUVEC和人真皮成纤维细胞(NHDF)表面包被上纤连蛋白和明胶纳米薄膜,依靠纤连蛋白和明胶的相互作用使两种细胞层层积累形成微血管网,原代胎盘组织来源的CT细胞采用同样方式在表面包被Ⅳ型胶原和层粘连蛋白,组装形成双层的滋养层细胞结构。该胎盘屏障模型具有与孕早期胎盘绒毛膜相似的结构特征,在缺氧复氧条件下与离体胎盘组织表现出相同的响应。
生物反应器能够为胎盘组织发育提供符合生理条件的动态流体微环境,是胎盘模型构建的良好平台。McConkey等104利用旋转壁式生物反应器在体外重构了3D胎盘模型,将JEG-3细胞和微血管内皮细胞接种在Cytodex载体微球上进行共培养。在动态培养3周后,滋养层细胞的蛋白和基因表达均呈现出向合胞体的明显转变,成功再现了滋养层细胞合体化的过程。Levkovitz等105-106在去上皮层羊膜两侧接种HUVEC和HTR8细胞,采用灌流式生物反应器构建了胎盘屏障模型。研究者采用该模型研究了葡萄糖的跨胎盘转运,所得到的结果与体内数据展现出良好的一致性。
以细胞和生物材料作为墨水的3D打印技术也可用于胎盘体外模型的构建。Kuo等107利用3D打印技术构建了一系列滋养层细胞侵袭相关的研究模型。采用生物打印的方法构建了含有不同组分的圆柱状GelMA水凝胶,中心区域的EGF由于扩散作用会形成辐射状的浓度梯度,BeWo细胞被打印在周围区域用于探究EGF对滋养层细胞迁移和侵袭的影响。进一步研究了ECM组分与滋养层细胞侵袭能力之间的联系108,并阐明了细胞- ECM间相互作用对滋养层细胞侵袭行为的调控功能。研究人员还通过3D打印建立了一套灌流式反应系统109,实现了HUVEC和HTR8细胞的动态共培养,并利用该模型证明了内皮细胞与滋养层细胞的相互作用在EVT侵袭过程中发挥着重要作用。
对于胎盘芯片模型而言,重点在于胎盘屏障的多层细胞结构,包括构成胎盘滋养层的CT和ST,以及与胎儿血管内皮层共同构成的胎盘屏障。主要采用的表征方法包括光学显微镜观察、免疫组化染色、透射电镜或3D成像技术。免疫组化染色可分析不同细胞类型和结构的分布情况,结合共聚焦显微镜等成像技术,获取高分辨率的胎盘芯片3D结构图像,反映组织的空间结构特征,尤其是CT和ST的极性分布。CT可通过其特异性标志物(如ITGA6、TEAD4等)以及ST标志物(如CGB、SDC1等)的表达来进行鉴定。透射电镜可观察胎盘组织的超微结构,如细胞器和细胞间连接的特征。分布在ST表面的微绒毛是胎盘组织的重要结构特征,可通过免疫荧光染色和扫描电镜进行表征,如利用Ezrin或Villin抗体进行微绒毛的免疫染色,扫描电镜可直接观察微绒毛的结构、长度和分布密度。
胎盘屏障功能主要包括屏障的完整性和渗透性的评估,常用的表征方法包括跨膜电阻值(TEER)和荧光标记大分子(如FITC-dextran)的渗透性检测。此外,通过免疫荧光分析细胞间紧密连接蛋白的表达,进一步补充说明屏障功能的完整性。物质转运是胎盘组织的重要功能之一,可通过基因鉴定或免疫荧光分析相应转运体的表达,也可在滋养层侧加入荧光标记的目标转运分子,检测一定时间内转运到胎儿血管内皮侧的目标分子的荧光强度来计算其转运速率。胎盘的激素分泌功能对于维持正常妊娠和胎儿发育至关重要。妊娠相关激素(如hCG、孕酮等)主要通过ELISA进行定量表征。对于胎盘类器官芯片模型的构建,还可以通过单细胞测序和空间转录组学等手段鉴定滋养层细胞的组成种类和空间结构特征。
针对胎盘芯片模型的不同应用场景和研究需求,可选择合适的表征方法对胎盘模型进行数据获取和解析,全面深入地理解妊娠相关疾病的分子机制和潜在药物靶点的开发。这些方法的综合应用有助于推动胎盘相关疾病的诊断和治疗策略的改进,以及胎盘芯片模型的转化应用。
胎盘体外模型除了用于研究人体胎盘的发育过程外,在生殖医学领域也有巨大的应用潜力(图3)。胎盘屏障模型可用于涉及母胎间交流的研究,例如药物的跨胎盘转运和病原体的垂直传播。EVT侵袭模型通常用于妊娠并发症,特别是PE的相关建模和研究。滋养层类器官可用于胎盘疾病模型的构建,以及外源物质的毒性评估。
胎盘的损伤或功能异常与妊娠相关疾病的发生密切相关,例如病菌感染可能导致严重的胎盘炎症反应,严重威胁母体及胎儿健康110。此外,PE发生的潜在原因之一便是滋养层细胞侵袭能力的不足111。利用体外胎盘模型模拟妊娠疾病相关病理特征,有助于深入理解疾病发生的分子机制,为临床诊断和治疗提供理论依据。
PE是由于胎盘供血不足和应激反应导致的因子释放紊乱所引起的系统性血管内皮功能障碍,也是母体在围产期发病率和死亡率升高的主要病因,影响了3%~8%的妊娠112。现阶段研究表明,滋养层细胞侵袭能力受损和母体螺旋动脉重塑异常在PE的发生中起重要作用113。但由于缺乏有效的实验模型,PE的发病机制仍不清楚,尚无有效的治疗手段。Ghorbanpour等114在芯片上构建了滋养层细胞侵袭模型,通过加入TNF-α模拟了PE的炎症环境,模型中滋养层细胞和内皮细胞均呈现FK506结合蛋白(FKBPL)和半乳糖凝集素3(Gal-3)的表达上调,与PE患者胎盘组织和外周血中的异常表达相同。此外,FKBPL和Gal-3的水平升高会影响滋养层细胞的迁移行为,并导致血管网的损坏,该模型反映了炎症环境和细胞间交流互作在PE中的潜在作用。Huang等100采用气液界面培养方法从PE患者胎盘组织样本中分离并建立了多细胞类型的绒毛膜类器官。相较于健康对照,PE来源的模型中合胞素表达降低,促炎因子分泌增多,并且PE检测指标sFlt-1/PIGF比值升高,表明该模型能够充分体现PE相关的病理特征。此外,Romberg等115从PE患者的胎盘组织中分离获取人绒毛膜间充质基质细胞(hCV-MSC),探究了其对hTSC来源的滋养层类器官发育的影响。结果表明,PE状态下的hCV-MSC对滋养层类器官的增殖和分化促进能力明显减弱,对血管网形成的推动作用也有所衰减。
虽然胎盘具有屏障保护功能,但一些病原体仍然可以穿过胎盘屏障直接感染胎儿,或通过造成胎盘损伤间接影响胎儿发育,这些病原体统称为TORCH。TORCH感染是造成流产和死胎的重要因素之一,严重危害着孕妇及新生儿健康,利用体外模型研究TORCH感染机制对临床治疗具有一定指导意义。Zhu等52采用夹膜式芯片构建了胎盘屏障模型,通过将大肠杆菌(E.coli)与滋养层细胞共培养,模拟了革兰氏阴性菌对胎盘的感染[图2(c)]。体系中炎症因子表达水平的显著升高、巨噬细胞在滋养层上的黏附以及内皮细胞间紧密连接的破坏,都表明E.coli感染可能会引发胎盘炎症并造成屏障破坏。Arumugasaamy等116通过层层组装的方式在3D水凝胶支架上建立了胎盘屏障,探究了寨卡病毒(ZIKV)侵入胎盘的过程。他们将ZIKV加入到滋养层上皮侧,感染72 h后内皮细胞侧的ZIKV检出量甚至高于加入的初始量,表明ZIKV能够感染滋养层细胞并进行扩增。此外,内吞作用抑制剂氯喹的引入能够明显抑制病毒的感染能力,证明了ZIKV可通过细胞内吞侵入滋养层。Karvas等117利用hTSC构建滋养层类器官,研究了胎盘对不同病毒的易感性。结果表明,ZIKV极易感染滋养层细胞,但新型冠状病毒SARS-CoV-2对类器官的感染能力很弱,这种对病毒的选择性与临床结果一致。
由于胎盘绒毛与母体血液直接接触,妊娠期间母体摄入的环境污染物可通过血液循环系统传递到胎盘绒毛膜间隙,形成对滋养层细胞的直接暴露118。这些外源性物质可能对滋养层细胞的功能和胎盘发育造成影响,甚至干扰胎儿的健康成长。利用胎盘体外模型暴露于外源物质包括不同化学物质、环境纳米颗粒或药物等,评估其对胎盘屏障结构和功能以及胎儿组织器官发育毒性的影响,有助于为健康妊娠提出潜在的方法建议或干预措施,减少不良妊娠结果的产生。
纳米颗粒(NP)因其独特的物理性质和抗菌功能被广泛应用于工业生产和医疗诊断中,但其环境暴露也可能对人体健康造成巨大威胁。研究表明,孕妇在妊娠期间暴露于NP可能导致胎儿脑发育受损,甚至引发胎儿生长受限等严重不良结果119。为了研究胎盘对NP暴露的反应,Muoth等120利用BeWo和成纤维细胞构建了3D滋养层细胞球模型,研究了不同金属氧化物NP对滋养层细胞活性和hCG分泌功能的影响。结果显示,氧化铜(CuO)和碲化镉(CdTe)NP能够显著抑制滋养层细胞的激素分泌能力,而二氧化钛(TiO2)NP的影响较小。Schuller等121使用BeWo细胞在集成有电信号传感器的夹膜式芯片上构建了胎盘屏障模型,通过监测细胞跨膜电阻值(TEER)的变化探究了不同金属氧化物NP对屏障完整性的影响。研究发现,氧化锌(ZnO)NP对胎盘屏障造成了严重破坏,而二氧化硅(SiO2)和TiO2 NP对屏障完整性影响较小。这些研究表明,不同组分的NP对胎盘的影响机制可能存在明显差异,而胎盘体外模型为研究这些影响提供了有力工具。Yin等51利用3D胎盘屏障芯片模型研究了不同浓度TiO2 NP对胎盘结果和功能的影响,证明了高浓度的TiO2 NP暴露会导致滋养层细胞活性氧水平的升高、胎盘屏障的渗透性增强。在巨噬细胞存在条件下,炎症因子IL-6的浓度和巨噬细胞黏附数量均随TiO2 NP浓度的提高而增加,这些结果表明NP暴露会引起胎盘炎症反应,进而影响胎盘组织功能。
各种化学制品(尤其是塑料产品)在制备生产、不当使用以及弃置焚烧时,都可能会生成内分泌干扰物(EDC),包括双酚类化合物、邻苯二甲酸盐、多氯联苯、全氟化物和多溴联苯醚等。EDC会扰乱人体内分泌,导致生殖系统功能紊乱122。Ticiani等123在圆环状芯片上构建了滋养层细胞侵袭模型,探究了EGF对EVT细胞增殖和侵袭能力的调控作用。在此基础上,作者进一步在体系中加入双酚S(BPS)并证明了BPS可以与EGF受体竞争性结合,阻碍了EGF对滋养层细胞侵袭的促进功能,这可能是母体孕期BPS暴露导致妊娠不良结果的潜在因素。Cao等48利用hTSC来源的胎盘屏障模型,探究了邻苯二甲酸单乙基己基酯(MEHP)对早期胎盘发育的影响。结果表明,低浓度的MEHP能够抑制滋养层细胞的合体化,导致胎盘激素分泌功能的减弱,并且内皮细胞与滋养层细胞的相互作用会进一步减少CT向ST的分化。Xu等124利用滋养层类器官评估了芳香基取代有机磷酸酯对细胞增殖能力的抑制作用,并针对2-乙基己基二苯基磷酸酯(EHDPP)对胎盘的发育毒性进行了深入解析,证明了EHDPP可以通过干扰胰岛素样生长因子-1受体(IGF1R)阻碍有氧呼吸信号,从而导致滋养层细胞增殖能力下降。
人体胎盘中表达多种转运体蛋白,包括P-糖蛋白(P-gp)、乳腺癌耐药蛋白(BCRP)等ATP结合盒式转运体(ABC),以及有机阳离子转运体(OCT)、有机阴离子转运体(OAT)等溶质载体(SLC)。胎盘的物质交换功能主要依赖于这些转运蛋白实现125。虽然药物小分子能够通过被动扩散穿过胎盘屏障,但胎儿侧药物分子的转运或排出仍然由目标转运蛋白主导。利用仿生胎盘模型在体外研究母胎间药物转运的过程,可以获取药物分子的母胎分配比及其跨胎盘转运动力学信息,从而辅助指导孕期精准用药。
胎盘屏障芯片模型适用于在母胎界面研究药物转运特征。Blundell等49建立基于夹膜式芯片的胎盘屏障模型,模拟了降糖药物格列本脲的跨胎盘转运过程。通过加入BCRP抑制剂Ko143,证明了滋养层细胞上的BCRP转运蛋白限制了格列本脲分子向胎儿侧的输送,在保护胎儿免受过量药物分子干扰中发挥了重要作用。Pemathilaka等126利用胎盘屏障芯片模型探究了阿片受体拮抗药物纳曲酮(NTX)及其代谢产物6β-NTX的跨胎盘转运,检测了不同时间点下NTX在母胎间的分布浓度,并据此绘制浓度-时间曲线,计算得到NTX的跨胎盘转运速率。Richardson等127在三平行通道芯片中依次接种ST、CT和HUVEC构建了胎盘芯片模型,通过在ST侧加入降血脂药物普伐他汀或瑞舒伐他汀,检测各细胞通道中药物分子及其代谢产物的浓度,获得了药物的转运及代谢动力学数据。在此基础上,引入烟草萃取物用于刺激胎盘产生炎症反应,进一步探究了他汀类药物对炎症因子分泌水平的影响,展现了该模型在母胎界面药物转运、代谢及药效学研究中的应用潜力。
体外胎盘芯片模型通过模拟胎盘组织的复杂细胞组成、细胞间相互作用、组织屏障和动态微环境等因素,在体外重现了人体胎盘的关键结构和功能特征。这些模型不仅为胎盘发育和病理生理学研究提供了良好的平台,还在妊娠疾病研究、发育毒性评估和母胎药物转运等生殖医学领域展现出巨大的应用潜力。尽管体外胎盘模型已显示出诸多优势,但仍存在一些局限。虽然胎盘芯片模型可以模拟母体侧滋养层细胞和胎儿侧血管内皮细胞组成的屏障界面特征,但由于技术限制,尚无法完全复现人体胎盘的复杂结构和微环境,如免疫系统等。因此,可能无法完全反映母胎界面的多细胞相互作用和宿主免疫反应等病理生理情况。此外,胎盘芯片的制备材料主要为PDMS,尽管具有透明度高和生物相容性好等优点,但PDMS会吸收疏水性分子,包括妊娠相关激素和药物小分子等,在激素分泌水平和药物转运等定量研究中可能造成一定误差,限制了其应用。未来应研发更符合应用需求的生物材料取代PDMS,以确保小分子物质定量数据的准确性。胎盘类器官模型可在体外进行长期培养和功能维持,但其通常缺乏关键细胞类型,如血管内皮细胞和免疫细胞,在一定程度上也限制了其广泛应用,比如在病原体感染等方面的研究。
随着生物学和工程学等多学科交叉手段的发展,可以将器官芯片、类器官以及其他组织工程技术结合,构建更加符合人体生理状态的体外胎盘模型,并用于转化研究。例如,将胎盘芯片与生物传感集成,有望在体外实现胎盘代谢和分泌功能的在线监测和药物筛评,对胎盘的发育及相关病理研究提供新的平台。在胎盘模型中引入组织特异的关键细胞类型,如免疫细胞,可模拟母胎界面处的免疫微环境,有助于深入认识和解析胎盘发育和感染性疾病相关分子机理。此外,将胎盘类器官与器官芯片或生物材料结合,将有助于精确控制组织微环境,指导滋养层干细胞分化和发育,实现胎盘模型的复杂性和功能成熟度。未来,可以将胎盘与其他器官模型整合关联,如胎盘-子宫、胎盘-脑等,用于研究妊娠过程中母胎器官间的相互作用、药物转运、外源暴露物毒性评估以及胎盘功能异常对胎儿器官发育的影响。因此,这需要多领域专业人员的共同协作,推动先进的体外胎盘模型系统的开发及其转化应用,为生殖健康及生物医学研究提供重要平台。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32301206)
  • 国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1104700)
  • 国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1205000)
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2024年第5卷第4期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-044
  • 接收时间:2024-05-30
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-08-31
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  • 收稿日期:2024-05-30
  • 修回日期:2024-06-25
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国家自然科学基金(32301206)
国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1104700)
国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1205000)
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    1 中国科学院大连化学物理研究所,辽宁 大连 116023
    2 中国科学院大学,北京 100049
    3 中国科学技术大学,安徽 合肥 230026
    4 中国科学技术大学苏州高等研究院,江苏 苏州 215123

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王亚清(1989—),女,博士,副研究员。研究方向为类器官工程及其生物医学应用。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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