Article(id=1148989446873215065, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-063, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1693324800000, receivedDateStr=2023-08-30, revisedDate=1702396800000, revisedDateStr=2023-12-13, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751870031326, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1714406400000, pubDateStr=2024-04-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751870031326, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751870031326, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751870031326, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148989441470952447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='2', pageStart='217', pageEnd='395', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751870030037, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057315553, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068078, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068079, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=281, endPage=293, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999703866355893, articleId=1148989446873215065, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Advances in virus-vectored vaccines, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Recent outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as the middle east respiratory syndrome, Zika infection, Ebola hemorrhagic fever, and Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pose significant challenges on the rapid development of efficacious vaccines. Virus-vectored vaccines, as an important new vaccine, can be administrated noninvasively through aerosol inhalation or oral administration, which could stimulate humoral, cellular, and mucosal immune responses without the need for adjuvants, showing good immunogenicity and safety in clinical trials or in emergency use. With the deeper understanding of the viral genome and structural proteins, synthetic biology has enabled the design and modification of viruses to produce recombinant viral vector-based vaccines with high titer, safety, and immunogenicity, and such research has significant implications for the vaccine development. This review highlights major strategies employed in the construction of virus-vectored vaccines, including the construction method of replication-competent or replication-defective viral vectors, and the development of viral vectors commonly used in producing the recombinant vaccines. Among these viral vectors, replication-deficient adenovirus-based vectors with gene deletion in the E1 and E3 regions are most mature for use. Currently, adenoviral vectors that have been used in the approved recombinant vaccines include Ad5, Ad26 and ChAdOx1. Vesicular stomatitis virus and flavivirus with small genomes are negative-sense and positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, respectively, which are easy to prepare and more suitable for being used in developing recombinant vaccines with small antigen proteins. Poxviruses and herpesviruses have large genomes for high packing capacity, but they are most difficult to be modified with synthetic biology methods. Different viral vectors need to be prepared using different strategies, and consequently vaccines developed with these vectors have different immune effects. The construction strategies of different viral vector vaccines introduced in this review will provide valuable theoretical reference for the research and development of novel viral vector vaccines. In the future, virus-vectored vaccines will be iteratively developed for higher safety, stronger protection, better compliance and lower production cost.

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近十年来,中东呼吸综合征、埃博拉出血热、寨卡病毒感染、新型冠状病毒肺炎等重大传染性疾病疫情相继出现,对疫苗的快速研发提出重大挑战。其中病毒载体疫苗是新型疫苗研发的重要形式,它可以通过雾化吸入或口服等方式进行无创免疫,在没有佐剂的情况下发挥免疫作用,同时诱导体液、细胞和黏膜免疫反应,具有良好的免疫原性和安全性。随着对病毒基因组和结构蛋白等元件认识的不断深入,利用合成生物学研究思路系统设计、改造病毒载体,从而赋予重组病毒载体疫苗高滴度生产、高安全性和高免疫原性等生物学特征,对疫苗研发具有重要指导意义。本文综述了复制型、非复制型等病毒载体疫苗研发策略,以及具有临床应用价值的疫苗病毒载体,如腺病毒载体、痘病毒载体、水疱性口炎病毒载体等,希望对利用合成生物学进行新型病毒载体疫苗的研发提供一定的参考。未来,病毒载体疫苗必将向着更高的安全性、更强的保护性、更好的依从性、更低的生产成本等方向迭代发展。

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侯利华(1973—),女,博士,研究员。研究方向为微生物学,主要从事新型疫苗研究。E-mail:
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王步森(1992—),男,博士,助理研究员。主要从事新型病毒载体重组疫苗研究。E-mail:

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PLoS One, 2018, 13(1): e0188453., articleTitle=Construction of an infectious horsepox virus vaccine from chemically synthesized DNA fragments, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1172891857064440645, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, awardId=82101919, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金青年科学基金(82101919), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1172891853163737830, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1172891853167932135, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, companyId=1172891853163737830, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology,Academy of Military Medical Sciences,Academy of Military Sciences,Beijing 100071,China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1172891853172126440, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, companyId=1172891853163737830, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=军事科学院军事医学研究院前沿生物技术实验室,北京 100071)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1172891856284300086, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=Schematic diagrams for the genome structure of virus-vectored vaccines

[(a) Genome structure of AdV-vectored vaccines. The E1 and E3 regions in the genome are all deleted, and the expression cassette can be inserted into the E1 deletion site by splicing in vitro. (b) Genome structure of MVA-based vaccines. The thymidine kinase (TK) in the genome is designed as site for gene insertion, and the expression cassette can be inserted by homologous recombination in the sensitive cells. (c) Genome structure of VSV-based vaccines. The glycoprotein of VSV can be replaced by the glycoprotein from other enveloped viruses. (d) Genome structure of YFV-based vaccines. The prM and E proteins in the YFV genome can be replaced by prM and E proteins from other flaviviruses. (e) Genome structure of HSV-based vaccines. The expression cassettes can be inserted into the UL or US regions in the viral genome.]

, figureFileSmall=SxBzOK6R6edLK4eUx9eOWA==, figureFileBig=2YxOWKziX7GIyx4EtyAV+Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172891856435295033, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, language=CN, label=图1, caption=病毒载体重组疫苗基因组结构

[(a)AdV载体疫苗的基因组结构。基因组中的E1和E3区域全部缺失,外源基因表达框可以通过体外剪接嵌入E1缺失位点。(b)MVA载体疫苗的基因组结构。基因组中的胸苷激酶(TK)被设计为转基因插入位点,外源基因表达框可以在细胞中通过同源重组嵌入。(c)VSV载体疫苗的基因组结构。VSV的糖蛋白可以被其他包膜病毒的糖蛋白所替代。(d)YFV载体疫苗的基因组结构。YFV基因组中的prM和E蛋白可以被其他黄病毒的prM或E蛋白所替代。(e)HSV载体疫苗的基因组结构。外源基因表达框可以嵌入病毒基因组中的UL或US区]

, figureFileSmall=SxBzOK6R6edLK4eUx9eOWA==, figureFileBig=2YxOWKziX7GIyx4EtyAV+Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172891856573707067, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Major viral vectors used in vaccine development

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
病毒种类 基因组 主要型别
类型 长度/kb 容量/kb 是否入核 是否整合
腺病毒 DNA 36 7~8 5型[14],35型[15],黑猩猩3型[16]
痘病毒 DNA 170~300 25 痘苗安卡拉株[17],金丝雀痘病毒[18]
水疱性口炎病毒 RNA 11 4.5 印第安纳株[19],新泽西株[20]
黄病毒 RNA 10 2 黄热病毒[21],日本脑炎病毒[22]
疱疹病毒 DNA 140~230 30 水痘-带状疱疹病毒[2],人单纯疱疹病毒[23]
), ArticleFig(id=1172891856775033664, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989446873215065, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

应用于疫苗开发的主要病毒载体类型

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
病毒种类 基因组 主要型别
类型 长度/kb 容量/kb 是否入核 是否整合
腺病毒 DNA 36 7~8 5型[14],35型[15],黑猩猩3型[16]
痘病毒 DNA 170~300 25 痘苗安卡拉株[17],金丝雀痘病毒[18]
水疱性口炎病毒 RNA 11 4.5 印第安纳株[19],新泽西株[20]
黄病毒 RNA 10 2 黄热病毒[21],日本脑炎病毒[22]
疱疹病毒 DNA 140~230 30 水痘-带状疱疹病毒[2],人单纯疱疹病毒[23]
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病毒载体疫苗研究进展
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王步森 , 徐婧含 , 高智强 , 侯利华
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(2): 281-293
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(2): 281-293
病毒载体疫苗研究进展
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王步森 , 徐婧含, 高智强, 侯利华
作者信息
  • 军事科学院军事医学研究院前沿生物技术实验室,北京 100071
  • 王步森(1992—),男,博士,助理研究员。主要从事新型病毒载体重组疫苗研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

侯利华(1973—),女,博士,研究员。研究方向为微生物学,主要从事新型疫苗研究。E-mail:
Advances in virus-vectored vaccines
Busen WANG , Jinghan XU, Zhiqiang GAO, Lihua HOU
Affiliations
  • Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology,Academy of Military Medical Sciences,Academy of Military Sciences,Beijing 100071,China
出版时间: 2024-04-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-063
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近十年来,中东呼吸综合征、埃博拉出血热、寨卡病毒感染、新型冠状病毒肺炎等重大传染性疾病疫情相继出现,对疫苗的快速研发提出重大挑战。其中病毒载体疫苗是新型疫苗研发的重要形式,它可以通过雾化吸入或口服等方式进行无创免疫,在没有佐剂的情况下发挥免疫作用,同时诱导体液、细胞和黏膜免疫反应,具有良好的免疫原性和安全性。随着对病毒基因组和结构蛋白等元件认识的不断深入,利用合成生物学研究思路系统设计、改造病毒载体,从而赋予重组病毒载体疫苗高滴度生产、高安全性和高免疫原性等生物学特征,对疫苗研发具有重要指导意义。本文综述了复制型、非复制型等病毒载体疫苗研发策略,以及具有临床应用价值的疫苗病毒载体,如腺病毒载体、痘病毒载体、水疱性口炎病毒载体等,希望对利用合成生物学进行新型病毒载体疫苗的研发提供一定的参考。未来,病毒载体疫苗必将向着更高的安全性、更强的保护性、更好的依从性、更低的生产成本等方向迭代发展。

病毒载体  /  传染病  /  疫苗  /  合成生物学  /  改造

Recent outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as the middle east respiratory syndrome, Zika infection, Ebola hemorrhagic fever, and Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pose significant challenges on the rapid development of efficacious vaccines. Virus-vectored vaccines, as an important new vaccine, can be administrated noninvasively through aerosol inhalation or oral administration, which could stimulate humoral, cellular, and mucosal immune responses without the need for adjuvants, showing good immunogenicity and safety in clinical trials or in emergency use. With the deeper understanding of the viral genome and structural proteins, synthetic biology has enabled the design and modification of viruses to produce recombinant viral vector-based vaccines with high titer, safety, and immunogenicity, and such research has significant implications for the vaccine development. This review highlights major strategies employed in the construction of virus-vectored vaccines, including the construction method of replication-competent or replication-defective viral vectors, and the development of viral vectors commonly used in producing the recombinant vaccines. Among these viral vectors, replication-deficient adenovirus-based vectors with gene deletion in the E1 and E3 regions are most mature for use. Currently, adenoviral vectors that have been used in the approved recombinant vaccines include Ad5, Ad26 and ChAdOx1. Vesicular stomatitis virus and flavivirus with small genomes are negative-sense and positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, respectively, which are easy to prepare and more suitable for being used in developing recombinant vaccines with small antigen proteins. Poxviruses and herpesviruses have large genomes for high packing capacity, but they are most difficult to be modified with synthetic biology methods. Different viral vectors need to be prepared using different strategies, and consequently vaccines developed with these vectors have different immune effects. The construction strategies of different viral vector vaccines introduced in this review will provide valuable theoretical reference for the research and development of novel viral vector vaccines. In the future, virus-vectored vaccines will be iteratively developed for higher safety, stronger protection, better compliance and lower production cost.

viral vector  /  infectious disease  /  vaccine  /  synthetic biology  /  modification
王步森, 徐婧含, 高智强, 侯利华. 病毒载体疫苗研究进展. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (2) : 281 -293 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-063
Busen WANG, Jinghan XU, Zhiqiang GAO, Lihua HOU. Advances in virus-vectored vaccines[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (2) : 281 -293 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-063
疫苗是预防传染性疾病最经济、最有效的手段1。近年来,包括新型冠状病毒、埃博拉病毒、寨卡病毒、中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒、严重急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒等2病原体导致的传染性疾病持续暴发,对疫苗有效性和研发速度提出新挑战。
当前,疫苗主要包括减毒活疫苗、灭活疫苗、蛋白亚单位疫苗、核酸疫苗和病毒载体重组疫苗等形式。其中,病毒载体疫苗是指以病毒为载体递送特定抗原的新型疫苗。目前,病毒载体疫苗抗原主要递送形式为核酸,即将抗原基因嵌入病毒基因组,利用病毒感染细胞的特性使抗原基因进入宿主细胞,随后在细胞内合成抗原蛋白,进而发挥免疫作用。与其他类型疫苗相比,病毒载体疫苗除使用肌内注射等传统方式接种之外,还可使用雾化吸入、口服等进行无创免疫,接种依从性显著提高,应用范围更广。此外,通过呼吸道或消化道给药,在保证有效激发宿主体液免疫和细胞免疫的基础上,还可模拟病原体自然感染的途径,直接刺激呼吸道和消化道黏膜下丰富的淋巴组织,诱导黏膜免疫产生,在病原体入侵机体时提供第一道适应性免疫屏障。
合成生物技术的不断成熟促进了病毒载体疫苗的发展。病毒是相对简单的生命体,体外合成其基因组后,将其导入敏感细胞,在细胞中表达病毒结构及非结构蛋白,进一步完成遗传物质的复制和成熟病毒颗粒的组装,可以获得新型病毒载体。对病毒遗传物质的定向改造可以赋予病毒独特的生物学特征。在合成生物学快速发展的大背景下,以工程化思想为指导,以病毒结构蛋白、抗原蛋白表达元件及其他调控元件为模块,将标准化模块有机整合从而实现病毒载体疫苗的高滴度、高安全性和高免疫原性等生物学功能,能够为新型疫苗的快速研发提供有力工具。本文综述了不同病毒载体类疫苗研发策略及几种具有临床研究潜力的疫苗病毒载体,包括复制型病毒载体及非复制型病毒载体系统等,旨在为新型病毒载体疫苗研发提供参考。
在充分认识病毒蛋白和基因组功能的基础上,可以定向改造病毒载体,使其获得符合预期的生物学功能3,根据病毒特性的不同和安全性需求,可以制备复制型、复制缺陷型、条件复制型等多种类型病毒载体,在疫苗研发方面应用较为成熟的主要为复制型、复制缺陷型两种。
复制型病毒载体通常以长期作为疫苗应用的安全性较高的活病毒为骨架,如黄热病毒4、水疱性口炎病毒4等。该类病毒载体包含病毒复制必需的所有结构蛋白和基因组元件,病毒包装完成后可以在非特定工程细胞中独立复制5。由于成熟的病毒颗粒包装病毒基因组的长度有限,如腺病毒可包装的基因组长度一般不高于原基因组长度的105%,因此在构建复制型病毒载体疫苗过程中常常选用两种策略:人为选择性缺失病毒复制非必需元件以提供包装空间或者选择性替换病毒蛋白以形成新的重组病毒颗粒。前者不改变病毒结构蛋白,因此病毒颗粒稳定性、感染能力、组织嗜性等常常不发生改变。后者在构建时往往需要考虑新生病毒颗粒的稳定性,此外,病毒蛋白替换具有一定的特殊性,往往用于制备与载体同种属的其他病毒疫苗或多价疫苗等。复制型病毒载体疫苗可以正常感染机体,在受体细胞中复制,能够产生新生子代病毒,病毒载体在递呈抗原基因至受体细胞的基础上,还可以通过扩大感染以及基因组复制来增加抗原表达水平6。相比于非复制型病毒载体,该类型病毒载体疫苗往往仅需要较低的剂量即可诱导机体产生相同或更高的免疫水平7,但需要关注此类疫苗的安全性。
非复制型病毒载体疫苗主要利用成熟病毒颗粒的感染性将抗原基因递呈至受体细胞,病毒在宿主细胞中不复制,不会产生新生子代病毒,无法扩大感染。非复制型病毒载体的构建方式比较复杂,主要包括以下两类:①病毒核酸和结构蛋白均无法在宿主细胞中合成。如E1缺失的复制缺陷型腺病毒载体,此类病毒载体缺失了病毒早期调节蛋白,导致病毒基因组复制和晚期结构蛋白表达均无法实现8。但是,由于抗原蛋白的转录不依赖病毒早期蛋白而依赖宿主细胞中存在的RNA聚合酶,因此抗原蛋白依然可以在宿主细胞中高表达,并发挥免疫刺激作用。②病毒核酸可以复制但结构蛋白无法合成,因此无法在接种者体内形成具有持续复制能力的病毒颗粒。如黄病毒RNA复制子载体9以及“单轮复制型”病毒载体10等。此类载体保留了病毒复制调控单元和非结构蛋白基因,缺失了结构蛋白基因,因此可以进行核酸复制和转录,但无法形成子代病毒颗粒。病毒载体在进入细胞后可以通过核酸复制增加抗原基因拷贝数,延长抗原蛋白在宿主细胞中的表达时间,通过持续性刺激机体免疫系统,增强病毒载体疫苗诱导的免疫反应水平。非复制型病毒载体进入机体后不能形成子代病毒,无法建立感染,因此具有较好的安全性。在生产过程中,该类型病毒可以依赖能够提供病毒复制必需蛋白的细胞系进行大规模生产。在免疫过程中,病毒组织嗜性、抗原表达水平、病毒引起的天然免疫反应水平、病毒在宿主体内的清除速度往往是决定此类型疫苗免疫反应强弱的关键因素。
病毒载体类疫苗的免疫效果不仅依赖于病毒的复制类型,更取决于载体病毒种类的选择。不同种属病毒的特性差异极大,利用其特殊性可以满足不同的疫苗研发需求。如腺病毒载体疫苗可以通过雾化吸入或口服进行免疫711,诱导机体产生体液、细胞和黏膜免疫反应;巨细胞病毒载体能够引发MHCⅡ限制的细胞毒性T细胞反应12;而水疱性口炎病毒载体感染谱较广,在细胞质中复制不会整合到宿主细胞基因组13。另外,病毒基因组核酸类型不同其包装系统往往存在较大差异。如DNA类病毒载体往往将病毒DNA全长合成后转染宿主细胞即可包装出成熟病毒;正链RNA类病毒载体在制备时需要先制备对应的DNA序列,通过体内或体外转录出基因组RNA后,利用基因组RNA在细胞中完成重组病毒的拯救;负链RNA病毒由于其基因组或其cDNA转录而来的RNA没有感染性,因此,它们必须与核衣壳蛋白、RNA依赖型RNA聚合酶等形成核糖核蛋白复合物才能进行正常的复制和病毒包装。现阶段在疫苗研发方面应用较多的病毒载体主要包括腺病毒、痘病毒、水疱性口炎病毒等,不同病毒载体的情况见表1,病毒载体重组疫苗的构建策略如图1所示。
腺病毒为无包膜线性双链DNA病毒,基因组长度约36 kb,在核内进行基因组复制。正二十面体对称结构为腺病毒的特征性结构,主要由六邻体(蛋白Ⅱ)、五邻体(蛋白Ⅲ)和纤维蛋白(蛋白Ⅳ)构成,它们是腺病毒诱导自身免疫反应的主要免疫原24-25,尤其是六邻体高变区。对六邻体高变区以及纤维蛋白的修饰和替换是克服腺病毒预存免疫的有效方法26-27。在病毒感染过程中,病毒通过纤维蛋白与宿主细胞表面柯萨奇-腺病毒受体(多数血清型)相互作用而吸附到细胞表面,再通过胞吞作用进入细胞,这个过程依赖于五邻体基底RGD区与细胞整合蛋白的相互作用。因此,腺病毒纤维蛋白和五邻体基底RGD区是腺病毒细胞嗜性的主要决定因素28
全基因组测序分析结果显示,哺乳动物腺病毒涵盖了30个亚属、112个血清型,其中人腺病毒包含7个亚属、54种血清型。多种血清型腺病毒均可能用于疫苗研制,其中5型腺病毒载体应用最为广泛。除此之外,35型腺病毒29-30、26型腺病毒31、黑猩猩3型腺病毒以及4型腺病毒32等均可见相关报道。腺病毒用作抗原递呈载体的优势主要体现在:宿主范围广,能够感染分裂和非分裂细胞33;感染水平和抗原表达水平高;能够诱导强烈的细胞免疫反应34;致病性低,无整合性,无致瘤性;滴度高,易制备等。
在腺病毒基因组中插入细胞特异性或组织特异性的启动子元件或者替换、改造纤维蛋白等结构蛋白模块可以改变病毒的组织嗜性和感染能力35-36,还可以删除靶向基序使载体疫苗远离特定的细胞类型或组织,从而提高疫苗的特异性和安全性。腺病毒基因组编码区主要分为早期转录区(E1~E4)和晚期转录区(L1~L5),其中E1/E4负责调节宿主细胞的转录机制,E2与病毒DNA复制复合体的装配有关,E3帮助病毒逃逸宿主细胞的免疫监视。为了保证载体疫苗的安全性,大多数腺病毒载体被设计为复制缺陷型,主要通过敲除E1区实现。E3区的缺失不会影响病毒的正常功能,为了增加病毒载体的包装空间,通常也会敲除E3区,从而赋予病毒载体约7~8 kb的包装容量,如复制缺陷型5型腺病毒载体同时缺失了病毒的E1和E3区。相比于复制缺陷型腺病毒载体,复制型载体抗原表达水平更高,能够从接种部位转移,同时可以口服接种37。考虑到4型和7型腺病毒长期被用作活病毒疫苗,基于此类腺病毒进行复制型腺病毒载体的研发具有一定的潜在价值3238。通过缺失蛋白Ⅲa等结构蛋白可以构建单轮复制型腺病毒载体,该类型载体在宿主细胞中仍然可以进行基因组复制,但无法完成病毒的包装和成熟,因而不能扩大感染。与复制型病毒载体类疫苗相比,该类型疫苗具有相对较高的安全性,同时,与非复制型病毒载体类疫苗相比,该种疫苗往往能够实现更高的抗原表达水平39-41。除此之外,将E1区置于条件复制型启动子下,可以制备仅能在特定细胞中扩增的条件复制型腺病毒载体37,如:利用热敏启动子启动E1表达使病毒仅能在上呼吸道中复制,用于滴鼻免疫42;利用肿瘤特异性启动子调控E1用于肿瘤杀伤43等。
目前,腺病毒的扩大生产大多采用293细胞系,该细胞系可以稳定表达Ad5 E1蛋白,支持Ad5高效扩增。腺病毒E4区可以协同E1区共同发挥促进病毒复制的功能,当使用其他复制缺陷的血清型或非人血清型腺病毒时,为了提高在293细胞系中的扩增效率,往往将E4区替换为Ad5的E4区,例如,黑猩猩腺病毒载体ChAdOX144以黑猩猩腺病毒Y25为基础,在敲除E1、E3区的基础上,将E4区的ORF4,6/7替换为Ad5的E4区ORF4,6/7,显著提高该病毒在293细胞系中的包装滴度和扩增效率。另外,还可以通过纤维蛋白修饰构建嵌合型腺病毒载体来靶向特定细胞,例如将Ad5的纤维蛋白基因替换为Ad3的纤维蛋白可使得载体对非柯萨奇-腺病毒受体(Coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor,CAR)依赖的细胞具有感染能力45。嵌合Ad5/F35载体将Ad5的纤维蛋白替换为Ad35,载体的受体从CAR变为偏向Ad35的受体CD46,从而使其能够靶向多种癌细胞以及造血干细胞46
腺病毒载体被广泛应用于传染性疾病、肿瘤等多种疾病的预防或治疗。2014年埃博拉疫情爆发,军事医学科学院与康希诺生物股份公司合作研制了5型腺病毒载体重组埃博拉疫苗,于2017年获批使用,疫苗显示出良好的安全性和免疫原性,是我国首个获批使用的病毒载体类疫苗47-48。葛兰素史克公司研发的复制缺陷型的黑猩猩3型腺病毒载体埃博拉疫苗也于2017年10月完成临床Ⅱ期研究49。2019年底,新型冠状病毒疫情在世界范围内暴发,军事医学研究院与康希诺生物股份公司再次联手合作开发的5型腺病毒载体重组新冠疫苗是全球首个进入临床并上市的腺病毒载体新冠疫苗。牛津大学詹纳研究所研发的黑猩猩腺病毒载体重组新冠疫苗,以及俄罗斯研发的26型与5型腺病毒载体新冠疫苗Sputnik V,也均获批上市。
痘病毒科(Poxviridae)由一群结构复杂的线性双链DNA病毒组成,有包膜,是动物病毒中体积最大的病毒,包含9个病毒属,基因组大小约为170~300 kb,对外源基因的容纳量约为25 kb。痘病毒基因组的复制在细胞质中进行,基因组的表达需要病毒的RNA聚合酶和其他酶类参与,因此其DNA不具有感染性。
1798年,英国医生Edward Jenner利用牛痘病毒制备活疫苗预防天花病毒感染,从而奠定了免疫学的基础。1979年12月,世界卫生组织宣布人类消灭了天花,建议不再接种。1982年,Bernard Moss团队50首次将牛痘病毒作为载体表达外源基因,此后重组痘病毒载体疫苗逐渐登上历史舞台。现阶段,由于痘病毒较强的免疫原性,作为疫苗载体时会掩盖所携带抗原的免疫应答,因此开发出一系列用作疫苗载体的改良减毒痘病毒,其中主要包括安卡拉痘苗病毒(modified vaccinia virus Ankara,MVA)51、纽约痘苗病毒(NYVAC)以及禽痘病毒属的鸡痘病毒(fowlpox virus,FPV)、金丝雀痘病毒(ALVAC)等。
由于痘病毒基因组过大,从头制备痘病毒载体包装系统较为困难。痘病毒基因组包含约180个开放阅读框,基因的表达分为早期、中期、晚期三个阶段。在对其基因组进行改造时,往往通过向已感染痘病毒的细胞中转染同源穿梭质粒的方式利用细胞内同源重组实现对痘病毒基因组的定点编辑。痘病毒中的胸苷激酶基因是痘病毒复制的非必需基因,也是重组痘病毒研究中最常用的基因编辑位点,将外源基因引入该位点后不影响病毒的复制。除了以同源重组的方式对载体进行改造,使用化学方法合成DNA短片段,随后利用多片段组装技术,如酵母人工染色体技术52、细菌人工染色体技术53等,可从头制备病毒全长基因组片段。此外,通过更换强启动子或移除痘病毒免疫调节蛋白等方法能够在一定程度上提高病毒载体疫苗的免疫原性54-55,类似病毒载体疫苗的优化方法仍在不断研究之中。
除外源基因容量高之外,痘病毒载体还具有如下优点:宿主范围广,可以在无核细胞中复制;安全性高,天花病毒疫苗等经历了长期的安全性验证56;外源基因表达水平高,能诱发强烈的免疫反应57-58;可引发强烈的Toll样受体介导的固有免疫反应和炎症反应,产生佐剂效应59-60;且已经建立了成熟的大规模培养方法2861。此外,痘病毒载体应用也存在一定的限制,如在接种过天花疫苗的人群中,疫苗的免疫原性受限,预存免疫将会影响疫苗的应用功效62
目前,MVA载体已用于多种疾病预防和治疗临床研究,如HIV-163-65、肝炎66、流感67、疟疾68、肺结核69、埃博拉70-71和癌症72等。此类载体疫苗主要诱导机体产生针对抗原的细胞毒性T细胞反应73。MVA最初是由安卡拉痘苗病毒在原代鸡胚成纤维细胞中经过500多次连续传代得到,在传代过程中逐步丧失在大多数哺乳动物细胞中的复制能力74。随后,巴伐利亚北欧公司在MVA载体上开发了多个基因编辑位点,制备了新型MVA病毒载体MVA-BN。相比于其他病毒载体,MVA-BN不具有复制能力且毒力低下,目前已证明MVA-BN可诱导强烈的体液和细胞免疫应答75-77。在临床试验中,MVA载体耐受性良好,但MVA给药剂量超过108 pfu将引发严重的不良反应。2020年,强生旗下杨森制药公司的埃博拉疫苗Ad26.ZEBOV和MVA-BN-Filo两剂免疫方案获欧盟委员会批准上市。2022年,基于MVA-BN平台开发的包含5种不同呼吸道合胞病毒抗原的MVA-BN-RSV疫苗获美国FDA授予突破性药物资格,用于60岁以上老年人群进行主动免疫,该疫苗于2022年11月在我国获得Ⅲ期临床IND申请批准。
水疱性口炎病毒(vesicular stomatitis virus,VSV)为单股负链RNA病毒,基因组大小11 kb左右,在弹状病毒科中结构最为简单。从基因组的3′端依次编码N、P、M、G、L蛋白,各基因之间为保守的间隔序列。在N基因的3′端存在47~50 nt的前导序列,L基因的5′端存在57~60 nt的拖尾区,二者均与病毒复制紧密相关。
在水疱性口炎病毒载体研究中,P. J. Sean研究组和D. L. Nathan研究组最早将包含病毒全长cDNA序列的质粒与分别表达N蛋白、P蛋白和L蛋白的质粒共转BHK21细胞系,以此包装子代病毒。在该重组病毒载体疫苗制备系统中,外源基因主要有三种插入方式:①保留病毒全基因组,仅在基因间隔区插入外源基因表达框,这种方式能够插入的外源基因相对较短;②敲除基因组中与病毒毒力相关的G蛋白,将外源基因整合至G蛋白缺失位点,该方法扩大了外源基因包装上限,但该类病毒为单轮复制型病毒,无法产生具有完整病毒颗粒的子代病毒;③VSV病毒G蛋白与多种其他类型病毒糖蛋白结构相似,均属于Ⅰ型糖蛋白,而病毒表面糖蛋白多为该病毒的主要免疫原,因此使用其他种属病毒糖蛋白替换VSV病毒G蛋白是一种制备重组病毒的有效方式。这种重组病毒不但缺少了主要的毒力因子,而且病毒仍然具有正常的增殖能力。
VSV载体重组病毒感染宿主后,基因组仅在胞浆中复制和表达,避免了病毒基因组与宿主细胞基因组整合的可能。目前用于疫苗研发的大多数VSV载体具有复制能力,而且野生型VSV在颅内接种后具有神经毒性78,所以VSV用作疫苗载体时需要进行毒力减弱。VSV的基质蛋白M是其重要毒力因子,能够抑制感染病毒的细胞产生Ⅰ型干扰素,在VSV的M蛋白中的三个位点进行突变可以得到低毒性的VSV79。从2011年以来,基于VSV载体的四种HIV疫苗和三种Ebola疫苗已进入临床实验80。这些VSV病毒载体主要基于两种减毒策略,一个是将VSV-G胞质尾部截短,再通过将N蛋白表达顺序后移下调N蛋白表达水平,通过降低VSV的复制能力减弱其毒性,构建的减毒载体已被批准开展临床研究用以预防HIV-181。在VSV载体的Ebola疫苗中采取的是另一种减毒策略,将导致神经毒性的主要蛋白G蛋白替换为Ebola GP,在缺乏天然糖蛋白的情况下,Ebola GP除了作为疫苗抗原外,还行使侵入细胞的功能。但通过这种方式构建的VSV载体埃博拉疫苗同样具有安全风险。一项在2016年发表的临床结果82显示,在免疫剂量达到1×107 pfu或以上时,部分受试者产生关节炎症状,平均持续8天。目前,该疫苗已于2019年分别获得欧盟委员会和美国FDA批准上市83。此外,VSV载体在流感病毒疫苗84、丙型肝炎病毒疫苗85、呼吸道合胞病毒疫苗86以及拉萨热病毒疫苗87等病毒疫苗研制方面均有报道。
黄病毒科(Flaviviridae)成员为单股正链RNA病毒,基因组大小约为10 kb,有囊膜。基因组中仅含有一个开放阅读框,编码产物裂解和加工后形成约10个蛋白,主要包括三种结构蛋白:囊膜蛋白E(糖蛋白)、跨膜蛋白M和核衣壳蛋白C,以及7~8种非结构蛋白。其中,糖蛋白E是病毒颗粒上的主要抗原决定簇,在病毒侵入过程中,发挥与细胞受体结合及与细胞膜融合作用,而前体膜蛋白(premembrane,prM)在E蛋白构象的正确折叠和病毒出胞过程中扮演重要角色。黄病毒属成员近70种,其中,绝大多数为由节肢动物传播的人兽共患病病原体,包括黄热病毒、登革病毒、昆津病毒、日本脑炎病毒、西尼罗病毒、寨卡病毒等。
黄病毒的复制发生在宿主细胞质中,依赖自身的RNA聚合酶可实现基因组的独立复制。由于病毒基因组较小,不足以提供足够的外源基因包装容量,黄病毒载体构建时往往通过替换prM/M和E基因制备RNA复制子,实现外源基因在宿主细胞中的持久复制和表达,如,Herd等88使用昆津病毒复制子重组表达人乳头状瘤病毒E7抗原基因,并将该复制子包装成假病毒颗粒,免疫后能够产生针对该抗原的细胞毒性T细胞反应。
黄热病毒YFV-17D是人类疫苗史上第一株通过将强毒株在细胞、组织中连续传代而获得的减毒疫苗,近80年来已经成功接种5亿人以上89-90。对该毒株进行基因组改造使得基于YFV-17D的重组黄病毒疫苗的制备成为可能。由于登革病毒、日本脑炎病毒和西尼罗病毒等黄病毒属成员的大范围传播,以黄热病毒为载体,使用黄病毒属其他成员prM/M和E基因替换载体相应基因制备活嵌合病毒,成为黄病毒疫苗研究重要方法之一。赛诺菲·巴斯德公司使用四种血清型来源的登革病毒prM/E基因替换YFV-17D相应基因,构建分别针对四种血清型的嵌合病毒,以4价疫苗的形式联合免疫具有较好的免疫原性,获得批准使用91。但是,在2016年开始的政府大规模疫苗接种计划中,14名儿童可能因感染登革热休克综合征而死亡,该计划于2017年12月被叫停。与此相比,基于YFV-17D的日本脑炎病毒疫苗YF-JE已经在14个国家中获批使用492。2020年,基于YFV-17D载体构建的一种表达新冠刺突蛋白的重组疫苗YF-S0,在仓鼠、小家鼠和食蟹猴中能够有效诱导针对新冠病毒的免疫反应,同时可以产生对黄热病毒的保护效果93。除此之外,基于黄病毒载体的寨卡疫苗和西尼罗病毒疫苗94等也在研究之中。
疱疹病毒科(Herpesviridae)成员为线性双链DNA病毒,长度介于140~230 kb,直径约100 nm,有囊膜。在疱疹病毒载体制备系统中,其基因组的长独特区(UL)和短独特区(US)的某些基因编码区或间隔区内,可插入30 kb左右的外源基因而不影响病毒的复制。其基因组DNA具有感染性,既可以附加体的形式出现,也可以插入到染色体DNA中形成潜伏感染,这是疱疹病毒的独特性质。另外,疱疹病毒抗原性较为复杂,宿主对多种结构和非结构蛋白均能产生体液和细胞反应,同一属内不同病毒之间存在着高效的交叉中和反应,中和反应主要靶向于病毒衣壳糖蛋白。
制备疱疹病毒载体时,同痘病毒一样,由于疱疹病毒基因组较大,通过酶切连接的方法合成重组疱疹病毒载体全基因组较为困难,目前较为成熟的方法为细菌人工染色体法和酵母人工染色体法。2023年,胡志红研究团队95以1型单纯疱疹病毒临床分离株H129-G4为模板,利用DNA人工合成技术,在酵母中获得了带绿色荧光基因的病毒全基因组,将其转染哺乳动物细胞,成功拯救出了H129-Syn-G2重组病毒。
同痘病毒相似,利用同源重组等方法可以对疱疹病毒基因组特定位点进行定向编辑。使用上述方法构建携带有呼吸道合胞病毒A型和B型包膜糖蛋白基因的重组水痘-带状疱疹病毒载体疫苗可以在豚鼠中有效表达外来抗原,产生针对RSV蛋白特异性抗体反应。同时,使用携带乙肝表面抗原的该类型载体重组疫苗免疫豚鼠,主要激发Th1型免疫反应,并产生迟发型变态反应96。使用复制缺陷型单纯疱疹病毒重组猴艾滋病毒疫苗免疫恒河猴,能够在体内诱发持久的B细胞和T细胞免疫反应,攻毒12周后,与对照相比,病毒血症发生率显著降低97-98。重组疱疹病毒在基因治疗中具有一定的应用潜力。2015年10月,美国FDA批准了安进公司的IMLYGIC(Talimogene Laherparepvec),一种经过基因修饰的1型单纯疱疹病毒(HSV-1),用于首次手术后复发的黑色素瘤患者皮肤、皮下和淋巴结病灶的局部治疗,这也是首个获得FDA批准的溶瘤病毒类治疗药物99。2021年6月,溶瘤性单纯疱疹病毒载体G47Δ被日本厚生劳动省批准用于治疗胶质瘤,为提高其抗肿瘤活性,敲除了ICP34.5基因以消除病毒的神经毒性,敲除了312 bp的α47基因以提高病毒的复制和繁殖能力,这是第二种获批的溶瘤单纯疱疹病毒药物95
病毒载体疫苗是新型疫苗研发的重要形式。随着对病毒基因组和病毒蛋白等元件认识的不断深入,系统设计、制备具有特定功能的疫苗病毒载体对新型疫苗的研制具有重要意义。本文综述了病毒载体疫苗研发策略和几种具有潜在临床应用价值的疫苗病毒载体。腺病毒载体在病毒载体疫苗研发中应用最为成熟,目前获批上市的腺病毒载体重组疫苗包含Ad5、Ad26、ChAdOx1等载体,其中Ad5除可用于肌内注射免疫外,还可经雾化吸入进行无创免疫。腺病毒载体在构建过程中均缺失掉了野生型病毒的复制调控元件,使该载体失去复制性,极大提高病毒载体的应用安全性。痘病毒基因组巨大,人工改造的痘病毒载体可用于多个抗原的同时递送,同时由于基因组不入核,因此几乎没有整合风险。目前应用最成熟的为MVA痘病毒载体,该病毒载体重组疫苗可以在鸡胚细胞中扩增,但无法在人体细胞中复制,具有一定的安全性保障。由于痘病毒基因组克隆难度较大,目前主要通过同源重组的方式对病毒基因组进行人工改造。水疱性口炎病毒和黄病毒分别为单股负链和单股正链RNA病毒,其基因组不进行逆转录且可在胞质中进行复制,无整合风险。但是由于其基因组长度较短,难以实现长片段或多个片段外源基因的嵌入,因此在病毒载体制备时常以膜蛋白替换的方式制备重组疫苗。基于rVSV和YFV-17D病毒的载体重组疫苗应用相对成熟。与上述病毒载体不同的是,疱疹病毒具有潜伏感染的特性,其基因组可以嵌入宿主染色体存在较大的遗传风险。以该类型载体研制的重组疫苗在实验动物中具有良好的免疫原性,但是在人体中主要用作溶瘤病毒类药物。
合成生物学思维是指导病毒载体研发的重要理念。随着合成生物学的不断发展,人工改造重组病毒载体愈加简单,将有助于病毒载体重组疫苗的设计研发。同时,也应重视该技术的生物安全和伦理问题。2018年,加拿大阿尔伯塔大学的David H. Evans团队根据2006年公布的马痘病毒基因组100,首次利用化学合成的DNA片段从兔纤维瘤病毒感染的细胞中拯救出可复制的嵌合马痘病毒101,将合成生物学的生物安全风险推到风口浪尖。针对高致病性病原体生物合成技术的监管应受到重视,防止误用。
目前,病毒载体疫苗的研发仍面临着诸多挑战,如:拥有庞大基因组的病毒载体制备方法不够成熟;增强病毒载体疫苗靶向性的研究亟待深入;病毒载体改造的智能化设计和重组病毒的自动化制备手段有待进一步研究。近年来,病毒载体重组疫苗上市品种持续增加,随着对病毒认识的不断深入以及病毒载体改造技术的不断成熟,未来该类型疫苗必将向着更低的生产成本、更高的安全性、更强的保护性、更好的依从性方向迭代发展。
  • 国家自然科学基金青年科学基金(82101919)
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-063
  • 接收时间:2023-08-30
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-04-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-08-30
  • 修回日期:2023-12-13
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国家自然科学基金青年科学基金(82101919)
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    军事科学院军事医学研究院前沿生物技术实验室,北京 100071

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侯利华(1973—),女,博士,研究员。研究方向为微生物学,主要从事新型疫苗研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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