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The brain, as the epicenter of human intelligence, sensation, and motor coordination, represents the pinnacle of biological complexity. Despite its critical role, the availability of live human brain tissue for research is fraught with challenges, impeding advancements in our understanding of the nervous system. Brain organoids are sophisticated three-dimensional cultures derived from human pluripotent stem cells that emulate the diverse cellular composition, structural intricacies, and functional attributes of the human brain. These organoids eclipse traditional two-dimensional cultures and animal models in mirroring the brain’s spatial organization and cellular interplay, bolstered by a genetic congruence with their human counterparts. This congruence renders them particularly adept at modeling neuropsychiatric conditions and pioneering cell-based therapeutic interventions. Regenerative medicine, a confluence of engineering and biological sciences, endeavors to restore tissues and organs compromised by aging, disease, or trauma. However, the field grapples with limitations stemming from the scarcity of samples and ethical quandaries. Brain organoid technology emerges as a formidable asset in this domain, offering expansive potential and profound implications for scientific inquiry. Recent strides have seen the successful assembly of organoid models representing various brain regions through the application of tissue engineering and directed differentiation. These models hold promise for simulating neuropathological states and facilitating tissue repair. This article meticulously surveys the cutting-edge methodologies for constructing organoids specific to brain regions such as the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and retina. It delineates the principal applications of brain organoids in regenerative medicine, encompassing injury simulation, exploration of inter-regional and multi-lineage cellular dynamics, drug efficacy and toxicity assessments, and the potential for organoid transplantation. Furthermore, the review addresses the prevailing obstacles in the application of brain organoids, notably their pronounced variability, absence of vascularization, and developmental immaturity. In essence, this review seeks to illuminate the organoid generation techniques tailored to discrete brain territories and their significance in regenerative medicine’s landscape. By probing into research poised to surmount the limitations of current models, it aspires to broaden the horizons for brain organoids in both foundational research and clinical applications.

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脑类器官是一种基于人多能干细胞的三维体外模型,能够模拟人脑的细胞异质性、结构和功能。再生医学是一个多学科交叉的领域,致力于应用工程学和生物学手段修复因年龄、疾病或外伤而受损的组织或器官。脑类器官技术作为再生医学领域的一种重要手段,具有广阔的应用前景和重要的科学意义。近年来,利用组织工程和诱导因子分化技术,研究人员成功构建出不同脑区的脑类器官模型,可用于模拟脑损伤或修复病变组织。本文将系统介绍包括大脑皮层、海马、纹状体、中脑、丘脑及下丘脑、小脑和视网膜在内的脑区特异类器官构建技术的最新进展,总结其在再生医学领域中的应用,并概括当前脑类器官应用面临的挑战,如异质性大、缺乏脉管系统和成熟度较低等。这将加深对人类大脑的理解,并增强脑类器官在基础研究和临床研究中的进一步应用。

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刘妍(1981—),女,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为利用人脑类器官开展神经疾病机制及细胞移植治疗研究。E-mail:
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洪源(1995—),男,博士。研究方向为利用人脑类器官模型开展抑郁症病理机制研究。E-mail:

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Scientific Reports, 2016, 6: 37540., articleTitle=Rapid and efficient CRISPR/Cas9 gene inactivation in human neurons during human pluripotent stem cell differentiation and direct reprogramming, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1172892002334163959, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993297084899909, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=2, issue=null, pageStart=623717, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=149, rfOrder=148, authorNames=FREDERIKSEN H R, DOEHN U, TVEDEN-NYBORG P, journalName=Frontiers in Genome Editing, refType=null, unstructuredReference= FREDERIKSEN H R, DOEHN U, TVEDEN-NYBORG P, et al. Non-immunogenic induced pluripotent stem cells, a promising way forward for allogenic transplantations for neurological disorders[J]. 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The differentiation methods of brain region-specific organoids

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脑区 类型 年份 课题组 分化方法 参考文献
大脑 皮层 2008 Yoshiki Sasai PSC在含有Dkk -1和Lefty-1的神经分化培养基中自组织形成SFEBq培养物 [26]
2013 Juergen A. Knoblich 先将PSC重聚成拟胚体,并生成神经外胚层,随后将其嵌入Matrigel,在没有外源性生长因子的条件下悬浮培养 [12]
2015 Sergiu P. Paşca hiPSC形成拟胚体后使用Dorsomorphin和SB431542进行神经诱导分化,6天后转移至含FGF2和EGF的培养基中,体外培养第25天更换成BDNF和NT3 [14]
2016 Hongjun Song & Guo-li Ming iPSC重聚的拟胚体先在dorsomorphin和A-83的条件下培养7天,并用基质胶包埋后添加CHIR99021、WNT3A和SB431542因子培养1周后转移至微型旋转生物反应器继续培养 [15]
海马体 2015 Yoshiki Sasai hESC重聚形成SFEBq后,添加IWR1e和 SB431542培养18天,随后加入CHIR和BMP4诱导海马体分化 [27]
纹状体 2020 Sergiu P. Paşca hiPSC形成拟胚体后,添加DMH1和SB431542培养6天,随后在第6~22天添加Activin A、IWP2和SR11237促进纹状体的分化 [28]
2022 Ma Lixiang PSC重聚后在含LDN-193189和SB431542的培养基中培养10天,随后在purmorphamine的诱导下培养至第25天 [29]
中脑 2016 Ng Huck-Hui hESC重聚成拟胚体后第4天开始添加SHH-C25II和FGF8诱导中脑分化命运,神经外胚层出现后包埋类器官,转移至低吸附六孔板中培养 [30]
2016 Song Hongjun & Ming Guo-li iPSC重聚后加入SHH、FGF-8、SB431542、LDN193189和CHIR99021诱导中脑命运,并在第14天时将其转移至微型旋转生物反应器继续培养 [15]
丘脑和 下丘脑 2016 Song Hongjun & Ming Guo-li iPSC重聚后先加入SB431542 和LDN193189,分化第4~7天,加入WNT3A、SHH和purmorphamine诱导下丘脑命运,随后持续添加FGF2和CNTF促进类器官成熟 [15]
2019 Park In-Hyun hESC重聚后添加SB431542、LDN193189和insulin促进尾侧的神经诱导,第8天开始添加PD0325901和BMP7诱导丘脑分化 [31]
2021 Song Hongjun & Ming Guo-li hiPSC经过双SMAD抑制诱导神经外胚层命运,同时加入IWR1-endo、SAG、PMA和SHH促进弓状核分化,第12天开始与小鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞共培养 [32]
小脑 2015 Yoshiki Sasai 将hESC重聚为SFEBq,第2~14天在含有胰岛素和SB431542的培养基中,持续添加重组人FGF2,并在后期加入FGF19和SDF1促进极性结构的形成 [33]
2024 Giorgia Quadrato hiPSC重聚后第0~16天加入SB431542、Noggin、FGF8b和CHIR99021诱导后脑分化命运,并在第30天开始加入T3和BDNF促进后脑成熟,加入SDF1a完成小脑模式化 [34]
视网膜 2012 Yoshiki Sasai hESC重聚形成SFEBq后,在 IWR1e、FBS、SAG和CHIR99021的诱导下,自组织形成视网膜类器官 [35]
2014 M. Valeria Canto-Soler 将hiPSC重聚后,分化第7天时用基质胶包埋,并在第4周手动分离神经视网膜结构域,从第42天开始向培养基中添加FBS、Taurine和GlutaMAX,在培养过程中,每天都需添加RA以促进光感受器的成熟 [36]
), ArticleFig(id=1172891989105328914, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993297084899909, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

脑区特异类器官的分化流程

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脑区 类型 年份 课题组 分化方法 参考文献
大脑 皮层 2008 Yoshiki Sasai PSC在含有Dkk -1和Lefty-1的神经分化培养基中自组织形成SFEBq培养物 [26]
2013 Juergen A. Knoblich 先将PSC重聚成拟胚体,并生成神经外胚层,随后将其嵌入Matrigel,在没有外源性生长因子的条件下悬浮培养 [12]
2015 Sergiu P. Paşca hiPSC形成拟胚体后使用Dorsomorphin和SB431542进行神经诱导分化,6天后转移至含FGF2和EGF的培养基中,体外培养第25天更换成BDNF和NT3 [14]
2016 Hongjun Song & Guo-li Ming iPSC重聚的拟胚体先在dorsomorphin和A-83的条件下培养7天,并用基质胶包埋后添加CHIR99021、WNT3A和SB431542因子培养1周后转移至微型旋转生物反应器继续培养 [15]
海马体 2015 Yoshiki Sasai hESC重聚形成SFEBq后,添加IWR1e和 SB431542培养18天,随后加入CHIR和BMP4诱导海马体分化 [27]
纹状体 2020 Sergiu P. Paşca hiPSC形成拟胚体后,添加DMH1和SB431542培养6天,随后在第6~22天添加Activin A、IWP2和SR11237促进纹状体的分化 [28]
2022 Ma Lixiang PSC重聚后在含LDN-193189和SB431542的培养基中培养10天,随后在purmorphamine的诱导下培养至第25天 [29]
中脑 2016 Ng Huck-Hui hESC重聚成拟胚体后第4天开始添加SHH-C25II和FGF8诱导中脑分化命运,神经外胚层出现后包埋类器官,转移至低吸附六孔板中培养 [30]
2016 Song Hongjun & Ming Guo-li iPSC重聚后加入SHH、FGF-8、SB431542、LDN193189和CHIR99021诱导中脑命运,并在第14天时将其转移至微型旋转生物反应器继续培养 [15]
丘脑和 下丘脑 2016 Song Hongjun & Ming Guo-li iPSC重聚后先加入SB431542 和LDN193189,分化第4~7天,加入WNT3A、SHH和purmorphamine诱导下丘脑命运,随后持续添加FGF2和CNTF促进类器官成熟 [15]
2019 Park In-Hyun hESC重聚后添加SB431542、LDN193189和insulin促进尾侧的神经诱导,第8天开始添加PD0325901和BMP7诱导丘脑分化 [31]
2021 Song Hongjun & Ming Guo-li hiPSC经过双SMAD抑制诱导神经外胚层命运,同时加入IWR1-endo、SAG、PMA和SHH促进弓状核分化,第12天开始与小鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞共培养 [32]
小脑 2015 Yoshiki Sasai 将hESC重聚为SFEBq,第2~14天在含有胰岛素和SB431542的培养基中,持续添加重组人FGF2,并在后期加入FGF19和SDF1促进极性结构的形成 [33]
2024 Giorgia Quadrato hiPSC重聚后第0~16天加入SB431542、Noggin、FGF8b和CHIR99021诱导后脑分化命运,并在第30天开始加入T3和BDNF促进后脑成熟,加入SDF1a完成小脑模式化 [34]
视网膜 2012 Yoshiki Sasai hESC重聚形成SFEBq后,在 IWR1e、FBS、SAG和CHIR99021的诱导下,自组织形成视网膜类器官 [35]
2014 M. Valeria Canto-Soler 将hiPSC重聚后,分化第7天时用基质胶包埋,并在第4周手动分离神经视网膜结构域,从第42天开始向培养基中添加FBS、Taurine和GlutaMAX,在培养过程中,每天都需添加RA以促进光感受器的成熟 [36]
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脑类器官在再生医学中的研究进展
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洪源 1, 2, 3 , 刘妍 1, 4, 5
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(4): 754-769
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(4): 754-769
脑类器官在再生医学中的研究进展
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洪源1, 2, 3 , 刘妍1, 4, 5
作者信息
  • 1 南京医科大学姑苏学院,江苏 南京 211166
  • 2 苏州市立医院,江苏 苏州 215006
  • 3 南京医科大学附属苏州医院,江苏 苏州 215006
  • 4 南京医科大学生殖医学与子代健康全国重点实验室,江苏 南京 211166
  • 5 南京医科大学药学院干细胞与神经再生研究所,江苏 南京 211166
  • 洪源(1995—),男,博士。研究方向为利用人脑类器官模型开展抑郁症病理机制研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

刘妍(1981—),女,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为利用人脑类器官开展神经疾病机制及细胞移植治疗研究。E-mail:
Research progress of brain organoids in regenerative medicine
Yuan HONG1, 2, 3 , Yan LIU1, 4, 5
Affiliations
  • 1 Gusu School,Nanjing Medical University,Nanjing 211166,Jiangsu,China
  • 2 Suzhou Municipal Hospital,Suzhou 215006,Jiangsu,China
  • 3 The Afflicated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University,Suzhou 215006,Jiangsu,China
  • 4 State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine and Offspring Health,Nanjing Medical University,Nanjing 211166,Jiangsu,China
  • 5 Institution of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration,School of Pharmacy,Nanjing Medical University,Nanjing 211166,Jiangsu,China
出版时间: 2024-08-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-102
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脑类器官是一种基于人多能干细胞的三维体外模型,能够模拟人脑的细胞异质性、结构和功能。再生医学是一个多学科交叉的领域,致力于应用工程学和生物学手段修复因年龄、疾病或外伤而受损的组织或器官。脑类器官技术作为再生医学领域的一种重要手段,具有广阔的应用前景和重要的科学意义。近年来,利用组织工程和诱导因子分化技术,研究人员成功构建出不同脑区的脑类器官模型,可用于模拟脑损伤或修复病变组织。本文将系统介绍包括大脑皮层、海马、纹状体、中脑、丘脑及下丘脑、小脑和视网膜在内的脑区特异类器官构建技术的最新进展,总结其在再生医学领域中的应用,并概括当前脑类器官应用面临的挑战,如异质性大、缺乏脉管系统和成熟度较低等。这将加深对人类大脑的理解,并增强脑类器官在基础研究和临床研究中的进一步应用。

脑类器官  /  药物筛选  /  疾病模型  /  个体化医疗  /  再生医学

The brain, as the epicenter of human intelligence, sensation, and motor coordination, represents the pinnacle of biological complexity. Despite its critical role, the availability of live human brain tissue for research is fraught with challenges, impeding advancements in our understanding of the nervous system. Brain organoids are sophisticated three-dimensional cultures derived from human pluripotent stem cells that emulate the diverse cellular composition, structural intricacies, and functional attributes of the human brain. These organoids eclipse traditional two-dimensional cultures and animal models in mirroring the brain’s spatial organization and cellular interplay, bolstered by a genetic congruence with their human counterparts. This congruence renders them particularly adept at modeling neuropsychiatric conditions and pioneering cell-based therapeutic interventions. Regenerative medicine, a confluence of engineering and biological sciences, endeavors to restore tissues and organs compromised by aging, disease, or trauma. However, the field grapples with limitations stemming from the scarcity of samples and ethical quandaries. Brain organoid technology emerges as a formidable asset in this domain, offering expansive potential and profound implications for scientific inquiry. Recent strides have seen the successful assembly of organoid models representing various brain regions through the application of tissue engineering and directed differentiation. These models hold promise for simulating neuropathological states and facilitating tissue repair. This article meticulously surveys the cutting-edge methodologies for constructing organoids specific to brain regions such as the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and retina. It delineates the principal applications of brain organoids in regenerative medicine, encompassing injury simulation, exploration of inter-regional and multi-lineage cellular dynamics, drug efficacy and toxicity assessments, and the potential for organoid transplantation. Furthermore, the review addresses the prevailing obstacles in the application of brain organoids, notably their pronounced variability, absence of vascularization, and developmental immaturity. In essence, this review seeks to illuminate the organoid generation techniques tailored to discrete brain territories and their significance in regenerative medicine’s landscape. By probing into research poised to surmount the limitations of current models, it aspires to broaden the horizons for brain organoids in both foundational research and clinical applications.

brain organoids  /  drug screening  /  disease model  /  personalized medicine  /  regenerative medicine
洪源, 刘妍. 脑类器官在再生医学中的研究进展. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (4) : 754 -769 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-102
Yuan HONG, Yan LIU. Research progress of brain organoids in regenerative medicine[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (4) : 754 -769 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-102
人脑是已知生物中最复杂的器官,具有丰富的细胞类型多样性1。目前,具有生理功能的人类脑组织样本获取较为困难2,从而限制了对人类神经系统的研究。动物模型和二维(2D)人源性细胞模型在神经科学领域的应用范围十分广泛,为研究脑发育和精神疾病机制提供了有力工具。然而,动物模型在生物医学中的应用受到了动物和人类之间物种差异的限制2-3,同时2D细胞系无法复现脑组织中的层次结构、空间维度、细胞多样性以及细胞与细胞间的相互作用4-5。除此之外,尸检人脑组织也被认为是用来研究大脑的宝贵材料,但是由于它显示的仅是人脑在终末阶段的状态,无法延伸到发育或疾病的早期阶段,从而限制人们研究细胞水平的动态变化6。因此,为了实现个性化医疗的目标,我们需要优化人源性体外模型的构建,以弥合目前大多数模型系统和人脑之间的差异,从而深入研究人类的遗传多样性以及它对疾病发病机制和药物反应的影响。
以人类多能干细胞(human pluripotent stem cell, hPSC)为基础的体外培养系统的出现,为建立体外人源性模型提供了一种可能性7。早在1981年,Evans等8就已经构建出了鼠源性的胚胎干细胞(mouse embryonic stem cell,mESC)系。然而,第一个人类胚胎干细胞(human embryonic stem cell,hESC)系到1998年才被Thomson等9建立。此后,Takahashi和Yamanaka10在2006年首次实现了小鼠成纤维细胞的重编程,通过转导编码Oct4Sox2Klf4c-Myc的四种转录因子,使其具备了与hESC相似的基因表达和发育成三个胚层的潜力,这些细胞被称为诱导多能干细胞(induced pluripotent cell, iPSC)。人诱导多能干细胞(human induced pluripotent cell, hiPSC)技术是在2007年建立的,并已广泛用于构建人源性的体外模型11。这项技术可以实现个性化疾病建模,并已成为精准医学的重要组成部分。
脑类器官是hPSC经过特定分化流程而形成的体外三维细胞模型,具有自我更新和组织的能力,并能够模拟人类大脑的细胞和功能多样性12-15。与动物模型和2D细胞模型相比,脑类器官携带有供体的遗传信息,且具有同人脑相似的结构和功能16。同时,脑类器官培养体系更容易进行药物干预和基因编辑等生物学研究17,结合先进的多组学技术,给研究人脑发育、疾病机制和物种进化提供了全新的人源性平台。
脑类器官技术给再生医学带来了新的机遇,它可用于生成具有组织特异性和功能性并能够长期培养的体外3D人脑模型,进而重建或替代受损的脑组织,以恢复或建立人脑的特异性功能18。尽管存在异质性大、缺少血管和成熟度低等问题,脑类器官仍是再生医学领域中应用潜力巨大的新兴技术,它不仅可以提高人类健康水平,还可以减少对动物模型的依赖,从而降低研究成本和伦理风险。
本文作者列举了脑类器官技术的最新进展,并介绍了各脑区类器官的特点和分化方式,从脑损伤造模、多脑区互作、药物筛选和毒理学评价、细胞移植等不同角度,评价了脑类器官在再生医学领域的潜在应用价值。此外,本文还指出了脑类器官技术目前面临的一些局限性和挑战,以及未来的发展方向和可能的解决方案。
神经系统的发育起源于外胚层,先由神经板折叠形成神经管,进而分化为大脑和脊髓19。神经管的背腹(D-V)轴的建立受到腹侧的SHH信号和背侧的WNT/BMP信号的协同调控20-21,而前后(A-P)轴的划分则受到纤维细胞生长因子(fibroblast growth factor,FGF)和视黄酸(retinoic acid,RA)等因子的影响22-23。不同的神经祖细胞在A-P轴和D-V轴上具有特异的形态发生因子组合。通过模拟早期神经发育的体内环境,并在时空上精确控制相关形态发生因子的浓度梯度,hPSC可以在体外分化为具有功能性和区域特异性的脑类器官24-25表1)。
大脑皮层是人脑最大、最复杂的组成部分,负责高级的认知、情感和行为功能37。大脑皮层的发育起源于神经管的喙神经孔,并经历了一系列的细胞分化、迁移、增殖和突触形成过程。由于人类大脑皮层的复杂性和独特性,传统的模式动物难以完全反映其发育和疾病的机制。大脑皮层类器官为研究人类大脑皮层的形成和功能网络,以及相关的神经系统疾病提供了新的选择。
大脑皮层类器官的研究始于2008年,Eiraku等26使用无血清培养系统,让人胚胎干细胞在重组人Dkk-1和Lefty-1等因子的诱导下自组织成拟胚体(embryoid body, EB),随后形成具有顶端极性的皮层样结构,并包含皮层神经祖细胞和功能性神经元。2013年,Lancaster等12首次提出了3D人脑类器官的概念,他们使用一种无需诱导因子的hiPSC分化方法,即将拟胚体包埋在基质胶中,在神经发育生长因子的诱导下形成有不同皮层的人脑类器官。随后,他们将一名携带有CDK5RAP2突变的小头畸形患者的皮肤成纤维细胞重编程成hiPSC,并使用同样的分化流程构建了可以模拟小头畸形表型的脑类器官模型,开创了使用3D脑类器官来模拟人类神经发育和神经系统疾病的新途径。
为了提高大脑皮层类器官的均一性和区域特异性,Kadoshima等38通过添加WNT通路抑制剂IWR1e和TGF-β通路抑制剂SB431542,分化出了具有复杂皮层形态的脑类器官。随后,Qian等15通过在脑类器官培养时加入cAMP、TGF-β、BDNF和GDNF等生长因子,并在微型旋转生物反应器中长期培养,最终获得了同人类大脑皮层相似的、具有六层结构的皮层类器官。
除了神经前体细胞和神经元外,胶质细胞也是大脑皮层的重要组成部分,含有胶质细胞的皮层类器官系统的开发一直在持续之中。2015年,Paşca等14采用非包埋的脑类器官培养方法,依次在培养体系中加入FGF2、EGF、BDNF和NT3等营养因子,经过长期分化后,最终获得了含有星形胶质细胞的皮层类器官。2017年,Abud等39将hiPSC分化的小胶质细胞和脑类器官共培养,发现小胶质细胞能够整合到脑类器官中,并对细胞损伤产生同体内类似的免疫反应。Madhavan等40通过在皮层类器官的体外培养体系中加入PDGF-AA和IGF-1诱导少突胶质前细胞群扩增,再通过加入T3诱导其分化成熟,最终产生了富含少突胶质前体细胞(OPC)和髓鞘少突胶质细胞的皮层类器官。
目前,人们已经能够构建出包含谷氨酸能神经元、γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)神经元、神经前体细胞、中间前体细胞和神经胶质细胞的大脑皮层类器官,这些细胞形成了功能性神经网络,从而反映了人类大脑皮层的发育和功能特征。
人类海马体是由背内侧端脑发育而成的,位于颞叶内侧,呈“S”形,包含海马角(cornu ammonis, CA)和齿状回(dentate gyrus, DG)两个部分,对学习和记忆的形成和保持有重要作用41。海马神经元由颗粒神经元和锥体神经元组成,在胚胎阶段,早期CA区域就能自主产生成熟的锥体神经元42
Yu等43最早提出由hPSC分化海马DG区颗粒神经元的方案,他们使用WNT3A和BDNF因子处理前脑命运的拟胚体来分化DG颗粒神经元,并将其与人海马星形胶质细胞共培养以促进神经元成熟并形成神经网络。2015年,Sakaguchi等27以皮层类器官的培养方案为基础,由hPSC生成了具有自组织能力的三维海马类器官,该组织中包含了脉络丛和内侧髓鞘样结构。他们先通过抑制SMAD信号通路来诱导端脑的形成,然后通过加入WNT激动剂CHIR99021和BMP信号通路配体BMP4来促进背侧化,从而使hPSC分化为海马神经前体细胞。经过长期培养,这些神经前体细胞被成功诱导为海马DG区和CA区神经元,并形成了具有突触连接的功能性神经元网络。
海马在许多精神疾病(如阿尔茨海默病和精神分裂症)中都会受到损伤,导致学习和记忆能力的下降44。因此,利用海马类器官在体外重建复杂的海马神经回路,对于研究人类大脑的发育和疾病的机制具有重要的意义。
纹状体是一种位于大脑基底神经节的重要神经结构,在妊娠中期由外侧神经节突起(LGE)发育而成,在运动控制、学习、记忆、情感和认知等方面发挥着关键作用45。纹状体的功能障碍与多种神经精神疾病有关,如帕金森病46、亨廷顿病47和自闭症48等。因此,研究纹状体的发育和病理机制对于理解人类神经系统的复杂性和多样性具有重要意义。
目前,纹状体类器官的分化方法主要有两种:一种是2020年由Miura等28首次提出的在神经诱导培养基中加入包括视黄醇受体激动剂SR11237、WNT信号抑制剂IWP2以及激活素A在内的因子组合的方法,体外培养15天后即可获得表达GSX2和CTIP2的纹状体类器官;另一种是2022年由Chen等29提出的直接在培养体系中加入SHH激动剂嘌吗啡胺(PMA)的分化方法。因为人脑纹状体是基底神经节的主要输入侧,同时接收来自大脑皮层和黑质传入投射49,所以在上述工作中,研究者进一步将纹状体类器官和皮层或中脑类器官组成类组装体(assembloid),用于在体外模拟神经环路和精神系统疾病的疾病造模。纹状体类器官的产生和发展给纹状体相关精神疾病的病理机制研究和药物筛选提供了新的平台。
中脑由间脑分化而来,位于脑干的最前端,包括顶盖和被盖,主要负责视觉、听觉、眼球运动和运动控制等功能50。已有的研究表明,使用CHIR99021激活WNT信号通路可促进中脑或后脑的命运决定51。此外,使用SHH或者SAG激活SHH信号通路也对中脑类器官的分化至关重要,因为该通路在底板前体的模式化中发挥着最重要的作用3052
2016年,Jo等30通过在3D培养体系中添加SHH、FGF8、WNT通路激动剂 CHIR99021等因子首次构建了表达 FOXA2和TH等中脑多巴胺能神经元标志物的中脑类器官,其中的多巴胺神经元表现出功能成熟的电生理活性,并可释放多巴胺递质。随后,Qian等15使用3D打印的旋转生物反应器并加入TGF-β、cAMP、BDNF和GDNF等营养因子实现了中脑类器官的长期培养。除了hPSC之外,Monzel等53将人神经上皮干细胞(NESC)重聚成拟胚体,并通过添加CHIR99021和PMA诱导中脑的分化命运,经过长时间培养后,类器官中出现了少量S100B阳性的星形胶质细胞和少突胶质细胞。
中脑类器官已被用于各种同多巴胺神经元相关的精神疾病的研究,例如,研究人员已经证明,从帕金森病患者或通过基因编辑获得的中脑类器官可以复现帕金森病的经典表型,如多巴胺神经元数量减少、神经元网络复杂性降低,以及出现路易体样包涵体等54-55。除了针对疾病机制的研究外,中脑类器官也可作为精神疾病的药物筛选平台。Jarazo等56发现HP-β-CD治疗可改善PINK1突变的中脑类器官中神经元线粒体的自噬能力,并提升了多巴胺神经元的分化率。在另一项研究中,Zhu等57构建了青年帕金森病人(YOPD)来源的中脑类器官,并将多巴胺神经元的囊泡储存障碍作为潜在的疾病机制。他们随后发现,phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate能够作为挽救帕金森病囊泡表型的潜在化合物。
丘脑和下丘脑在胚胎时期由间脑分化而来。丘脑和下丘脑是大脑的中枢和枢纽,它们与大脑皮层、基底神经节、脑干和脊髓等结构形成了复杂的神经回路,参与了多种生理和行为的调节58。丘脑是除了嗅觉外的所有感觉信息的中转站,它将感觉信息传递给大脑皮层进行进一步的处理。而下丘脑是自主神经系统和内分泌系统的主要控制中心,它通过神经和激素的方式调节体温、血压和血糖等。
现有的研究证明,BMP759、胰岛素和MEK-ERK抑制剂可以促进丘脑类器官的分化60。以此为基础,2019年,Xiang等31通过在拟胚体双重SMAD抑制期间加入胰岛素诱导尾侧化,并在随后加入BMP7和PD0325901促进丘脑的模式化,最终获得了高表达TCF7L2和PAX6的丘脑类器官。他们还通过将其同皮层类器官相融合,模拟了人脑皮层-丘脑的神经投射。此外,Fligor等61报道了由大脑皮层、丘脑和视网膜类器官构成的组装体,为研究视觉发育的生理过程提供了远距离投射模型。他们发现组装体中视网膜类器官的存活率显著提高,视网膜神经节细胞的轴突延伸到丘脑类器官,而丘脑神经元则整合进入皮层类器官。
已有的研究表明,联合使用WNT、BMP、Notch抑制剂和SHH激动剂可诱导具有神经肽分泌功能的下丘脑神经元的分化62-63。Qian等15优化了下丘脑类器官的分化方案,他们在拟胚体的培养环境中加入WNT3A、SHH和PMA以诱导下丘脑命运,体外分化40天时,下丘脑类器官可表达POMC、VIP和OXT等肽能神经元标记物。最近,Huang等32报道了一种生成iPSC衍生的下丘脑弓状核类器官的分化流程,他们在拟胚体的培养体系中加入SHH重组蛋白、SAG和PMA,合并使用WNT信号抑制剂IWR-1-endo促进下丘脑模式的诱导,最后通过和小鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞共培养来促进下丘脑神经元的成熟。他们将构建的下丘脑弓状核类器官用于Prader-Willi综合征的疾病造模,发现细胞异常和炎症反应加剧的疾病表型。总之,构建区域特异性的类器官对于研究丘脑和下丘脑的生理功能和疾病机制具有重要意义。
小脑是大脑的一部分,主要参与运动协调、平衡及其所需的记忆过程64。近年来,许多研究表明,小脑在情绪控制和认知方面也发挥着重要的调节作用65-66。在哺乳动物中,小脑由后脑最前部分化而来,其发育始于峡组织尾部的第一菱脑原节,包括产生浦肯野细胞的脑室区和颗粒神经元的菱唇67
小脑类器官可用来研究各类小脑神经元(如浦肯野细胞、颗粒细胞、中间神经元等)的发育、成熟和分化68。2010年,Muguruma等69通过在培养早期阶段添加尾部化因子胰岛素和FGF2,同时在培养第7天时添加cyclopamine以实现背侧分化,最终获得了功能性浦肯野细胞。在此基础上,同一研究团队于2015年首次构建了hPSC来源的3D小脑类器官33,他们通过添加FGF19和SDF1因子促进了极化小脑板神经上皮结构的形成。为了获得更成熟的浦肯野细胞和颗粒神经元,Chen等68优化了前者的培养方案,实现了小脑类器官200多天的体外培养,并表现出成熟的神经网络活动。最近,Atamian等34通过抑制TGF-β、BMP和WNT信号通路并加入FGF8b诱导后脑分化命运,随后添加甲状腺激素T3和BDNF促进后脑分化,同时加入SDF1a因子完成小脑的模式化,最终获得了细胞类型更丰富、浦肯野细胞功能高度成熟的小脑类器官。
小脑类器官作为一种很有前景的生物医学、临床和药物应用工具,可用于模拟影响小脑的神经退行性疾病和神经发育疾病,如脊髓小脑性共济失调70、Friedreich共济失调70和自闭症谱系障碍71等,为研究小脑相关的发育和疾病机制提供了新的见解。
视网膜是眼球后部的一层非常薄的细胞层,负责将光信号转化为神经信号72。人类视网膜主要由三层细胞体组成:包含视杆细胞和视锥细胞的外核层,包含双极细胞、水平细胞、穆勒胶质细胞、无长突细胞的内核层,以及包含视网膜神经节细胞的视网膜神经节细胞层73。据统计,截至2020年,全球约有6亿人患有不同程度的视力障碍,其中4330万人失明,约3亿人有中重度视力障碍74。因此,优化人源性的视网膜模型的构建十分必要。
Yoshiki Sasai课题组的一系列工作对于视网膜类器官领域的发展具有里程碑式的意义,2011年,Eiraku等75开创性地让小鼠胚胎干细胞重聚的拟胚体在生长因子的诱导下自发形成了具有自组织视泡结构的视网膜类器官。他们发现视泡中Rx阳性的视网膜祖细胞会内陷到具有极性的类视杯状结构中,进一步分化出视网膜色素上皮和神经视网膜。在此基础上,Nakano等35通过调节WNT和SHH信号通路,诱导hESC分化为表达Rx的上皮细胞,进而自组织形成包含视杯和分层神经视网膜的类器官。他们同时提出与mESC相比,hESC分化而来的视杯结构更大、神经视网膜较厚并自发地形成顶端突起,这可能体现出物种差异性。除了源于PSC的分化方法,Kuwahara等76使用BMP4处理人视网膜睫状缘内的干细胞诱导神经视网膜分化,并通过控制GSK3和FGFR抑制和逆转在极化的神经视网膜边缘产生了视网膜色素上皮聚集体。随后,其他课题组的研究人员尝试通过优化培养方法77、改进培养设备78-79和加入特殊诱导因子80等手段,进一步提高了视网膜类器官分化效率。
除了分化方法外,视网膜类器官的功能学特性和同中枢神经系统的整合越来越受到重视。Zhong等36构建了具有成熟光感受器的视网膜类器官,它有类外节盘结构并可以对光刺激产生反应。为了解决视网膜类器官缺乏同大脑突触后神经元连接的问题,Fligor等61将皮质和丘脑类器官与视网膜类器官在体外组装,可用于模拟人视觉系统的投射。最近的一项研究建立了一种使用hiPSC构建含有视囊的脑类器官(OVB)的方法81。OVB类器官包含有视泡发育过程中的各种细胞类型,如原始的角膜和晶状体细胞、视网膜祖细胞和视网膜色素上皮细胞等,其光敏活性可在不同强度光刺激下触发。
体外培养的脑类器官提供了简化的、易于获取的细胞模型,可用于模拟人脑特定的三维结构、细胞类型组成和神经网络功能。脑类器官技术在再生医学领域展现出巨大的潜力,不仅能够作为疾病模型和药物测试平台,还能为细胞移植疗法和脑损伤的研究提供新的思路和方法。
人脑中的神经元发育完成后,因为缺乏生长和再生能力,所以受到损伤后往往缺乏内源性的神经系统修复82。有效的人源性脑损伤模型是深入研究人脑器官修复的重要基础。脑类器官可以用于模拟脑损伤和再生的过程,探索再生机制和调控因素,并筛选促进再生的药物或小分子化合物。
脑类器官提供了模拟由神经系统疾病所导致的患者大脑器质性病变,深入研究其潜在机制的人源性平台83。因为模拟了大脑的组织结构和发育轨迹,所以脑类器官在模拟脑发育障碍相关疾病方面具有独特优势。Mariani13等的研究表明,自闭症谱系障碍病人来源的脑类器官存在细胞周期加快,兴奋-抑制性神经元比例失调的病理表型,这可能和FOXG1基因的过表达有关。Tang等84通过分析唐氏综合征病人来源的大脑皮层类器官发现,患者类器官的尺寸减少,神经发生减少,而抑制DSCAM/PAK1信号通路可以挽救患者皮质发生缺陷。对于神经退行性疾病,源于阿尔兹海默病(AD)患者的脑类器官可以重现淀粉样蛋白β的聚集和tau蛋白磷酸化增加的经典表型,同时神经元表现出过度兴奋和癫痫样活动85-86。Smits等87的研究发现LRRK2-G2019突变的帕金森病患者来源的中脑类器官中多巴胺神经元的数量和复杂性降低,FOXA2的表达增加。除此之外,亨廷顿病4188和肌萎缩性脊髓侧索硬化症89-91患者来源的脑类器官模型也被用于病理表型和疾病机制的研究。
脑类器官可被用来模拟人脑因病原体侵袭而造成的损伤。例如,从2016年开始的一系列研究中,研究人员使用寨卡病毒感染大脑皮层类器官后发现,病毒主要通过促进神经干细胞的凋亡、抑制增殖并破坏神经球形成的方式来诱导小头畸形1592-93。从2020年开始的COVID-19大流行主要是SARS-CoV-2感染所导致的,患者除了呼吸道症状外,还会出现头晕、肌肉酸痛等神经系统症状94。为了研究SARS-CoV-2神经系统并发症的具体机制,Pellegrini等95使用SARS-CoV-2感染脑类器官后发现相比于神经元和神经胶质细胞,脉络丛上皮细胞更容易受到病毒感染,从而导致脉络丛的屏障功能遭到破坏。Jacob等96的研究支持了前者的观点,他们也发现病毒趋向于感染脉络丛部位,脑类器官中细胞的凋亡和炎症反应相关通路异常激活。
脑类器官也适用于模拟人脑由于外源性物理或化学因素刺激而造成的损伤。2019年,Paşca等97使用脑类器官在缺氧条件下模拟早产儿缺氧性脑损伤,并发现缺氧后脑类器官的中间祖细胞数量减少、未折叠蛋白反应通路过度激活97。Lai等98使用高强度聚焦超声平台在脑类器官上模拟创伤性脑损伤(TBI),他们发现机械损伤的脑类器官可以重现包括神经元死亡、tau蛋白磷酸化增加和TDP-43功能障碍等TBI代表性的病理变化,且深层神经元比浅层神经元更容易受到TDP-43功能障碍的影响。总之,以上的工作为如何使用脑类器官作为脑组织损伤模型提供了很好的思路,证明了脑类器官可以作为一种高效的模拟脑损伤的人源性模型。
人脑复杂的功能需要通过神经环路及不同脑区间的功能协调才能实现。早期在体外研究不同脑区或不同谱系细胞间的相互作用大多是通过二维细胞共培养,然而二维培养系统无法很好模拟体内三维环境的复杂性99。因此,越来越多的研究将不同脑区不同谱系的类器官通过人工手段组装起来,构成“类组装体”模型100。与二维模型相比,类组装体利用细胞的自组织特性来实现细胞间复杂的相互作用,并能在体外长期培养,具有更成熟的生理功能,在解析人脑的神经环路和模拟精神疾病方面具有重要意义。
目前,许多研究采用先分化脑区特异的类器官再在特定时间点融合的策略来研究脑区间的相互作用。为了模拟腹侧前脑的中间神经元迁移并整合至皮层的过程,一些系列工作将前脑背腹侧的类器官组合,在体外观察到了中间神经元的切向迁移,并和皮层的谷氨酸能神经元整合形成神经网络19101-102。Xiang等31通过将丘脑和皮层类器官融合,模拟了人脑的丘脑-皮层环路,并发现丘脑和皮层类器官间存在相互投射。精神疾病往往和神经环路的失调相关,所以类组装体的另一重要应用在于疾病机制的解析。Birey等101将构建好的前脑背腹侧类器官用于蒂莫西综合征的疾病造模,发现疾病组中间神经元的迁移出现异常,而使用L型钙通道的阻断剂可以挽救疾病表型。Miura等28开发了纹状体类器官的分化方法,并将其和皮层类器官组装起来,模拟皮层-纹状体投射,结果发现22q13.3缺失综合征患者来源的类组装体的钙信号存在缺陷。
除了不同脑区类器官的组装,脑类器官与不同谱系类器官的融合也受到越来越多的关注。例如,脑类器官可以与血管内皮类器官和支持细胞一起构成类神经血管单元,从而模拟脑内的血管形成103。体外分化的小胶质样细胞可被整合到皮层类器官中,用于研究AD中神经元与胶质细胞的相互作用104。Andersen等105进一步构建了更复杂的皮层、脊髓和肌肉类器官的组装体,在体外模拟了皮层-运动环路,他们发现组装体中的肌肉细胞存在自发性收缩,且在谷氨酸的刺激下,肌肉收缩反应会更为强烈,提示不同谱系的类器官间存在有效的功能连接。
将类器官和微流控技术相结合的类器官芯片技术应用是另一种研究多系统互作的方式106。微流控系统一方面可以将不同种类的类器官模型连接形成芯片系统,另一方面可以模拟脑类器官中所缺少的功能性血流灌注107,从而进一步模拟体内微环境。一些研究指出,在微流控系统中培养的脑类器官具有更高的生理活性和成熟度108,原因可能是类器官中糖酵解和内质网应激相关通路得到抑制109。微流控系统可用于研究不同脑区间的相互作用,Zhu等110将hiPSC封装在微胶囊中,分别形成皮层、海马和丘脑类器官后,引入到微流控体系中组成皮层-海马-丘脑类器官芯片系统,可以用于模拟脑区间的神经元迁移和相互作用。类器官芯片也可用于精神疾病的模拟,Park等111将hiPSC分化的神经元和星形胶质细胞及成人的小胶质细胞在3D微流控系统中共培养,发现Aβ会刺激小胶质细胞分泌炎症因子,影响神经元和星形胶质细胞的功能。 基于hiPSC的类器官芯片技术有望减少临床前研究对动物模型的需求,进一步提高新药的疗效和安全性,已得到了美国FDA和NIH等机构的大力支持112
人类疾病的医学研究通常面临着诸多局限性,例如患者的个体差异、结果的不可预测性和药物测试的耗时性113。来源于传染病或神经系统疾病患者的脑类器官显示出与临床表型相似的特征,可能成为新药检测的潜在平台。2018年,Xu等114以针对感染寨卡病毒脑类器官的caspase-3活性测定为指标,在约6000种化合物中筛选出了emricasan和niclosamide两种有效的小分子化合物,它们可以减少皮层神经祖细胞和星形胶质细胞感染病毒后所导致的细胞死亡。为了开发可以缓解COVID-19神经系统并发症的药物,Mesci等115使用SARS-CoV-2感染脑类器官,并发现其出现了神经元死亡增加和兴奋性突触丧失的病理表型。他们进一步发现FDA批准的抗病毒药物Sofosbuvir可以逆转病毒感染所造成的神经元病变。为了筛选AD潜在的治疗药物,Park等116结合数学模型和AD脑类器官的病理特征,开发出了一种高效的、基于网络的高内涵药物筛选平台,并确认了多个具有减少Aβ/tau沉积或神经元保护作用的候选药物。
目前,药物的毒性评价和临床前研究存在一定的不足,动物模型由于种属差异难以预测人类神经毒性117,导致许多药物的毒性反应在临床试验或上市后才逐步显现出来。相比于发育完全的大脑,脑类器官对于有毒物质的刺激更为敏感,适用于不同化合物的神经毒性测试118。例如,Bauersachs等119分别用不同浓度的N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(NMDA)处理脑类器官后发现,低浓度的NMDA会增加突触活动,而高浓度的NMDA则会促进神经元死亡,这种差异是由于CREB磷酸化模式的不同所导致的。在另一项针对MAPT突变所导致的额颞叶痴呆的研究中,Bowles等120发现携带有tau-V337M突变脑类器官的神经元对谷氨酸的毒性更敏感,可以通过PIKFYVE激酶抑制剂apilimod进行药理学挽救。以上工作说明利用脑类器官构建具有人体生理特性的长期毒性筛选模型具有重要的研究价值。
脑类器官可以和微流控系统结合形成类器官芯片,因其具有类血管的灌注系统,可以更好地模拟体内微环境,在药物筛选和毒理学研究方面具有独特优势。Yin等121将脑类器官培养在具有八角形微柱的芯片阵列中,研究镉暴露对早期胎脑发育的影响。孕期服用抗癫痫药物丙戊酸(VPA)会导致胎儿神经系统疾病的发病率增加122。为了研究VPA对大脑发育的影响,Cui等123使用含有微柱阵列的脑类器官芯片进行毒理学研究,他们发现VPA暴露后,脑类器官表现出神经祖细胞增多、神经分化受到抑制等神经发育障碍,以及同自闭症相关联的转录组失调。为了研究药物对人体内多器官的影响,Skardal等124开发了包含由大脑、肝脏、心脏、肺、血管、睾丸和结肠类器官在内的集成式类器官芯片,可以在体外长时间保持生理学活性,为应用类器官进行全身范围的药理学及毒理学研究奠定了基础。
器官移植是治疗器官损伤或衰竭患者的有效方法,但因为医学伦理、移植排斥、器官供需的稀缺性及人脑结构功能的特殊性,针对受损脑区的器官移植研究受到了极大的限制125。源自供体的脑类器官具有充分的细胞供应潜力,同时和宿主的遗传背景相同,排异反应较少,是用于再生和修复病变或受损脑组织的理想来源,为面向人脑的器官移植和再生医学提供了新的可能性126
之前的研究已经证明了将脑类器官移植到啮齿类动物大脑的可行性,人源性神经元能够在宿主脑内存活、投射至其他脑区并整合进宿主的神经网络中127-130。在器官修复方面,脑类器官可用于替换丢失的神经元或重建受损的神经网络。中风是全球第二大死亡原因,但有效的治疗手段较少131,脑类器官作为中风移植的潜在供体,具有广阔的应用前景。Wang等132将体外分化至55天的脑类器官移植到中风模型大鼠的皮层中,结果发现大鼠脑损伤体积明显减少、神经运动功能得到改善,且神经元的凋亡减少。他们同时发现脑类器官的最佳治疗时间窗是中风后6~24 h。在另一项研究中,Cao等133通过将脑器官移植到小鼠梗死核心和梗死周围区的交界处,发现脑类器官在梗死区存活良好,具有分化为目标神经元、修复梗死组织的能力,并通过整合进宿主的神经网络中来恢复中风后的感觉运动功能。
脑类器官移植也可被用于修复大脑更复杂的感觉功能上的损伤。例如,在先前的研究中,Wilson等134用植入脑类器官的透明微电极记录了移植后的脑类器官对光刺激产生的电生理反应,证实了脑类器官可以和宿主视觉相关的神经环路进行整合。在此基础上,Jgamadze等135将脑类器官移植到成年大鼠受损的视皮层中,发现其轴突投射可以延伸到皮质下结构和目标视觉系统,能够对光刺激产生反应,并与宿主大脑形成同步的神经活动。以上工作为利用脑类器官进行大脑皮层复杂神经环路的修复提供了新的思路。
在神经退行性疾病中,特定的神经元亚群(如多巴胺能神经元或运动神经元等)会逐渐退化,导致疾病相关的神经系统功能障碍136。脑类器官移植作为一种潜在的治疗手段,一些研究已将其用于退行性疾病所造成的脑损伤。帕金森病主要的病理变化是中脑黑质多巴胺能神经元的丢失,导致纹状体中多巴胺的释放显著减少137。最近,Fu等138将体外分化至第30天的中脑类器官移植至帕金森病模型鼠的纹状体中,移植后4周小鼠的运动功能障碍得到明显恢复。他们同时发现体内的中脑类器官可以高效释放多巴胺神经递质并与宿主的神经网络整合。
尽管移植的脑类器官与宿主脑组织相比,存在功能成熟度不足和细胞组分复杂的问题,但是利用脑类器官进行移植治疗仍然是一种有前景的脑损伤修复方法。
脑类器官是一种模拟真实人脑结构和功能的微型三维组织,它们可以用于在体外重现人脑的结构和功能。脑类器官可用作脑损伤的体外模型,与动物模型相比,对各种创伤和应激因素的反应更接近于人类大脑;脑类器官还可以用于高通量药物筛选,通过模拟不同基因型和疾病状态的人脑,评估药物的效果和安全性;脑类器官可以用于修复受损的脑区,通过移植到宿主体内,与宿主组织整合或恢复器官功能。总之,脑类器官为再生医学提供了一种有效的方法,同时也为疾病研究和药物开发提供了一种强有力的工具。
尽管脑类器官领域正在不断发展,为生物医学研究和临床转化研究提供了创新的方法,但仍然存在一些需要解决的难题。
限制脑类器官技术进步发展的重要因素是类器官的异质性较大,重复性偏低。不同分化批次间的脑类器官也可能存在较大差异。而Krefft等139通过在iPSC的自组织能力的基础上添加形态发生因子,降低了脑类培养的异质性。随着脑类器官培养技术的逐渐成熟,其均一性和可重复性水平将会越来越高,为将来大规模的类器官药物筛选打下基础。
其次,类器官技术在长期培养过程中,面临着内部缺氧、细胞死亡和坏死核心的形成等问题140-141,这些问题主要源于类器官缺乏有效的血管网络。为了解决这一难题,Wimmer等142首次构建了具有脉管系统的人类血管类器官,该类器官由血管内皮细胞和周细胞构成,能够与小鼠的血液循环系统相连接,形成功能性的动脉和静脉。这一研究为类器官与血管类器官的耦合培养提供了新的思路,有望改善类器官的供氧和营养状况。2018年的一项研究报道127,将类器官移植到动物体内,宿主脑的血管会同类器官整合。这些血管可以输送氧气和营养物质,有利于移植物内神经元的存活和类器官的逐步成熟。此外,一些材料工程方法也被用于优化类器官的物质交换,例如利用计算机辅助设计和3D打印技术制备多孔支架,引导类器官沿着支架生长,增加内部的通透性143
类器官成熟度偏低和缺少甲基化信息的问题也是限制其在基础和临床应用中发挥全部潜力的重要因素,这使得它难以模拟影响成年脑的神经系统疾病,如阿尔茨海默病和帕金森病等144。为了促进脑类器官的成熟,常用的方法有在类器官培养前用营养因子如BDNF等145进行预处理。为了维持表观遗传稳定性,现有的研究多利用转分化技术直接调控细胞命运转换146-147。其他方法则包括通过靶向转分化关键内源性基因直接修饰DNA,或者使用能够改变表观遗传状态的特异性药理学干预等148-149
总体而言,新兴的脑类器官技术已经为脑损伤修复提供了新的可能性,通过模拟人脑组织的再生过程并参与受损脑组织的重建,可以为再生医学提供新的解决方案。目前,脑类器官的研究还处于初级探索阶段,进一步深入研究有望弥补现有模型系统的不足,促进脑类器官在基础科学和临床研究上更广泛的应用。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFA1101800)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82171528)
  • 南京医科大学姑苏学院博士后科研项目(GSBSHKY202307)
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2024年第5卷第4期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-102
  • 接收时间:2023-12-01
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-08-31
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  • 收稿日期:2023-12-01
  • 修回日期:2024-05-29
基金
国家重点研发计划(2021YFA1101800)
国家自然科学基金(82171528)
南京医科大学姑苏学院博士后科研项目(GSBSHKY202307)
作者信息
    1 南京医科大学姑苏学院,江苏 南京 211166
    2 苏州市立医院,江苏 苏州 215006
    3 南京医科大学附属苏州医院,江苏 苏州 215006
    4 南京医科大学生殖医学与子代健康全国重点实验室,江苏 南京 211166
    5 南京医科大学药学院干细胞与神经再生研究所,江苏 南京 211166

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刘妍(1981—),女,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为利用人脑类器官开展神经疾病机制及细胞移植治疗研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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