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Human early embryonic development is critical for a healthy fetus birth. However, the specific molecular regulatory mechanisms of lineage development, cell fate decisions and embryonic patterning are still shrouded in mystery. Our knowledge about early human embryogenesis has been greatly improved with the recent progress in in vitro culture conditions for human blastocysts and the advancements in omics technology. However, ethical and technological challenges continue to pose obstacles in these studies. With the rapid development of human pluripotent stem cells, they can be coaxed to form embryo-like structures that mimic early human embryonic development in vitro, termed “embryo models”. Interest in human embryonic development has been reinvigorated with the continuing advances in this area. Human embryo models can be divided into two categories "non-integrated embryo models" and “integrated embryo models” according to the different cellular components they possessed. Integrated embryo models represent the embryo-like structures containing both embryonic and extra-embryonic cell types, including blastoids, human extra-embryoids (hEEs), E-assembloids, stem-cell-derived synthetic whole embryo models (SEMs), peri-gastruloids, bilaminiods and heX-embryoids. While non-integrated embryo models sometimes lack the extra-embryonic tissues, including embryoid bodies (EBs), gastruloids, micro-patterned colonies, post-implantation amniotic sac embryoids (PASE). Besides, non-human primate cynomolgus monkey models have greatly expanded our knowledge towards human developmental biology. In this review, we summarized recent human stem cell-based non-integrated and integrated embryo models, and pointed out the technical challenges remained with proposed future directions. These findings lay an important foundation for understanding early human embryonic development, promoting research into human stem cells and their application, as well as preventing and treating early pregnancy loss or congenital diseases. On the other hand, embryo-like structures derived from human stem cell-based integrated embryo models, although do not fully, almost recapitulate the key events and structural organization of the in vivo counterparts, thus eliciting a serious compact on traditional ethical and practical concerns. In the future, non-integrated human embryo models and non-human primate models, which pose fewer ethical challenges, may provide a straightforward way to study the human early embryonic development.

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人类早期胚胎发育阶段对于胎儿的健康出生至关重要。然而,由于伦理和技术的限制,人类早期胚胎发育的具体调控机制仍未完全解密。除了人类胚胎体外培养技术以外,以干细胞为基础模拟人类真实胚胎结构的体外模型被构建出来,被称为“类胚胎/胚胎模型”。通常人类胚胎模型可大致分为两类:非整合型和整合型胚胎模型。整合型胚胎模型通常包含胚内和胚外细胞类型并具有发育成完整胎儿的潜力,而非整合型胚胎模型则不包含任何相关的胚外组织。本文系统总结了人类体外非整合型和整合型胚胎模型的最新研究进展,探讨了有关国际干细胞研究的伦理政策,并简要阐述了人类胚胎模型潜在的应用前景和未来机遇。以期为研究人类早期胚胎发育过程中不同细胞谱系的特化轨迹,以及早期胚胎发育缺陷等重大疾病的临床药物筛选和再生医学提供新的研究思路。

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刘晓东(1988—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为诱导重编程,干细胞命运调控,谱系追踪,类器官和生物材料工程等。E-mail:
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胡博文(1993—),男,博士后。研究方向为干细胞命运调控,类胚胎构建和应用。E-mail:

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人类早期胚胎发育体外模型研究进展
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胡博文 1, 2, 3 , 陈家斌 1, 2, 3 , 刘晓东 1, 2, 3
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(4): 719-733
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(4): 719-733
人类早期胚胎发育体外模型研究进展
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胡博文1, 2, 3 , 陈家斌1, 2, 3, 刘晓东1, 2, 3
作者信息
  • 1 西湖大学生命科学学院,西湖生命科学与生物医学实验室,浙江 杭州 310024
  • 2 浙江西湖高等研究院,浙江 杭州 310024
  • 3 西湖大学未来产业研究中心,浙江 杭州 310024
  • 胡博文(1993—),男,博士后。研究方向为干细胞命运调控,类胚胎构建和应用。E-mail:

通讯作者:

刘晓东(1988—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为诱导重编程,干细胞命运调控,谱系追踪,类器官和生物材料工程等。E-mail:
Advances in the development of human embryo models
Bowen HU1, 2, 3 , Jiaping TAN1, 2, 3, Xiaodong LIU1, 2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Life Sciences,Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine,Westlake University,Hangzhou 310024,Zhejiang,China
  • 2 Westlake Institute for Advanced Study,Hangzhou 310024,Zhejiang,China
  • 3 Research Center for Industries of the Future,Westlake University,Hangzhou 310024,Zhejiang,China
出版时间: 2024-08-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-010
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人类早期胚胎发育阶段对于胎儿的健康出生至关重要。然而,由于伦理和技术的限制,人类早期胚胎发育的具体调控机制仍未完全解密。除了人类胚胎体外培养技术以外,以干细胞为基础模拟人类真实胚胎结构的体外模型被构建出来,被称为“类胚胎/胚胎模型”。通常人类胚胎模型可大致分为两类:非整合型和整合型胚胎模型。整合型胚胎模型通常包含胚内和胚外细胞类型并具有发育成完整胎儿的潜力,而非整合型胚胎模型则不包含任何相关的胚外组织。本文系统总结了人类体外非整合型和整合型胚胎模型的最新研究进展,探讨了有关国际干细胞研究的伦理政策,并简要阐述了人类胚胎模型潜在的应用前景和未来机遇。以期为研究人类早期胚胎发育过程中不同细胞谱系的特化轨迹,以及早期胚胎发育缺陷等重大疾病的临床药物筛选和再生医学提供新的研究思路。

早期胚胎发育  /  非整合型胚胎模型  /  整合型胚胎模型  /  着床前  /  着床后  /  干细胞

Human early embryonic development is critical for a healthy fetus birth. However, the specific molecular regulatory mechanisms of lineage development, cell fate decisions and embryonic patterning are still shrouded in mystery. Our knowledge about early human embryogenesis has been greatly improved with the recent progress in in vitro culture conditions for human blastocysts and the advancements in omics technology. However, ethical and technological challenges continue to pose obstacles in these studies. With the rapid development of human pluripotent stem cells, they can be coaxed to form embryo-like structures that mimic early human embryonic development in vitro, termed “embryo models”. Interest in human embryonic development has been reinvigorated with the continuing advances in this area. Human embryo models can be divided into two categories "non-integrated embryo models" and “integrated embryo models” according to the different cellular components they possessed. Integrated embryo models represent the embryo-like structures containing both embryonic and extra-embryonic cell types, including blastoids, human extra-embryoids (hEEs), E-assembloids, stem-cell-derived synthetic whole embryo models (SEMs), peri-gastruloids, bilaminiods and heX-embryoids. While non-integrated embryo models sometimes lack the extra-embryonic tissues, including embryoid bodies (EBs), gastruloids, micro-patterned colonies, post-implantation amniotic sac embryoids (PASE). Besides, non-human primate cynomolgus monkey models have greatly expanded our knowledge towards human developmental biology. In this review, we summarized recent human stem cell-based non-integrated and integrated embryo models, and pointed out the technical challenges remained with proposed future directions. These findings lay an important foundation for understanding early human embryonic development, promoting research into human stem cells and their application, as well as preventing and treating early pregnancy loss or congenital diseases. On the other hand, embryo-like structures derived from human stem cell-based integrated embryo models, although do not fully, almost recapitulate the key events and structural organization of the in vivo counterparts, thus eliciting a serious compact on traditional ethical and practical concerns. In the future, non-integrated human embryo models and non-human primate models, which pose fewer ethical challenges, may provide a straightforward way to study the human early embryonic development.

early human embryonic development  /  non-integrated embryo model  /  integrated embryo model  /  pre-implantation  /  post-implantation  /  stem cell
胡博文, 陈家斌, 刘晓东. 人类早期胚胎发育体外模型研究进展. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (4) : 719 -733 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-010
Bowen HU, Jiaping TAN, Xiaodong LIU. Advances in the development of human embryo models[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (4) : 719 -733 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-010
人类早期胚胎发育始于卵子受精,在此过程中形成了受精卵(zygote),受精卵随后进入卵裂期依次形成2细胞、4细胞、8细胞发育成桑椹胚(morula),然后进一步发育成囊胚(blastocyst)。囊胚在子宫着床后进入原肠运动依次形成原肠胚(gastrula)、神经胚(neurula),并最终进入早期器官发生(organogenesis)阶段1-2。根据人类早期胚胎的形态结构特征,大致可将胚胎期前60天的发育过程划分为23个不同的阶段,被称为卡内基阶段(Carnegie stage,CS)3-4。在这一过程中,不同谱系祖细胞的命运受到严格调控以确保胚胎的正常发育5。因此,从囊胚着床到原肠胚形成的过程中任何错误都可能导致不良的妊娠结局,如流产、心脏或神经先天性疾病和胎儿缺陷等6-7
然而,由于在技术方面(着床后胚胎难以示踪)以及伦理方面(14天规则)的限制,研究者们对于人类胚胎着床后两周的发育过程一直缺乏系统深入的了解。近二十年来随着人类多能干细胞(human pluripotent stem cell,hPSC)研究的飞速发展,为探索人类胚胎的发育过程提供了另一种全新的方法。人类胚胎在体外培养可形成不同谱系的细胞,如处于不同多能性(Naïve代表着床前的多能状态、Primed代表着床后的多能状态、Formative代表处于Naïve和Primed之间的中间态)的上胚层细胞8-21、滋养层细胞22-26和原始内胚层细胞27-29。通常将在体外使用单一或多种类型的人类干细胞自发组装构建的胚胎模型称为“类胚胎/胚胎模型”,其在细胞数量和组成以及三维结构上与真实胚胎相似,是一种模拟自然胚胎明确特征的简化模型。人类胚胎样本往往非常稀缺,与真实人类胚胎相比,以干细胞为基础的胚胎模型具有可扩展性、易于遗传基因操作以及对变量的精细控制等特点30。因此,胚胎模型这一新兴领域为探索人类早期发育的遗传和分子机制提供了全新的策略,为研究人类早期胚胎发育过程中不同细胞谱系特化轨迹,以及早期胚胎发育缺陷等重大疾病的临床药物筛选和再生医学提供新的研究思路。
人类雄性精子和雌性卵母细胞在输卵管结合形成受精卵,之后迁移进子宫进入着床前胚胎期、着床后胚胎期和胎儿期(图1)。近年来,随着单细胞组学(single cell RNA-sequencing,scRNA-seq)和体外培养(in vitro culture,IVC)技术的进步,研究者得以系统地解析人类早期胚胎发育的机制,并初步揭示了人类早期胚胎发育过程中不同谱系的细胞特征、发育图谱和分子特化机制31-35
着床前胚胎发育主要指受精卵形成至囊胚着床前的发育阶段(CS1~4)。在CS1~4阶段,受精卵在输卵管中经过2细胞、4细胞、8细胞、桑椹胚阶段并最终形成囊胚。随着囊胚进一步发育,胚胎开始脱去透明带,并与子宫内膜接触植入母体。囊胚由包裹在内部的内细胞团(inner cell mass,ICM)和包裹在外部的滋养外胚层(trophectoderm,TE)构成。在4细胞到8细胞时期,人类受精卵基因组最初处于转录沉默状态,之后母源RNA与蛋白质等物质被降解并伴随着合子基因组的激活(zygotic genome activation, ZGA),被称为母源-合子转变(maternal-to-zygotic transition,MZT)36-37。同时,表观基因组在人类胚胎发育的最初几天经历了巨大的变化,包括染色质重塑、组蛋白修饰和DNA甲基化等38。2013年,北京大学汤富酬和乔杰团队39首次采用单细胞转录组系统揭示了人类胚胎着床前的转录组图谱。2015年,英国弗朗西斯·克里克研究所Niakan团队33运用先前汤富酬等团队的单细胞转录组数据系统阐明了囊胚中不同谱系细胞特征的分子图谱,包括鉴定出人类多能上胚层细胞特异性表达转录因子KLF17,发现TGF-β信号通路的关键组分在人类上胚层细胞中富集等。2016年,瑞典卡罗琳斯卡学院Lanner团队40采用单细胞转录组深入解析了人类胚胎着床前的转录图谱,发现雌性胚胎着床前出现的X染色体剂量补偿效应受到长链非编码RNA(long non-coding RNA,LncRNA)XIST表达的调控。2021年,法国南特大学David和Freour团队41进一步采用单细胞转录组揭示了人类囊胚中不同谱系细胞特化的分子机制,发现IFI16GATA4NR2F2分别是决定细胞命运向上胚层(epiblasts,EPI)、原始内胚层(primitive endoderm,PrE)和TE谱系转变的标记基因。
着床后胚胎发育主要指囊胚植入后的发育阶段(CS4~23)。在CS4~5阶段,囊胚开始植入子宫内膜,囊胚的内细胞团分化形成EPI和PrE。在CS5a阶段,上胚层细胞开始转变为花环结构(rosette)并打破对称性形成原羊膜腔(pro-amniotic cavity),与滋养外胚层相邻的原始内胚层细胞形成壁内胚层(parietal endoderm,ParE),与上胚层相邻的原始内胚层细胞形成脏内胚层(visceral endoderm,VE);在CS5b~5c阶段,原羊膜腔进一步扩大形成羊膜(amnion),脏内胚层和壁内胚层进一步发育形成初级卵黄囊(primary yolk sac)并通过重排后形成次级卵黄囊(secondary yolk sac),上胚层和脏内胚层共同构成双胚盘结构(bilaminar disk)。在CS6~7阶段,胚胎开始进入早期发育里程碑事件“原肠运动”(gastrulation),原肠运动起始于上胚层后端原条(primitive streak,PS)细胞的迁移,并通过胚胎自身重组形成三胚层结构(three germ layers),即外胚层(ectoderm)、中胚层(mesoderm)和定型内胚层(definitive endoderm,DE),也被称为原肠胚;在CS7~12阶段,原肠胚中三胚层进一步特化形成体节(somite)、脊索管(notochord)、神经管(neural tube)和肠管(gut tube),从神经板出现至神经管闭合这一阶段的胚胎被称为神经胚;在CS12~23阶段,胚胎开始逐步形成各种组织的前体细胞、四肢肢芽以及早期器官,并建立起胎儿期所有的原始身体部位和组织。
2021年,英国牛津大学Srinivas团队35采用CS7阶段的人类胚胎进行单细胞转录组测序,系统解析了人类胚胎在原肠运动过程中不同谱系细胞的转录图谱,并鉴别出人类原始生殖细胞(primordial germ cell,PGC)、红细胞以及中胚层和内胚层细胞。2023年,北京师范大学王晓群等42通过单细胞转录组系统诠释了CS10~20人类胚胎样本从原肠运动至神经系统发育的细胞图谱,并揭示了原肠胚形成和早期人类大脑发育的分子机制。同年,中国海洋大学施威扬等团队43结合单细胞和空间转录组解析了CS12~16阶段的人类胚胎样本,解析了人类早期器官发生相关祖细胞的细胞图谱,为早期器官发生的谱系示踪提供了有力的参考依据。最近,英国桑格尔研究所Haniffa等多个团队44采用人类CS10~23阶段的卵黄囊细胞通过单细胞和空间转录组技术阐述了卵黄囊中造血干细胞(hematopoietic stem cell,HSC)和祖细胞的出现及消失过程,并解析了卵黄囊特异性促进巨噬细胞(macrophage)生成的过程。但是,由于人类胚胎样本特别稀缺,极大阻碍了研究者进一步解析人类早期胚胎发育过程中不同谱系细胞特化的分子机制。非人灵长类动物胚胎与啮齿类动物相比在结构和发育时间节点上与人类早期胚胎发育最为相近,是研究人类胚胎发育机制可靠的替代物种45-46。2022年,中国科学院动物研究所王红梅等 47采用CS8~11阶段的食蟹猴胚胎样本,通过单细胞转录组技术系统揭示了原肠运动和三胚层分化阶段的细胞组分图谱以及谱系发生轨迹和分子调控机制,弥补了灵长类动物胚胎原肠运动至早期器官发生阶段的认知,为了解人类早期胚胎发育过程提供了宝贵的体内参考依据。
此外,随着人类体外受精(in vitro fertilization,IVF)和体外培养技术的发展,研究者们开始尝试在体外系统的研究人类早期胚胎的发育过程。2016年,英国剑桥大学Zernicka-Goetz和美国洛克菲勒大学的Brivanlou团队48-49将人类囊胚体外培养至CS5~6阶段,通过免疫荧光技术描述了人类胚胎着床后不同谱系细胞关键基因的表达特征。2019年,北京大学汤富酬团队32结合单细胞多组学方法深入解析了人类囊胚着床前的DNA甲基化图谱,发现人类胚胎着床前后的去甲基化重编程过程,并揭示了人类雌性胚胎着床过程中出现的X染色体随机失活的机制。2020年,昆明理工大学李天晴和季维智团队31进一步优化了人类胚胎的3D培养系统,将人类胚胎在体外培养至原肠运动前CS6阶段,并通过单细胞转录组阐述了人类早期胚胎发育过程中不同谱系细胞特化的分子机制和形态发生的发育图谱。尽管对人类胚胎样本进行研究可以帮助我们解析人类早期胚胎发育的过程,但由于目前伦理学限制的“14天规则”50,研究者无法利用人类胚胎样本研究原肠运动之后的发育过程,而人类胚胎发育过程中原肠运动等生物学关键发育事件均在CS6之后的阶段。在非人灵长类动物方面,2019年王红梅团队51和昆明理工大学谭韬、季维智团队52同时将食蟹猴胚胎体外培养至CS8阶段,重现了人类早期胚胎的关键发育事件,包括原始生殖细胞特化、前后轴(anterior-posterior axis)建立、原条形成等过程。2023年,这两个团队又进一步优化了食蟹猴胚胎体外培养方法(pIVC系统和EMEUC系统),将食蟹猴胚胎体外发育培养范围扩展到原肠运动晚期甚至早期器官发生的阶段53-54。在未来,非人灵长类动物胚胎将作为强有力的动物模型为研究人类早期胚胎的发育贡献更大的力量47。另一方面,除了借助非人灵长类动物作为实验动物模型,以人类干细胞为基础构建的胚胎模型亦可作为替代人类真实胚胎的另一种模型。一般来说,人类体外胚胎模型可大致分为两类:非整合型胚胎模型(non-integrated embryo model)和整合型胚胎模型(integrated embryo model)。非整合型胚胎模型通常重现了人类胚胎中特定组织的发育关键事件,而整合型胚胎模型则重现了整个人类胚胎,这些模型在不同程度上都在体外模拟了人类真实胚胎在体内的发育过程。
非整合型胚胎模型通常指模拟人类胚胎发育特定组织或系统的胚胎模型,通常不包含任何相关的胚外组织55。非整合型胚胎模型一般采用一种代表人类胚胎早期发育阶段的hPSC来作为组件进行诱导,例如人类胚胎干细胞(human embryonic stem cell,hESC)。目前,构建的人类非整合型胚胎模型主要模拟了人类胚胎着床后的发育特征(图2)。
2000年,Rambam医学中心Benvenisty团队56发现悬浮培养hESC会自发组装形成类胚体(embryoid body,EB)结构,但是其内部高度无序且随机并自发分化为三胚层谱系的细胞。此外,类胚体在体外不同的诱导条件下,hPSC可通过EB产生多种细胞类型,包括造血、血管、胰腺、肝脏和神经系谱系的细胞57。由于其内部不稳定性,用EB来探究人类早期胚胎细胞谱系分化的机制作用非常有限,表明类胚体的分化与人类真实胚胎有序的发育模式截然不同58
与EB不同,研究证明ESC也可以被有序地聚集并形成更均匀的3D结构。先前有研究表明在小鼠体内,聚集一定数量的小鼠胚胎干细胞(mouse embryonic stem cell,mESC)可以被WNT信号诱导发育成拉长的尾芽状结构,被称为类原肠胚(gastruloid)59-61。这种结构由来自三个胚层谱系的细胞组成,并形成前后(anterior-posterior)、左右和背腹(dorsal-ventral)轴。后续研究进一步证明,小鼠类原肠胚可发育出类脑区62、神经管63、体节63和原始跳动样心脏等结构64
2020年,英国剑桥大学Arias团队65用WNT激动剂(CHIR99021)在低吸附力培养板中处理hESC聚集体将其伸长为三维尾芽状的类原肠胚结构。2023年,日本京都大学Alev团队66进一步优化体外培养条件将hESC诱导至类轴胚(axiotoid)结构,其模拟了人类胚胎体节形成的头尾(rostro-caudal)分节形态和分子特征,并在其前后部位形成稳定的FGF-WNT信号梯度和视黄酸(retinoic acid,RA)信号。同年,哈佛医学院Pourquié团队67采用3D培养系统将hESC诱导至类体节胚(somitoid)和类轴胚(axiotoid)结构,其同样模拟了人类胚胎中具有前后特性的体节样结构。类原肠胚等模型极大模拟了人类胚胎着床后原肠运动发生至体节形成的过程,但其仍缺乏前端与神经相关的结构。重要的是,虽然人类类原肠胚可产生来自三个胚层的细胞衍生物,但是仍没有达到小鼠类原肠胚中所展示的发育复杂性和潜能。此外,还有一些研究报道了与类原肠胚相似的结构,例如神经管样伸长的类器官68和伸长多组织类器官69。最近,Nedelec团队70在hESC聚集体上进一步激活视黄酸信号和Hedgehog信号诱导出躯干样结构(trunk-like),模拟了人类脊柱和脊髓的发育过程,并进入早期器官发生阶段形成了被脊柱和肌肉祖细胞包围的神经管样结构。
2014年,美国洛克菲勒大学Brivanlou团队71首次构建了由hESC自发组装形成的2D微图案化胚胎(micro-patterned colony)结构。胚胎干细胞在BMP4的作用下分化形成微模式圆形结构,外圈是滋养外胚层样细胞,内圈是外胚层样细胞,而中间夹层是表达原条标志物的中胚层和内胚层样细胞。随后,许多团队基于这一模型进一步模拟了人类早期神经胚阶段的发育事件72-76。有研究表明,BMP信号的持续时间控制着CDX2阳性胚外细胞的分化77。然而,当用WNT3A和Activin-A替代BMP4时,微图案化胚胎模型的外圈细胞会被诱导为原条前端(anterior primitive streak)样细胞73。以上研究表明,通过生化小分子对细胞命运的调控高度依赖于微图案化胚胎的几何形状和大小。此外,使用水凝胶和Matrigel混合物将hESC转化为3D微图案化胚胎结构,用BMP4激活WNT信号后可诱导胚胎干细胞发育至原肠运动前上胚层样细胞,其打破前后对称性、出现原条和上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT)等特征78
2017年,美国密西根大学傅剑平团队79-80通过微流控装置(microfluidic device)构建了人类着床后羊膜囊类胚胎(post-implantation amniotic sac embryoid,PASE)结构。该结构模拟了人类胚胎着床后上胚层细胞形成羊膜囊的发育过程,即由一端柱状上胚层细胞和另一端鳞状羊膜细胞形成的双极性上胚层-羊膜胚囊结构。随后,傅剑平团队81进一步使用带有细胞支撑小孔的微流控装置大大提高了羊膜囊类胚胎的形成效率和可重复性。该装置有两个平行通道分别向两侧细胞提供培养基,添加BMP4的一侧通道可将hESC诱导成羊膜囊样细胞,而另一侧通道的hESC则保持其多能性,类似于人类胚胎着床后的上胚层细胞。另一方面,这种微流控PASE模型可逐渐重现人类原始生殖细胞样细胞的产生,并能将上胚层样细胞渐进特化成原条样细胞,而前端和后端原条样细胞产生则分别受到Activin-A和BMP4的调控。微流控PASE模型是一种可控、可扩展的模型,在未来还可以对该模型进行改进,例如对PASE模型的体外培养技术进行优化,或在上胚层样细胞一侧的通道中引入更多不对称条件来诱导神经外胚层(neural ectodermal)或中胚层的出现。
非整合型胚胎虽然不具备发育成完整胎儿的潜力,但是其具有更少的伦理争议问题,在未来可以为深入了解人类发育提供新的模块化工具。随着人类非整合型胚胎模型的进一步优化,其可扩展性及其对遗传操作的适应性将有助于我们进行大规模的药物和遗传筛选实验,从而更好地服务于临床出生缺陷等多种发育疾病的诊疗。
整合型胚胎模型通常指包含胚内和胚外细胞类型的胚胎模型,这些模型具有一定的复杂程度并具有发育成完整胎儿的潜力55。而非整合型胚胎模型并不具备在体外发育成完整胎儿的潜力,其往往缺少发育成完整胎儿所需的胚外组织,如卵黄囊和滋养外胚层细胞分化而成的胎盘48。依据整合型胚胎模型重现的发育阶段,整合型胚胎模型可以分为着床前类囊胚和着床后类胚胎,可以作为模拟人类真实胚胎发育过程的体外模型(图3)。
在小鼠上的研究表明,胚内和胚外谱系细胞能够在体外自发组装,形成类似囊胚的结构,也被称为类囊胚(blastoid)。小鼠类囊胚可以通过两种不同的方法产生:将已建立的干细胞系,如mESC与滋养层干细胞(mouse trophoblast stem cell,mTSC)82-84、mESC与胚外内胚层干细胞(extraembryonic endoderm,XENs)和mTSCs85-86、扩展的mESC与mTSC87,或将扩展的mESC诱导分化成囊胚样结构88。尽管小鼠类囊胚在体外并不完全具备真实胚胎的发育潜能,但它们能在体外模拟小鼠早期胚胎发育的大致过程。
近几年,小鼠类囊胚模型作为其真实囊胚在体外的替代品成功产生,引起了研究者们对开发人类类囊胚模型的兴趣。2021年,吴军团队和澳大利亚莫纳什大学Polo团队分别报道了通过两种不同的方法生成人类类囊胚的方法:Naïve态hPSC诱导法89和体细胞重编程法90。吴军团队基于Naïve态hPSC的多能性,将其在体外被诱导分化为原始内胚层和滋养外胚层谱系细胞25-2691。而小鼠具备相同状态的hPSC无法通过非转基因方法被诱导成滋养外胚层谱系细胞,体现了不同物种间的差异性92。随后,又有两项研究进一步证实了Naïve态hPSC构建类囊胚的潜能,通过调节Naïve态hPSC中ERK和NODAL信号通路,将类囊胚的构建效率提升至约70%~90%93-94,并且发现干扰Hippo信号通路对于Naïve态hPSC形成类囊胚至关重要94。除了Naïve态hPSC,hEPSC也可以被用来构建类囊胚样结构。北京大学于洋团队95首先利用hEPSC诱导为滋养外胚层样细胞,再与未诱导的hEPSC进行自发组装形成类囊胚结构。而Zernicka-Goetz团队96则直接通过诱导聚集的hEPSC形成空腔样类似囊胚的结构。此外,中山大学王继厂团队21和中国科学院Esteban团队17在体外成功捕捉到类似于8细胞(8-cell-like-cell,8CLC)的培养体系,并采用8CLC在体外构建了类囊胚模型的诱导体系。有趣的是,同济大学王译萱和高绍荣团队97则采用Primed态hPSC向Naïve态hPSC转换过程中的中间态细胞直接组装类囊胚模型。与使用已建立的胚胎干细胞不同,Polo团队通过体细胞重编程技术直接构建人类类囊胚结构,也称为诱导类囊胚(iBlastoid)。这一发现基于成纤维细胞在无任何外源信号的培养条件下,重编程的中间产物在第21天可分化成一个异质细胞群,并具备真实囊胚内三种细胞谱系的转录特征2490。因此,当把这些细胞群体在体外进行3D聚集后可自发形成类似囊胚的空腔结构90。此外,先前一些研究已开发出一种体外附着(in vitro attachment)模型,其可用于模拟人类囊胚着床后的发育阶段48-49。上述的类囊胚研究都采用了这种附着方法,并在一定程度上重现了真实囊胚着床后的关键发育事件,例如上胚层样细胞扩张和极化、类原羊膜腔出现、滋养外胚层样细胞进一步分化至滋养层细胞(表达滋养层细胞标志物CK7,以及产生hCG)。
最近,吴军团队和华盛顿大学Theunissen团队分别报道了采用子宫内膜基质细胞和3D细胞外基质作为类囊胚体外附着的条件。吴军团队98进一步优化了他们2021年类囊胚的诱导方法,采用一种小分子组合CEPT将类囊胚在不同细胞系中的形成效率提高至80%左右,并证明了PI3K/AKT和mTOR信号通路在类囊胚形成过程中的关键作用。此外,这一研究利用了一种将子宫内膜基质细胞与类囊胚共培养的方法,模拟了人类真实囊胚着床过程中与母体之间的互作关系98。Theunissen团队99则采用另一种类囊胚体外培养系统“3D细胞外基质”,同样帮助类囊胚重现人类真实囊胚着床后的关键发育事件,包括原条出现、滋养外胚层谱系细胞特化和滋养层细胞入侵的过程。此外,中国科学院神经科学研究所刘真等团队100利用食蟹猴胚胎干细胞构建了类囊胚诱导体系,在体外培养可将其发育至原肠运动阶段;同时,将食蟹猴类囊胚植入代孕母体中可以检测到早期妊娠囊(gestation sac)、血清中绒毛膜促性腺激素(chorionic gonadotropin,CG)和孕酮(progesterone)水平的提高。这一研究向我们展示了非人灵长类胚胎模型的研究或可为人类早期胚胎发育的研究提供另外一条全新的途径。
目前,人类类囊胚模型都仅通过免疫染色阐明了滋养层和内细胞团样细胞的空间定位。与人类真实囊胚相比,这些类囊胚模型中特化来源的原始内胚层样细胞比例较低,增殖能力较差,且正确位置形态仍难以确定,表明需要进一步改进以优化类囊胚的形成过程101。而Naïve态hPSC的遗传印记缺失和基因组不稳定性可能与非整倍体人类胚胎的情况类似,可能限制人类类囊胚着床后的发育进程102,需要研究者们后续进一步探索不同类囊胚模型中的DNA甲基化水平。除了类囊胚的分子和形态特征外,单细胞组学也揭示了这些模型与人类真实囊胚的相似性。由于生信分析的流程和采用不同遗传背景的hPSC,甚至对这些模型之间与真实囊胚的相似程度仍然不清楚,需要更进一步系统综合地对这些数据进行分析,以探究不同类囊胚模型在转录水平上的差异性。
类囊胚模拟了人类囊胚着床前的发育状态,而最近的一些研究开始构建着床后胚胎模型。最近,研究者采用人类hPSC作为组件同时诱导原始内胚层细胞来构建着床后胚胎模型,这些hPSC在体外被重置为类似于着床前的上胚层样细胞103。2023年,美国耶鲁大学的Sozen团队104采用hPSC在体外构建出类似人类着床后的胚胎结构,称之为人类扩展类胚胎(human extra-embryoid,hEE)。在hEE模型中发现原始内胚层样细胞的分离依赖于TGFβ-NODAL和FGF信号的调控,而羊膜囊样和原条样细胞的出现则依赖于BMP、WNT、NODAL和FGF信号的调控,并且原始内胚层可能在羊膜囊样结构的诱导过程中发挥着支持作用。虽然与体内真实胚胎相比,这一模型缺少滋养外胚层和胚外中胚层(extra-embryonic mesoderm,ExM)的结构,但其建立了一种可以系统研究上胚层和原始内胚层互作的简化模型,为解析前端脏内胚层(anterior visceral endoderm,AVE)调控上胚层细胞特化以及前后轴的建立提供了研究平台。同年,美国得克萨斯大学西南医学中心的吴军团队105在体外利用人类扩展多能干细胞(human extended pluripotency stem cell,hEPSC)构建了模拟人类胚胎着床后的类胚胎结构,被称为围着床类原肠胚(peri-gastruloid)。peri-gastruloid模型重现了人类真实胚胎着床后的发育过程,包括形成双胚层、三胚层结构,并进入神经胚形成期和早期器官发生阶段105。最近,美国匹兹堡大学Ebrahimkhani团队106采用转基因方法诱导出原始内胚层细胞,并和人类hPSC组合得到人类胚外造血胚胎模型(human embryoid model containing extraembryounic niche and yolk sac hematopoiesis,heX-Embryoid)。heX-Embryoid模型进一步重现了卵黄囊样组织的形态发生,包括红细胞、巨核细胞、髓细胞和淋巴样细胞的出现。日本京都大学Takashima团队107在体外通过过表达GATA6或7种化学因子将hPSC细胞命运向原始内胚层样细胞分化,并同时利用非人灵长类狨猴模型证明BMP4和FGF4信号通路在原始内胚层细胞特化过程中的关键作用。同时,Takashima团队利用转基因诱导出的原始内胚层样细胞与hPSC进行组合构建了类双胚盘胚胎模型(bilaminoid),bilaminoid重现了双胚层、三胚层结构,加入hPSC诱导出的滋养外胚层样细胞共培养后进一步促进了bilaminoid中羊膜腔的形成107。值得注意的是,这四项研究的组装效率都依赖于特定的hPSC系,且都缺乏滋养外胚层谱系细胞的整合,因此无法完美地模拟体内胚胎的发育过程。
为了完整地模拟着床后胚胎的发育过程,许多团队进一步尝试诱导出滋养外胚层谱系的细胞并将其整合进着床后胚胎模型中。2023年,Zernicka-Goetz团队通过转基因方法在hPSC中过表达滋养层细胞(GATA3TFAP2C 108)和原始内胚层细胞(GATA6 109SOX17 29)关键调节因子,诱导出滋养层样细胞和原始内胚层样细胞并自发组装成包含三种谱系样细胞的结构,效率达到20%左右,其在不需要外源信号调控的状态下出现类似羊膜囊、胚外中胚层细胞和原始生殖细胞等结构110。然而,由于转基因技术的引入,这一模型中上胚层样细胞大多特化为羊膜囊样细胞,其多能性很难维持,表达CER1的原始内胚层样细胞同样丢失较多。同年,李天晴和季维智团队111绘制了人着床后胚胎发育的完整细胞图谱,并利用优化的人类hPSC诱导出三胚层细胞并组装形成着床后的胚胎模型,被称为胚胎样组装体(embryo-like assembloid,E-assembloid)。在E-assembloid中重现了人类着床后胚胎的三维结构及发育过程中的关键事件,例如羊膜囊、卵黄囊、胚外中胚层细胞、原始生殖细胞和原条出现等过程,并阐明了决定人类hPSC命运向胚外中胚层样细胞和胚外内胚层样细胞特化的调控机制。最近,以色列魏茨曼科学研究所的Hanna团队112进一步系统优化了人类hPSC的诱导体系,在体外构建了模拟人类真实胚胎的类胚胎结构,被称为基于干细胞合成的完整胚胎模型(stem-cell-derived synthetic whole embryo model,SEM)。在SEM中较为完整地模拟了人类着床后胚胎在子宫中发育至原肠运动开始前的关键发育事件,包括双胚盘、上胚层管腔化、羊膜囊、卵黄囊及脏壁内胚层的形成、上胚层前后对称性打破、原始生殖细胞特化、胚外中胚层、绒毛膜腔及连接蒂(connecting stalk)的出现,以及滋养层周围合胞体(syncytium)和腔隙(lacunae)的形成。但是,SEM的组装效率仅为1.64%,远远低于E-assembloid的80%,未来仍需要进一步的研究来优化这一模型的组装策略,达到理想的效率。值得注意的是,SEM并不能作为真实胚胎在体外的完全替代品,因为其缺乏真实胚胎与子宫之间的互作联系。由于缺乏与母体结构之间的联系,整合型胚胎模型中滋养外胚层谱系细胞没有很好地模拟体内发育过程,包括细胞滋养层细胞(cytotrophoblast,CTB)的形成、合胞滋养层细胞(syncytiotrophoblast,STB)和绒毛外滋养层细胞(extravillous trophoblast,EVT)的特化以及胎盘(placenta)的发育,仍需要结合生物工程学的方法在体外模拟真实的母体子宫结构来探索胚胎与母体之间的互作联系。然而,先前滋养层细胞类器官的研究系统模拟了胎盘的发育过程113,为研究胎盘的早期发育提供了一种直截了当的方法,而这在目前的整合型胚胎模型中仍然是缺乏的。
近期研究展示了在体外利用干细胞为基础模拟人类早期胚胎发育的可能性,向我们揭示了胚胎自发组装潜能的奇妙过程,预示胚胎发育领域研究进入了一个新纪元。以人类hPSC为基础的非整合型和整合型胚胎模型的应用前景主要包括:①胚胎模型可用于研究人类早期胚胎发育的关键发育事件,并解析胚胎发育过程中不同谱系细胞特化的分子调控机制。深入解析人类胚胎发育过程对于生育缺陷疾病、先天性遗传缺陷疾病的预防和治疗,以及体外受精IVF的成功起到至关重要的指导作用。②利用疾病或特定基因型来源的干细胞构建胚胎模型可用于阐释相关疾病的病理生理机制,比如利用孤雌胚胎干细胞构建的类囊胚解析人类孤雌胚胎发育的分子机制。③胚胎模型使高通量基因和药物的筛选成为可能,为早期发育缺陷疾病的药筛和开发提供新的疾病模型并加速药物研发过程,比如类原肠胚可作为新型的体外致畸模型用于评估药物的致畸性114。④采用特定患者的干细胞来构建其胚胎模型,将有助于个性化医学的发展,为疾病的诊断和治疗提供更精准的方案。随着胚胎模型的进一步发展进入器官发生阶段,这也将有助于开发个性化定制的人工器官替代品,从而通过再生医学技术解决未来人类器官移植的问题。此外,与传统基于hESC为起点的体外胚胎模型不同,从体细胞重编程开始构建的着床前类囊胚90,为今后根据特定患者的胚胎发育特点个性化定制其潜在疾病的胚胎模型或人工器官替代品提供了更加精准便捷的思路。如何精准调控不同谱系细胞的分化轨迹,并将生物仿生材料、细胞外基质(extracellular matrix,ECM)或类子宫内膜组合体与生物工程技术结合起来提高人类早期胚胎体外培养的可重复性、发育效率,将极大地推动研究者们解析人类早期胚胎发育机制的进程。
目前人类胚胎体外培养和胚胎模型面临着巨大的伦理道德问题115。来自美国加利福尼亚大学的Clark和Landecker以及英国弗朗西斯·克里克研究所的Moris认为以干细胞为基础的胚胎模型不应称为“合成胚胎”(synthetic embryos),将这些胚胎模型称为“合成胚胎”是一种误导,应谨慎对待这一称谓116-117。最近,国际干细胞研究学会(ISSCR)就涉及胚胎模型的研究阐明了自己的立场(https://www.isscr.org/isscr-news/isscr-statement-on-new-research-with-embryo-models),ISSCR支持为特定科学研究来构建人类胚胎模型,但其建议不要使用“合成胚胎”这一术语以防止误解。此外,先前ISSCR推荐培养人类胚胎的时间不超过受精后2周。在2023年5月26日,ISSCR表示将放宽这条著名的“14天规则”(https://www.isscr.org/guidelines),ISSCR建议对申请进行人类胚胎培养超过2周的研究项目具体分析,并进行严格的多轮审核以决定实验停止的时间。此外,ISSCR准则并不推荐对胚胎进行基因编辑,并严格禁止将任何人类胚胎模型移植到人类或动物子宫中55。傅剑平和来自多伦多大学的Rossant呼吁当前研究者们若采用整合型胚胎模型作为研究对象时,首先需要明确是否有充分的科学依据选择这一胚胎模型;其次,研究者们应该经过深思熟虑后谨慎地选择最适合自己研究的人类胚胎模型(非整合型和整合型胚胎模型),以免引起公众的反对并阻碍整个领域的发展118。来自澳大利亚维也纳生物中心的Rivron等119同样认为对人类胚胎模型不准确的过度表述有可能歪曲相关基础研究的性质并误导公众的认知,作为干细胞伦理和政策方面的科学家和专业人士,大家必须一起努力使公众对人类胚胎学的研究有一个合理的认知。因此,如何划定人类类胚胎的研究范围以符合伦理规范仍值得研究者们与大众的讨论和探索。
随着这些人类胚胎体外模型的不断完善,将极大地扩展我们目前对人类发育生物学的认知和理解。在这一过程中,需要吸引更多的研究者投入到人类胚胎模型构建领域,跨学科的协作交互将发挥不可估量的作用。此外,目前人类胚胎模型的体外培养条件仍比较单一,仅依赖于静态培养和摇床培养系统(shaker system)。2021年,Hanna团队120在体外建立模拟子宫的滚筒培养系统(roller system)以维持小鼠胚胎发育至晚期器官发生的阶段。这一体外培养系统或有可能应用于人类类囊胚或类胚胎的体外培养体系中,以模拟人类真实胚胎着床后的发育后期阶段,如胎盘发育以及心脏和神经管的形成。然而,目前对于人类胚胎模型的仿生性和发育潜能仅依赖于单细胞转录组和体外培养过程中特定胚胎结构或细胞谱系的出现来进行验证。虽然这些实验证据尚不足以证明人类胚胎模型与真实胚胎之间发育潜能的差异或相似程度,但是在目前的伦理框架内这是唯一可行的评估方式。值得注意的是,为了避免目前所面临的伦理问题,非整合型胚胎模型和非人灵长类食蟹猴模型将会是我们探索人类早期胚胎器官发生过程中更加合适的研究工具,研究者们或许可以将食蟹猴类胚胎植入母体后来系统地评估胚胎模型和真实胚胎之间的相似性。而非整合型胚胎模型仅含有部分构成胚胎的细胞类型,虽然这些模型的发育潜力有限,却能在生物工程技术的帮助下模拟特定细胞谱系的发育过程,如定制的培养表面71和微流控系统81。同时,非整合型胚胎模型绕过了使用人类胚胎样本或模拟真实胚胎的整合型胚胎模型所面临的伦理挑战,为深入了解人类发育提供了新的模块化工具,为开发生物学、干细胞研究、再生医学和生育治疗等不同领域打开了全新的大门。
  • 国家自然科学基金(22DAA01467)
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2024年第5卷第4期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-010
  • 接收时间:2024-01-19
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-08-31
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  • 收稿日期:2024-01-19
  • 修回日期:2024-04-16
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    1 西湖大学生命科学学院,西湖生命科学与生物医学实验室,浙江 杭州 310024
    2 浙江西湖高等研究院,浙江 杭州 310024
    3 西湖大学未来产业研究中心,浙江 杭州 310024

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刘晓东(1988—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为诱导重编程,干细胞命运调控,谱系追踪,类器官和生物材料工程等。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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种数
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species
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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