Article(id=1148682684861313223, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148682683779182790, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2024-059, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1722441600000, receivedDateStr=2024-08-01, revisedDate=1728576000000, revisedDateStr=2024-10-11, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751796893555, onlineDateStr=2025-07-06, pubDate=1745942400000, pubDateStr=2025-04-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751796893555, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751796893555, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751796893555, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148682683779182790, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2025', volume='6', issue='2', pageStart='229', pageEnd='491', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751796893293, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757495676060, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172585111162864525, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148682683779182790, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172585111162864526, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148682683779182790, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=422, endPage=444, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149893899209290140, articleId=1148682684861313223, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Green biomanufacturing of ceramide sphingolipids, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=, articleAbstract=

Ceramide, a fundamental bioactive molecule found ubiquitously in eukaryotic organisms, exerts profound regulatory effect on cellular physiology, encompassing critical roles in signaling cascades, cellular proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, as well as immunomodulation. In dermatology, ceramides play an indispensable role as constituents of the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin, where they are crucial for maintaining the integrity of the epidermal barrier, regulating moisture retention, combating oxidative stress linked to aging, and exhibiting notable antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. The multifaceted biological functions of ceramides underscore their extensive applications in various industries, including cosmetics, biomedicine, functional food, and animal nutrition, highlighting their significant market potential and therapeutic value. The chemical synthesis of ceramides poses substantial challenges due to the intricate stereochemistry involved, necessitating precise control over synthetic pathways. As a result, current commercial sources predominantly rely on semi-synthetic methods that integrate traditional natural extraction techniques with biochemical transformations of sphingolipid precursors to achieve targeted ceramide structures. Recent advancements in synthetic biology have explored microbial systems for the production of sphingolipids, including ceramides, offering promising avenues for scalable and sustainable synthesis. However, optimizing de novo synthesis pathways and their efficiency in microbial cell factories remains a primary research focus. Strategies aimed at enhancing ceramide yield and purity through metabolic engineering and pathway optimization are pivotal for advancing industrial applications. This paper provides a systematic review of the physiological effectiveness and function of ceramides, encompassing their physiological roles and various applications. It begins with an overview of ceramide extraction methods, including both natural extraction techniques and chemical synthesis approaches for ceramides and their precursor compounds. Subsequently, the review addresses the sphingolipid synthesis pathways and their associated key enzymes, detailing strategies for pathway regulation and optimization, as well as the aspects of product transport, storage, and secretion. Additionally, it explores the identification and expression of key enzymes. The paper concludes by examining future directions in the field, such as addressing aggregation toxicity in ceramide synthesis, enhancing transport and secretion mechanisms, advancing digital modifications of catalytic elements, and expanding gene regulatory target exploration. By synthesizing current knowledge and highlighting avenues for innovation, this review aims to catalyze further research effort toward achieving efficient ceramide production. Ultimately, optimizing ceramide synthesis has the potential to unlock its full potential in various sectors, contributing to its advancement in skincare, therapeutics, and functional materials. The integration of microbial systems is particularly promising for expanding production capabilities while addressing sustainability concerns in ceramide manufacturing. Continued advancements in synthetic biology and biotechnology are expected to revolutionize the landscape of ceramide applications, paving the way for enhanced therapeutic interventions and novel industrial applications in the future.

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神经酰胺是一种存在于所有真核生物中的多功能生物活性物质,在细胞信号转导、细胞增殖、分化、凋亡和免疫调节中发挥着重要作用。神经酰胺天然存在于皮肤角质层中,起着支持肌肤屏障、保持水分、抗氧化衰老、抗菌抗炎等作用。因此,神经酰胺及其衍生物在化妆品、生物医药、功能食品等领域具有广阔的市场前景。神经酰胺构型存在多个立体中心,化学从头合成难度大,已知市售的天然或类神经酰胺化合物主要是通过传统天然提取法及生物化学相结合的半合成法获得。近年来,利用微生物合成神经酰胺等鞘脂类化合物已有报道,但从头合成效率还处于较低水平,如何实现细胞工厂高效生产神经酰胺具有重大意义。本文从神经酰胺的生理功能和应用出发,系统地综述了神经酰胺类物质的生理效应及功能;阐述了神经酰胺的天然提取方法、神经酰胺及其前体化合物的化学合成方法;并从鞘脂合成途径及关键酶出发介绍,引出途径调控与优化、产物的运输储存与分泌、关键酶的挖掘与表达等改造策略;最后,从神经酰胺合成面临的聚集毒性、高效运输分泌、数字化改造催化元件、基因调控靶点的拓展等方面进行了展望。合成生物学和生物技术的持续进步有助于扩大微生物细胞工厂的生产能力,实现神经酰胺等鞘脂类化合物的可持续绿色生物制造。

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刘延峰(1987—),男,博士,研究员。研究方向为微生物代谢工程。E-mail:
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鲁锦畅(1999—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为微生物代谢工程。E-mail:

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(Green represents the coding gene, red represents the enzyme. 5,10-THF—5,10-dimethyltetrahydrofolate; 3-KDS—3-keto-dihydrosphingosine; DHS—dihydrosphingosine; PHS—phytosphingosine; S—S phingosine; 1-P-DHS—dihydrosphingosine-1-phosphate; 1-P-PHS—phytosphingosine-1-phosphate; P-Etn—phosphoryl ethanolamine; Pi—phosphate group; IPC—inositol phosphorylceramide; GDP-Man—GDP mannose; MIPC—mannosyl-inositol phosphorylceramide; M(IP)2C—mannosyl-diinositol phosphorylceramide; GlcCer—glucosylceramide; SM—sphingomyelin; C1P—ceramide-1phosphate; ser1—3-phosphoserine aminotransferase encoding gene; ser2—phosphoserine phosphatase in the phosphoglycerate pathway encoding gene; ser3—3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase encoding gene; shm1, shm2—L-serine hydroxymethyltransferase encoding gene; cha1—L-serine deaminase encoding gene; lcb1, lcb2, tsc3—serine palmitoyltransferase encoding gene; tsc10—3-keto-dihydrosphingosine reductase encoding gene; des1—sphingolipid Δ4-desaturase encoding gene; lcb4, lcb5—sphingosine kinase encoding gene; dpl1—sphingobase-1-phosphate lyase encoding gene; sur2—C4 hydroxylase encoding gene; lag1, lac1, lip1—ceramide synthase encoding gene; aur1—ceramide phosphoinositide transferase encoding gene; csg1, csg2, csh1, sur1—mannosylinositol phosphorylceramide synthase encoding gene; ipt1—inositol phosphotransferase encoding gene; isc1—complex sphingolipid headgroup hydrolase encoding gene; ypc1, ydc1—alkaline ceramidase encoding gene; ORM1, ORM2—mediate sphingolipid homeostasis protein; SPT—serine palmitoyl transferase; KDSR—3-ketodihydrosphingosine reductase; CerS—ceramide synthase; CERT—ceramide transfer protein; SMS—sphingomyelin synthase; SMase—sphingomyelinase; CK—ceramide kinase; ER—endoplasmic reticulum)

, figureFileSmall=Tj+xtyAmRlZp/IBB+15pDQ==, figureFileBig=XnZUcI2QhJqi5Q6mjOrrMw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694110630617, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=图3, caption=酵母鞘脂代谢通路

(绿色代表编码基因,红色代表酶。3-P-Glycerate—3磷酸甘油酸;Palmitoy CoA—棕榈酰辅酶A;5,10-THF—5,10-二甲基四氢叶酸;L-Glycine—L-甘氨酸;3-KDS—3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇;DHS—二氢鞘氨醇;PHS—植物鞘氨醇;S—鞘氨醇;1-P-DHS—1-磷酸二氢鞘氨醇;1-P-PHS—1-磷酸植物鞘氨醇;P-Etn—磷酸乙醇胺;Pi—磷酸基团;IPC—肌醇磷酸神经酰胺;GDP-Man—鸟苷二磷酸甘露糖;MIPC—甘露糖肌醇磷酸神经酰胺;M(IP)2C—甘露糖-(肌醇-P)2-神经酰胺; GlcCer—葡萄糖糖神经酰胺; SM—鞘磷脂;C1P—神经酰胺1-磷酸盐;ser1—3-磷酸丝氨酸氨基转移酶编码基因;ser2—磷酸甘油酸途径的磷酸丝氨酸磷酸酶编码基因;ser3—3-磷酸甘油酸脱氢酶编码基因;shm1shm2—L-丝氨酸羟甲基转移酶编码基因;cha1—L-丝氨酸脱氨酶编码基因;lcb1lcb2tsc3—丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶编码基因;tsc10—3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇还原酶编码基因;des1—鞘脂Δ4-去饱和酶编码基因;lcb4lcb5—鞘氨醇激酶编码基因;dpl1—鞘碱磷酸裂解酶编码基因;sur2—C4 羟化酶编码基因;lag1lac1lip1—神经酰胺合成酶编码基因;aur1—神经酰胺磷酸肌醇转移酶编码基因;csg1,csg2,csh1,sur1—甘露糖基肌醇磷酸神经酰胺合酶催编码基因;ipt1—肌醇磷酸转移酶编码基因;isc1—复杂鞘脂头基水解酶编码基因;ypc1ydc1—碱性神经酰胺酶编码基因;ORM1,ORM2—介导鞘脂稳态蛋白;SPT—丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶;KDSR—3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇还原酶;CerS—神经酰胺合酶;CERT—神经酰胺转运蛋白; SMS—鞘磷脂合成酶;SMase—鞘磷脂酶家族;CK—经酰胺激酶;ER—内质网)

, figureFileSmall=Tj+xtyAmRlZp/IBB+15pDQ==, figureFileBig=XnZUcI2QhJqi5Q6mjOrrMw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694181933786, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Schematic diagram for the catalytic synthesis of 3-KDS by serine palmitoyl transferase

(SPT—serine palmitoyl transferase; ORM—mediate sphingolipid homeostasis protein;3-KDS—3-keto-dihydrosphingosine; TM—Transmembrane; LCB1, LCB2, TSC3—subunits of serine palmitoyltransferase; ER—endoplasmic reticulum)

, figureFileSmall=naHJ7p5wAK9W2YmxbaQZyA==, figureFileBig=gPz0Y3ww3dF1Qxl9ZGnNcg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694253236955, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=图4, caption=丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶催化合成3-KDS简图

(SPT—丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶;ORM—调节鞘脂稳态蛋白;3-KDS—3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇;TM—跨膜区;LCB1,LCB2,TSC3—丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶亚基;ER—内质网)

, figureFileSmall=naHJ7p5wAK9W2YmxbaQZyA==, figureFileBig=gPz0Y3ww3dF1Qxl9ZGnNcg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694358094556, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Schematic diagram for the catalytic synthesis of DHS by 3-ketodihydrosphingosine reductase

(3-KDS—3-keto-dihydrosphingosine; KDSR—3-keto-dihydrosphingosine reductase; TSC10—3-keto-dihydrosphingosine reductase; DHS—dihydrosphingosine; ER—endoplasmic reticulum)

, figureFileSmall=wmCCILCOaQFG73uDND4jFw==, figureFileBig=Wr38Fg21f9zZyzdQl7HKIQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694450369245, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=图5, caption=3-酮二氢鞘氨醇还原酶催化合成DHS简图

(3-KDS—3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇;KDSR—3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇还原酶;DHS—二氢鞘氨醇;ER—内质网)

, figureFileSmall=wmCCILCOaQFG73uDND4jFw==, figureFileBig=Wr38Fg21f9zZyzdQl7HKIQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694513283806, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Schematic diagram for the catalytic synthesis of ceramide by ceramide synthase

(LCB—long chain sphingosine bases; FA—fatty acid; CerS—ceramide synthase; Cer—ceramide; LAG1, LAC1, LIP1—subunits of ceramide synthase; ER—endoplasmic reticulum)

, figureFileSmall=7nJduHRlbMO7cYpaO+YmLg==, figureFileBig=wu+EtutvyhN4wn3l+Q9ooA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694572004063, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=图6, caption=神经酰胺合酶催化合成神经酰胺简图

(LCB—长链鞘氨醇碱;FA—脂肪酸;CerS—神经酰胺合酶;Cer—神经酰胺;LAG1,LAC1,LIP1—神经酰胺合成酶亚基;ER—内质网)

, figureFileSmall=7nJduHRlbMO7cYpaO+YmLg==, figureFileBig=wu+EtutvyhN4wn3l+Q9ooA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694643307232, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=Strategy for the modification of the ceramide biosynthetic pathway

(3-KDS—3-keto-dihydrosphingosine; ORM—mediate sphingolipid homeostasis protein; SPT—serine palmitoyl transferase; DHS—dihydrosphingosine; PHS—phytosphingosine; Cer—ceramide; GlcCer—glucosylceramide; SM—sphingomyelin; CerS—ceramide synthase)

, figureFileSmall=yGY8BLF4Tcqf5Aus9cxNlA==, figureFileBig=ddik0udl3LvdhcLTudkfHQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694706221793, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=图7, caption=神经酰胺生物合成途径改造策略

(3-KDS—3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇;ORM—介导鞘脂稳态蛋白; SPT—丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶;DHS—二氢鞘氨醇;PHS—植物鞘氨醇;Cer—神经酰胺;GlcCer—葡萄糖糖神经酰胺;SM—鞘磷脂;CerS—神经酰胺合酶)

, figureFileSmall=yGY8BLF4Tcqf5Aus9cxNlA==, figureFileBig=ddik0udl3LvdhcLTudkfHQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694794302178, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=Diagram for the catalytic synthesis of ceramides by DES1、SLI1 and ATF2

(CerS—Ceramide synthase; des1—Human sphingolipid desaturase encoding gene; WcSli1, WcAtf2Wickhamomyces ciferrii sphingobase N/O-acetyltransferase encoding genes)

, figureFileSmall=FuUj8WbiMPvAER/DWTK9OQ==, figureFileBig=rqkMZ1T+TKoUW+TkziYOdA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694865605347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=图8, caption=DES1、SLI1、ATF2催化合成神经酰胺示意图

(CerS—神经酰胺合酶;des1—人鞘脂去饱和酶编码基因;WcSli1,WcAtf2—威克汉姆西弗酵母鞘碱N/O-乙酰转移酶编码基因)

, figureFileSmall=FuUj8WbiMPvAER/DWTK9OQ==, figureFileBig=rqkMZ1T+TKoUW+TkziYOdA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172584694991434468, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Chemical synthesis of ceramides and their precursor sphingosine base

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
出发底物 产物 总收率 参考文献
鞘氨醇碱从头合成 2-叠氮-4-硝基苯基磺酸衍生物 鞘氨醇;植物鞘氨醇 58% [33]
立体选择性的环氧化物 鞘氨醇 51% [34]
D-葡萄糖衍生物

D-赤式鞘氨醇;

D-苏式鞘氨醇

52% [35]
L-丝氨酸 鞘氨醇;鞘磷脂;1-磷酸鞘氨醇;鞘氨醇衍生物 37% [36]
N-Boc-L-丝氨酸 鞘氨醇 71% [37]
神经酰胺从头合成 三羟甲基氨基甲烷;脂肪酸羟基取代物 神经酰胺类似物 33%~65% [38]
(2S)-2-氨基苯乙醇(苯甘氨醇);(1R,2R)2-氨基-1-苯基-1,3-丙二醇;(S)-2-氨基(-4-甲氧基)苯乙醇 神经酰胺类似物 63.5% [39]
羟化脂肪酸;环氧甘油基醚 神经酰胺类似物 60%~75% [40]
N-十六烷基-2-氨基乙醇;环己烷;丙二酸二甲酯 神经酰胺类似物 69% [41]
C16-烷基烯二聚体;二乙醇胺/N-甲基-2,3,4,5,6-五羟基己胺/D-氨基葡萄糖/3-氨基-1,2-丙二醇/N-(1,3-二羟基异丙基)胺/N-(2,3,4,5,6-五羟基己基)胺等 神经酰胺类似物 20%~90% [42-43]
脂肪酸与鞘碱化学法合成神经酰胺 神经鞘氨醇;不同碳链长度有机酸 神经酰胺类似物 51%~96% [21]
共轭羧酸与N‑羟基琥珀酰亚胺;鞘氨醇 含共轭羧酸的神经酰胺 50%~70% [44]
羧酸;植物鞘氨醇 神经酰胺Ⅲ 84% [45]
脂肪酸与鞘碱生物酶法法合成神经酰胺 二氢鞘氨醇;脂肪酸;Novozym 435 神经酰胺NG 70%~98% [46]
活化的羧酸衍生物;植物鞘氨醇/二氢鞘氨醇;Novozym 435 神经酰胺 98%~99.7% [47]
植物鞘氨酸;脂肪酸;Novozym 435 神经酰胺Ⅲ 94% [48]
), ArticleFig(id=1172584695100486373, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

神经酰胺及前体鞘氨醇碱的化学合成法

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
出发底物 产物 总收率 参考文献
鞘氨醇碱从头合成 2-叠氮-4-硝基苯基磺酸衍生物 鞘氨醇;植物鞘氨醇 58% [33]
立体选择性的环氧化物 鞘氨醇 51% [34]
D-葡萄糖衍生物

D-赤式鞘氨醇;

D-苏式鞘氨醇

52% [35]
L-丝氨酸 鞘氨醇;鞘磷脂;1-磷酸鞘氨醇;鞘氨醇衍生物 37% [36]
N-Boc-L-丝氨酸 鞘氨醇 71% [37]
神经酰胺从头合成 三羟甲基氨基甲烷;脂肪酸羟基取代物 神经酰胺类似物 33%~65% [38]
(2S)-2-氨基苯乙醇(苯甘氨醇);(1R,2R)2-氨基-1-苯基-1,3-丙二醇;(S)-2-氨基(-4-甲氧基)苯乙醇 神经酰胺类似物 63.5% [39]
羟化脂肪酸;环氧甘油基醚 神经酰胺类似物 60%~75% [40]
N-十六烷基-2-氨基乙醇;环己烷;丙二酸二甲酯 神经酰胺类似物 69% [41]
C16-烷基烯二聚体;二乙醇胺/N-甲基-2,3,4,5,6-五羟基己胺/D-氨基葡萄糖/3-氨基-1,2-丙二醇/N-(1,3-二羟基异丙基)胺/N-(2,3,4,5,6-五羟基己基)胺等 神经酰胺类似物 20%~90% [42-43]
脂肪酸与鞘碱化学法合成神经酰胺 神经鞘氨醇;不同碳链长度有机酸 神经酰胺类似物 51%~96% [21]
共轭羧酸与N‑羟基琥珀酰亚胺;鞘氨醇 含共轭羧酸的神经酰胺 50%~70% [44]
羧酸;植物鞘氨醇 神经酰胺Ⅲ 84% [45]
脂肪酸与鞘碱生物酶法法合成神经酰胺 二氢鞘氨醇;脂肪酸;Novozym 435 神经酰胺NG 70%~98% [46]
活化的羧酸衍生物;植物鞘氨醇/二氢鞘氨醇;Novozym 435 神经酰胺 98%~99.7% [47]
植物鞘氨酸;脂肪酸;Novozym 435 神经酰胺Ⅲ 94% [48]
), ArticleFig(id=1172584695180178150, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Biosynthesis of ceramides and their precursor derivatives

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
宿主 产物 底物碳源 策略 产量 参考文献
威克汉姆西弗酵母 三乙酰鞘氨醇 葡萄糖 异源表达棉桃阿舒来源laf1des1;突变SYR、DES

33.45 mg/g DCW

(500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[56]
威克汉姆西弗酵母(P.ciferrii lig4D strain CS.PCDPro2) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖 阻断shm1、shm2;缺失cha1;删除lcb4;过表达lcb1、lcb2;敲除orm1、orm2;过表达sur2

199 mg/g DCW;2 g/L

(摇瓶培养)

[57]
威克汉姆西弗酵母(NRRL Y1031) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖

(291.2±63.7) mg/L

(120 mL/500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[58]
威克汉姆西弗酵母 NRRL Y-1031(M40) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

30 g/L葡萄糖

30g /L糖蜜

EMS诱变;BODIPY 505/515染色;荧光激活细胞分选(FACS)

2.895 g/L

(5.6 L生物反应器)

[59]
酿酒酵母K26 二乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖 质粒表达异源基因sli1atf2

(4.3±0.8) mg/L

(120 mL/500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[58]
酿酒酵母K26 三乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖 质粒表达异源基因sli1atf2

(1.2±0.1) mg/L

(120 mL/500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[58]
解脂耶氏酵母PO1g(MatA, leu2-270, ura3-302::URA3, xpr2-332. axp-2) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

200 g/L甘油

橄榄油

异源表达sli1、atf2;删除lcb4基因;有性杂交;发酵优化

(650±24) mg/L

(5 L生物反应器)

[60]

威克汉姆西弗酵母

F-60-10A NRRL1031

诱变后菌株:Mutant736

四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

5 g/L丝氨酸;

50 g/L甘油;

补加甘油

γ射线诱变

17.7 g/L

(3 L生物反应器)

[61]
威克汉姆西弗酵母 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

50 g/L甘油;

5 g/L L‑丝氨酸

ARTP诱变

30.47 g/L

(5 L生物反应器)

[62]

威克汉姆西弗酵母DSCC 7-25

(KCCM-10131)

四乙酰植物鞘氨醇 25~35 g/L甘油 从NRRL Y-1031单倍体分离

14 g/L

(500 L生物反应器)

[63]
威克汉姆西弗酵母CGMCC19562 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

6.0 g/L L‑丝氨酸;

42.0 g/L甘油

单倍体分离

22.14 g/L

(生物反应器)

[64]

酿酒酵母

CEN.PK2‑1D

植物鞘氨醇 500 g/L葡萄糖 敲除lcb4、shm2、cha1;orm2:: tsc10elo3::sur2shm1::lcb1,lcb2; delta 22::hac1

2817 mg/L;150.54 mg/g干重

(5 L生物反应器)

[65]
酿酒酵母NCYC 3608(MATalpha gal2 ho::HygMX ura3::KanMX) 植物鞘氨醇 20 g/L葡萄糖 缺失his3、leu2、ura3、cha1、cha2、lcb4、lcb5orm2;质粒过表达ARS/CEN/URA/ScTSC10/ScSUR2、ARS/CEN/HIS/ScLCB1/ScLCB2、ARS/CEN/LEU 2169 mg/L [66]
酿酒酵母KCCM50515 神经酰胺 20 g/L葡萄糖 发酵优化 1.46 mg/L [67]

酿酒酵母 KCCM 50515(Matα

ura3-52 lys2-801 ade2-101 trp1-∆63 his3-∆200 leu2-∆1

神经酰胺 20 g/L葡萄糖 过表达tscl0 9.8 mg/g cell [68]
酿酒酵母 神经酰胺 葡萄糖;半乳糖 过表达tsc10 10.52 mg/g cell [69]
酿酒酵母 SCEL2,1 神经酰胺 葡萄糖;半乳糖 过表达lcb1、lcb2 10.08 mg /g cell [69]
酿酒酵母 SCEG1C1 神经酰胺 葡萄糖;半乳糖 过表达lag1、lac1 9.88 mg/g cell [69]
酿酒酵母 神经酰胺NS 葡萄糖 敲除sur2scs7;引入人类鞘脂去饱和酶基因des1;失活ydc1;过表达isc1des1基因产物的内质网定位 未定量 [70]
巴斯德毕赤酵母GS115 神经酰胺(d18:0) 10 g/L甘油 敲除Ku70同源的基因 PAS_chr3_0329;敲除orm1orm2 同系物同源基因 PAS_chr4_0427 90.22 mg/L [71]
), ArticleFig(id=1172584695268258535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148682684861313223, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

神经酰胺及前体衍生物的生物合成法

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
宿主 产物 底物碳源 策略 产量 参考文献
威克汉姆西弗酵母 三乙酰鞘氨醇 葡萄糖 异源表达棉桃阿舒来源laf1des1;突变SYR、DES

33.45 mg/g DCW

(500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[56]
威克汉姆西弗酵母(P.ciferrii lig4D strain CS.PCDPro2) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖 阻断shm1、shm2;缺失cha1;删除lcb4;过表达lcb1、lcb2;敲除orm1、orm2;过表达sur2

199 mg/g DCW;2 g/L

(摇瓶培养)

[57]
威克汉姆西弗酵母(NRRL Y1031) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖

(291.2±63.7) mg/L

(120 mL/500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[58]
威克汉姆西弗酵母 NRRL Y-1031(M40) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

30 g/L葡萄糖

30g /L糖蜜

EMS诱变;BODIPY 505/515染色;荧光激活细胞分选(FACS)

2.895 g/L

(5.6 L生物反应器)

[59]
酿酒酵母K26 二乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖 质粒表达异源基因sli1atf2

(4.3±0.8) mg/L

(120 mL/500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[58]
酿酒酵母K26 三乙酰植物鞘氨醇 33 g/L葡萄糖 质粒表达异源基因sli1atf2

(1.2±0.1) mg/L

(120 mL/500 mL挡板摇瓶)

[58]
解脂耶氏酵母PO1g(MatA, leu2-270, ura3-302::URA3, xpr2-332. axp-2) 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

200 g/L甘油

橄榄油

异源表达sli1、atf2;删除lcb4基因;有性杂交;发酵优化

(650±24) mg/L

(5 L生物反应器)

[60]

威克汉姆西弗酵母

F-60-10A NRRL1031

诱变后菌株:Mutant736

四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

5 g/L丝氨酸;

50 g/L甘油;

补加甘油

γ射线诱变

17.7 g/L

(3 L生物反应器)

[61]
威克汉姆西弗酵母 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

50 g/L甘油;

5 g/L L‑丝氨酸

ARTP诱变

30.47 g/L

(5 L生物反应器)

[62]

威克汉姆西弗酵母DSCC 7-25

(KCCM-10131)

四乙酰植物鞘氨醇 25~35 g/L甘油 从NRRL Y-1031单倍体分离

14 g/L

(500 L生物反应器)

[63]
威克汉姆西弗酵母CGMCC19562 四乙酰植物鞘氨醇

6.0 g/L L‑丝氨酸;

42.0 g/L甘油

单倍体分离

22.14 g/L

(生物反应器)

[64]

酿酒酵母

CEN.PK2‑1D

植物鞘氨醇 500 g/L葡萄糖 敲除lcb4、shm2、cha1;orm2:: tsc10elo3::sur2shm1::lcb1,lcb2; delta 22::hac1

2817 mg/L;150.54 mg/g干重

(5 L生物反应器)

[65]
酿酒酵母NCYC 3608(MATalpha gal2 ho::HygMX ura3::KanMX) 植物鞘氨醇 20 g/L葡萄糖 缺失his3、leu2、ura3、cha1、cha2、lcb4、lcb5orm2;质粒过表达ARS/CEN/URA/ScTSC10/ScSUR2、ARS/CEN/HIS/ScLCB1/ScLCB2、ARS/CEN/LEU 2169 mg/L [66]
酿酒酵母KCCM50515 神经酰胺 20 g/L葡萄糖 发酵优化 1.46 mg/L [67]

酿酒酵母 KCCM 50515(Matα

ura3-52 lys2-801 ade2-101 trp1-∆63 his3-∆200 leu2-∆1

神经酰胺 20 g/L葡萄糖 过表达tscl0 9.8 mg/g cell [68]
酿酒酵母 神经酰胺 葡萄糖;半乳糖 过表达tsc10 10.52 mg/g cell [69]
酿酒酵母 SCEL2,1 神经酰胺 葡萄糖;半乳糖 过表达lcb1、lcb2 10.08 mg /g cell [69]
酿酒酵母 SCEG1C1 神经酰胺 葡萄糖;半乳糖 过表达lag1、lac1 9.88 mg/g cell [69]
酿酒酵母 神经酰胺NS 葡萄糖 敲除sur2scs7;引入人类鞘脂去饱和酶基因des1;失活ydc1;过表达isc1des1基因产物的内质网定位 未定量 [70]
巴斯德毕赤酵母GS115 神经酰胺(d18:0) 10 g/L甘油 敲除Ku70同源的基因 PAS_chr3_0329;敲除orm1orm2 同系物同源基因 PAS_chr4_0427 90.22 mg/L [71]
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神经酰胺类鞘脂的绿色生物制造
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鲁锦畅 1, 2 , 武耀康 1, 2 , 吕雪芹 1, 2 , 刘龙 1, 2 , 陈坚 1, 2 , 刘延峰 1, 2
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2025,6(2): 422-444
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2025, 6(2): 422-444
神经酰胺类鞘脂的绿色生物制造
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鲁锦畅1, 2, 武耀康1, 2, 吕雪芹1, 2, 刘龙1, 2, 陈坚1, 2, 刘延峰1, 2
作者信息
  • 1 江南大学生物工程学院,糖化学与生物技术教育部重点实验室,江苏 无锡 214112
  • 2 江南大学未来食品科学中心,江苏 无锡 214112
  • 鲁锦畅(1999—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为微生物代谢工程。E-mail:

通讯作者:

刘延峰(1987—),男,博士,研究员。研究方向为微生物代谢工程。E-mail:
Green biomanufacturing of ceramide sphingolipids
Jinchang LU1, 2, Yaokang WU1, 2, Xueqin LV1, 2, Long LIU1, 2, Jian CHEN1, 2, Yanfeng LIU1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Biotechnology,Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology,Ministry of Education,Jiangnan University,Wuxi 214122,Jiangsu,China
  • 2 Science Center for Future Foods,Jiangnan University,Wuxi 214122,Jiangsu,China
出版时间: 2025-04-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-059
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神经酰胺是一种存在于所有真核生物中的多功能生物活性物质,在细胞信号转导、细胞增殖、分化、凋亡和免疫调节中发挥着重要作用。神经酰胺天然存在于皮肤角质层中,起着支持肌肤屏障、保持水分、抗氧化衰老、抗菌抗炎等作用。因此,神经酰胺及其衍生物在化妆品、生物医药、功能食品等领域具有广阔的市场前景。神经酰胺构型存在多个立体中心,化学从头合成难度大,已知市售的天然或类神经酰胺化合物主要是通过传统天然提取法及生物化学相结合的半合成法获得。近年来,利用微生物合成神经酰胺等鞘脂类化合物已有报道,但从头合成效率还处于较低水平,如何实现细胞工厂高效生产神经酰胺具有重大意义。本文从神经酰胺的生理功能和应用出发,系统地综述了神经酰胺类物质的生理效应及功能;阐述了神经酰胺的天然提取方法、神经酰胺及其前体化合物的化学合成方法;并从鞘脂合成途径及关键酶出发介绍,引出途径调控与优化、产物的运输储存与分泌、关键酶的挖掘与表达等改造策略;最后,从神经酰胺合成面临的聚集毒性、高效运输分泌、数字化改造催化元件、基因调控靶点的拓展等方面进行了展望。合成生物学和生物技术的持续进步有助于扩大微生物细胞工厂的生产能力,实现神经酰胺等鞘脂类化合物的可持续绿色生物制造。

神经酰胺  /  微生物细胞工厂  /  生物合成  /  鞘脂  /  鞘氨醇碱

Ceramide, a fundamental bioactive molecule found ubiquitously in eukaryotic organisms, exerts profound regulatory effect on cellular physiology, encompassing critical roles in signaling cascades, cellular proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, as well as immunomodulation. In dermatology, ceramides play an indispensable role as constituents of the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin, where they are crucial for maintaining the integrity of the epidermal barrier, regulating moisture retention, combating oxidative stress linked to aging, and exhibiting notable antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. The multifaceted biological functions of ceramides underscore their extensive applications in various industries, including cosmetics, biomedicine, functional food, and animal nutrition, highlighting their significant market potential and therapeutic value. The chemical synthesis of ceramides poses substantial challenges due to the intricate stereochemistry involved, necessitating precise control over synthetic pathways. As a result, current commercial sources predominantly rely on semi-synthetic methods that integrate traditional natural extraction techniques with biochemical transformations of sphingolipid precursors to achieve targeted ceramide structures. Recent advancements in synthetic biology have explored microbial systems for the production of sphingolipids, including ceramides, offering promising avenues for scalable and sustainable synthesis. However, optimizing de novo synthesis pathways and their efficiency in microbial cell factories remains a primary research focus. Strategies aimed at enhancing ceramide yield and purity through metabolic engineering and pathway optimization are pivotal for advancing industrial applications. This paper provides a systematic review of the physiological effectiveness and function of ceramides, encompassing their physiological roles and various applications. It begins with an overview of ceramide extraction methods, including both natural extraction techniques and chemical synthesis approaches for ceramides and their precursor compounds. Subsequently, the review addresses the sphingolipid synthesis pathways and their associated key enzymes, detailing strategies for pathway regulation and optimization, as well as the aspects of product transport, storage, and secretion. Additionally, it explores the identification and expression of key enzymes. The paper concludes by examining future directions in the field, such as addressing aggregation toxicity in ceramide synthesis, enhancing transport and secretion mechanisms, advancing digital modifications of catalytic elements, and expanding gene regulatory target exploration. By synthesizing current knowledge and highlighting avenues for innovation, this review aims to catalyze further research effort toward achieving efficient ceramide production. Ultimately, optimizing ceramide synthesis has the potential to unlock its full potential in various sectors, contributing to its advancement in skincare, therapeutics, and functional materials. The integration of microbial systems is particularly promising for expanding production capabilities while addressing sustainability concerns in ceramide manufacturing. Continued advancements in synthetic biology and biotechnology are expected to revolutionize the landscape of ceramide applications, paving the way for enhanced therapeutic interventions and novel industrial applications in the future.

ceramide  /  microbial cell factories  /  biosynthesis  /  sphingolipids  /  sphingosine alkali
鲁锦畅, 武耀康, 吕雪芹, 刘龙, 陈坚, 刘延峰. 神经酰胺类鞘脂的绿色生物制造. 合成生物学, 2025 , 6 (2) : 422 -444 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-059
Jinchang LU, Yaokang WU, Xueqin LV, Long LIU, Jian CHEN, Yanfeng LIU. Green biomanufacturing of ceramide sphingolipids[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2025 , 6 (2) : 422 -444 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-059
鞘脂(sphingolipids)是生物膜结构的重要组成成分,参与细胞的生长、分化、衰老、程序性凋亡等信号转导的生理功能。鞘脂主要包括鞘磷脂(sphingomyelin,SM)、鞘糖脂(glycosphingolipid,GL)及神经酰胺(ceramide, Cer)。神经酰胺是天然存在于皮肤里的一类鞘脂,是皮肤角质层细胞间类脂体的主要构成成分,起着防止水分散发以及防护外部刺激的功能。随着年龄的增长,人体皮肤中存在的神经酰胺会逐渐减少,导致皮肤出现干燥、粗糙等症状1
神经酰胺由脂肪酸(fatty acid, FA)的羧基与长链鞘氨醇碱(long chain sphingosine bases, LCB)的氨基经脱水而形成。天然存在的LCB部分链长为12~22个碳,以18个碳居多,脂肪酸链的长度、不饱和数以及位置都会影响神经酰胺的性质。根据LCB碳链中的双键位置、羟基数目不同以及FA的碳链长度不同,人类表皮中神经酰胺主要可以分为20类2图1),含量较多有NP(23.58%)、NH(18.74%)、AH(13.91%)、AP(13.81%)、NDS(8.09%)、AS(5.35%)、NS(7.17%)、EOS(3.61%)、ADS(1.38%)、EOP(0.97%)、EOH(2.56%)和EODS(0.4%)3-6,若考虑到链长差异,则神经酰胺目前至少有数百种7,通过现代检测技术目前已检测出1000多种神经酰胺8
除了按照分子结构命名外,神经酰胺还可按其在色谱分离中的迁移顺序进行命名,如神经酰胺1型~8型,而后出现的神经酰胺9型~11型则是按发现时间次序命名。然而这种命名方式并不是统一使用的,结构相同的神经酰胺也常常用不同数字命名,故这种命名方式逐渐被字母分类法取代8
随着人们生活水平的提高,神经酰胺也作为重要补充成分被广泛应用于化妆品、医药、饲料、功能食品等行业,尤其是化妆品行业,2023年全球神经酰胺市场销售额达到了3.56亿美元,美国每年神经酰胺类产品的产值在100亿美元以上,因此神经酰胺的高效生产已经成为研究热点。传统的生物提取路线的劣势在于产量低、潜在生物危害性、生产周期长等;化学合成法存在环境污染且合成神经酰胺结构与天然神经酰胺结构不一致等问题。相较传统的动植物提取法与化学合成法,微生物细胞工厂生物生产可以克服上述障碍,生产出绿色、可持续的天然神经酰胺。本文概述了神经酰胺的生物合成途径,并总结了鞘脂合成路径中常用的微生物底盘以及合成生物学、代谢工程和酶工程改造策略。此外,本篇文章讨论了神经酰胺生物合成中的瓶颈与挑战,并提供了克服这些障碍的可行性解决方案,以促进未来神经酰胺和鞘脂类物质的可持续生产。
神经酰胺作为皮肤脂质屏障的关键成分,其天然存在对于维护皮肤的水合状态至关重要。表皮水分蒸发过程的控制通过细胞间脂质中存在的神经酰胺来实现,脂质代谢异常引起神经酰胺水平下降,会导致老年性干燥症、特应性皮炎及牛皮癣等症状的发生9。在人体皮肤表皮上层,神经酰胺主要分布于板层小体、转运高尔基体、角化细胞的包膜和角质层细胞间隙,它不仅强化了细胞间的结合,还通过与角质细胞表面蛋白质的共价键结合,形成紧密的屏障,有效防止水分和营养物质的丢失10-11。神经酰胺的亲水基团具有防止水分和电解质流失的能力,且能在相对较低的剂量下保持活性12,因此广泛应用于护肤品和洗发水中,在为皮肤和头发提供持久的水分、防止干燥的同时也可以减少表面活性剂的刺激,还能增加皮肤角质层的厚度,提升皮肤电导率,降低炎症反应的发生。
基于上述功能,神经酰胺被广泛添加于洗发水、护肤品等日化产品中,尤其是在保湿和抗衰老产品中13,神经酰胺与其他成分如亚麻酸、透明质酸、维生素类配合可用于调理型化妆产品,适用于皮肤干燥、粗糙、多皮屑等皮肤障碍功能受损的情况14。目前市场上已经推出大量的相关产品,如La Roche-Posay欧莱雅温泉水活能洗发水、舒蕾SLEK PRO等洗发水。
神经酰胺在皮肤屏障功能中扮演核心角色。它通过增强细胞间脂质和蛋白质的结合,提升角质层的凝聚力,增强细胞间的结合紧密度,防止细菌等微生物的攻击,起到了维护皮肤和头发角质屏障的作用11。此外,神经酰胺可以增强皮肤的屏障功能并抑制黑色素的产生,神经酰胺缺失会导致皮肤屏障功能的丧失,使外来物质更容易侵入,从而引发二次感染及皮肤排斥反应。这些外来物质会引发角质形成细胞、朗格汉斯细胞以及黑素细胞等细胞释放细胞因子,进而引发皮肤炎症等病理现象15
神经酰胺在抗氧抗衰方面也起着重要作用。鞘氨醇类神经酰胺碳链的双键和端位羟基易氧化,因而具备抗氧化作用。低浓度的神经酰胺可刺激成纤维细胞增殖产生胶原蛋白等物质,激活基质金属蛋白酶系列酶抑制剂(TIMP-1)的活性并抑制基质金属蛋白酶的表达,具有一定的抗衰老功效16
神经酰胺的修复受损屏障、减少皮肤炎症和感染的能力,以及抗氧化性能和促进胶原蛋白生成的功能,使其成为抗衰老及修护皮肤产品的关键成分。植物来源的水溶性神经酰胺对抑制人体白细胞弹性蛋白酶和胶原蛋白酶具有显著活性,对抗衰老化妆品的研发具有指导意义。
鞘脂在先天免疫中起着重要作用,对细菌、真菌和微藻的生长有抑制活性17-19。目前有大量的工作证明了神经酰胺在免疫调节、细菌感染及皮肤炎症方面的功能。神经酰胺和许多皮肤表面脂质类似,都具有抗菌功能,包括类鞘氨醇碱和皮脂衍生的皂角酸等。例如,短链神经酰胺对脑膜炎奈瑟菌(Neisseria meningitidis)和相关物种淋病奈瑟菌(Neisseria gonorrhoeae)具有有效的抗菌作用20。在免疫调节方面,神经酰胺和游离脂肪酸如月桂酸、棕榈酸和油酸可增加抗微生物肽的释放,还与葡萄糖基神经酰胺、鞘氨醇等抗微生物脂质以及人类β防御素2等抗菌肽协同作用,参与皮肤的固有免疫,防御病原体的入侵20
神经酰胺展现出的抗菌和免疫调节特性,使其在医学领域具有广阔应用前景。它们能增强抗微生物肽的释放,与抗微生物脂质协同作用,参与皮肤的固有免疫。神经酰胺类化合物在预防和治疗神经退行性疾病中展现出潜在作用,如在老年痴呆症治疗中,神经酰胺类化合物表现出神经保护效果,因此在药品开发中具有重要价值。浙江大学和日本理化研究所发明的神经酰胺类化合物在老年痴呆症的体外筛选模型PC12细胞中具有显著的拟神经生长因子活性,因此,以有效剂量的神经酰胺类化合物或其衍生物作为活性成分添加药学上可接受的载体,可作为制备预防、治疗老年痴呆症(特别是阿尔茨海默病)等神经退行性疾病的药物21。基于以上研究,神经酰胺在制备改善认知、学习记忆能力的食品或药品中的也有相关应用22,神经酰胺作为一种食品添加剂,最早在2015年4月1日实施的“功能性标示食品”制度后得到了日本官方的认可和规范。
神经酰胺作为第二信使,在细胞信号转导、细胞增殖与分化以及免疫调节等生理过程中发挥重要作用。在哺乳动物细胞中,神经酰胺通过激活多种信号通路,如蛋白激酶C(protein kinase C,PKC)、c-JUN N-末端激酶(c-JUN N-terminal kinase,JNK)等,参与调节细胞的增殖、分化和凋亡。例如,神经酰胺可以通过激活CREB3L1转录因子,促进目的基因的转录,这些基因大多对细胞周期起抑制作用23。此外,神经酰胺还可以通过影响G蛋白和磷脂酶C(phospholipase C, PLC)途径,激活细胞内Ca2+释放,进而影响细胞的多种功能。神经酰胺在细胞分化过程中同样发挥着重要作用,它可以调节细胞内多种分子的活性,如通过影响细胞膜上的Na+离子通道,从而影响细胞的电生理特性和分化过程24。在神经系统中,神经酰胺的变化与神经元的极性和树突形成有关,而在肌肉细胞中,神经酰胺则可能通过调节细胞内Ca2+释放影响成肌细胞的收缩功能25。在酵母中,鞘脂除了在微结构域(脂筏)形成和细胞壁完整性中具有重要的物理功能外,还参与许多细胞过程,如胞吞和胞吐、细胞内运输、细胞信号转导、热休克反应、衰老和蛋白质折叠26
神经酰胺通过激活多种信号通路,如PKC、JNK等,参与细胞增殖、分化和凋亡的调控,使其在皮肤健康和疾病治疗中展现出潜在应用。在医学领域,神经酰胺在多种细胞因子、肿瘤坏死因子-α、维生素D3、Fas配体及CD28配体等诱导生物效应中起重要信使作用,介导肿瘤细胞凋亡的发生23。这些作用使其成为潜在的治疗靶点,特别是在癌症治疗中,神经酰胺可以通过诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡来发挥抗肿瘤作用。在食品工业中,神经酰胺的一些生理功能已经被开发用于制造保健食品,这些功能包括抑制血压上升、活化免疫、阻碍脂肪酶活性、抑制癌细胞增殖等27-28
神经酰胺的这些功能和应用表明,它不仅在基础生物学研究中具有重要意义(从日常的护肤品到医疗和食品工业都有着不可忽视的作用),而且在临床治疗和健康产品开发中也展现出广阔的应用前景。
目前市场上神经酰胺合成方法有天然提取法、化学合成法和微生物发酵法(图2)。
天然提取的神经酰胺往往来源于动物和植物。动物提取来源于猪皮、牛脑、蛋或血液细胞,该方法提取到的神经酰胺组分上具有非均质、不易保存的特性,且潜在的病原体具有致病风险(例如牛海绵状脑病),所以不可应用于化妆品中。植物提取来源于魔芋、米糠、土豆等,魔芋中的神经酰胺含量为其他植物的十几倍。采用廉价的米糠为原料来制取神经酰胺,也具有极大的市场潜力。但植物提取方法受植物生长周期和季节的限制,产量较低。
神经酰胺提取方法主要有溶剂浸提法(maceration extraction)、索氏提取法(Soxhlet extraction)、超声波辅助提取法(ultrasound-assisted extraction,UAE)、微波萃取法(microwave‑assisted extraction,MAE)和超临界流体萃取法(supercritical fluid extraction, SFE),常用的提取溶剂有乙醇、石油醚、乙酸乙酯、丙酮等29-30。其中采用最广泛的是传统溶剂浸提法和索氏提取法,其次是SFE、UAE、和MAE法,除此之外一些更先进的技术如加压液体萃取法(pressurized liquid extraction, PLE)和亚临界水萃取法(subcritical water extraction, SWE)31被应用于提取植物活性物质,也具有提取神经酰胺的潜力32
鉴于天然神经酰胺的提取与纯化面临经济性挑战,化学合成法成为开发类神经酰胺的重要途径。由于立体中心的存在,化学法合成产物会产生外消旋体混合物,不能得到完全的天然神经酰胺,因而化学法合成产物也被称作拟神经酰胺,其结构与神经酰胺相似、功能相似,常应用于化妆品中。
神经酰胺的合成方法多种多样(表1),其合成的关键是鞘脂的制备以及脂肪酸酰化制备神经酰胺。由于天然环境中鞘氨醇碱的获取难度较大且合成过程中存在立体化学挑战,研究者们采用了以丝氨酸36-37、碳水化合物3549、D-酒石酸50-51等手性起始化合物52-53为基础的不对称合成策略。脂肪酸酰化制备可以通过鞘碱与酰基氯化物的反应来实现3854,在此过程中酰氯化物会同时与鞘碱中的羟基发生酯化以及和氨基发生酰胺化,且结果没有选择性,为了克服这一选择性问题,通常通过温和碱性水解去除酯类。此外,脂肪酸与缩合剂碳二亚胺的反应2144,使用羧酸与活性酯(如酯化后的酸酐或酰氯)的方法也被广泛应用于神经酰胺的合成。值得一提的是,德国赢创工业集团及华南理工大学王方华团队通过生物酶法如Novozym435商业化脂肪酶46-4855进行酰胺化合成神经酰胺也被报道,最高产率达到99.8%。这些研究为神经酰胺的大规模生产提供了有效途径,也为化妆品行业提供了重要的原料来源。
鞘氨醇碱存在的两个立体中心导致化学合成途径易产生外消旋体混合物,其中仅有25%是天然存在的D-赤式(2R,3S)-构型,加之分子中多个官能团需广泛化学保护,化学合成法成本高昂。微生物发酵法因环境友好、条件温和、操作简便等优势,在神经酰胺生产中日益受到青睐(表2)。
酵母作为一种常用的微生物宿主,已被广泛研究并应用于神经酰胺及其前体物的生物合成。例如,酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae67、解脂耶氏酵母(Yarrowia lipolytica60和巴斯德毕赤酵母(Pichia pastoris71等用于高效生产神经酰胺生产宿主的开发。威克汉姆西弗酵母(Wickerhamomyces ciferrii567274因其能够产生高水平的C18-鞘氨醇碱衍生物四乙酰植物鞘氨醇(tetraacetyl phytosphingosine, TAPS),在鞘脂细胞工厂的开发中具有应用价值。
在微生物资源的多样性方面,研究发现细菌如新月柄杆菌(Caulobacter crescentus)可以产生多种二氢神经酰胺分子以维持外膜完整性、梭状芽孢杆菌属(Blautia glucerasei sp. Nov)细菌能够通过分解葡萄糖神经酰胺来生成神经酰胺、拟杆菌(Bacteroides sphingolipids)能够产生可利用的鞘脂维持哺乳动物肠屏障稳定以及土壤常用酸杆菌(Acidobacterium solibacter usitatus)能够产生神经酰胺NDS,丰富了神经酰胺生物合成的微生物资源库75-77。然而,细菌中神经酰胺的生物合成途径尚不明晰,且缺乏与真核生物合成酶的同源性,这使得通过比较生物学方法确定细菌中的合成途径变得困难78-79,尽管如此,这些细菌的发现为未来神经酰胺生产技术的创新提供了新的研究方向。虽然其他微生物等也具有生产神经酰胺或其前体物的潜力,但它们在代谢通路和基因工程工具的成熟度上不如酵母,在代谢通路和基因工程工具的成熟度方面,酵母因其成熟的基因工程工具、良好的安全性、代谢网络的可塑性以及产物分泌能力等,在神经酰胺工业化生产中展现出显著优势,目前仍然是神经酰胺生产的首选宿主。
神经酰胺的生物合成途径包括从头合成途径、鞘磷脂水解途径和补救途径(图3)。
神经酰胺在内质网中进行合成,其从头合成的第一步是棕榈酰辅酶A(palmitoyl-CoA)和L-丝氨酸(L-serine)缩合生成3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇(3-keto-dihydrosphingosine, 3-KDS),这一步是鞘脂合成途径的限速步骤57,该反应发生在内质网的细胞质面上,由磷酸吡哆醛依赖性酶丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶(serine palmitoyl transferase, SPT)催化,该酶由亚基LCB1、LCB2及其辅助蛋白TSC3构成。接着,3-KDS还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADPH)依赖的3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇还原酶(3-ketodihydrosphingosine reductase, KDSR)催化下迅速被还原为二氢鞘氨醇(dihydrosphingosine, DHS),与SPT一样,KDSR也位于内质网,其编码基因为tsc10,其催化位点面向胞质溶胶。随后DHS在sur2编码的二氢鞘氨醇C4羟化酶催化下生成植物鞘氨醇(phytosphingosine, PHS)。DHS和PHS可以在神经酰胺合酶(ceramide synthase, CerS)催化下通过N-酰化生成二氢神经酰胺/植物神经酰胺,或在鞘氨醇类长链碱基激酶LCB4、LCB5作用下磷酸化产生1-磷酸二氢鞘氨醇(dihydrosphingosine-1-phosphate,1-P-DHS)和1-磷酸植物鞘氨醇(phytosphingosine-1-phosphate,1-P-PHS),磷酸化鞘碱随后在鞘碱磷酸裂解酶DPL1催化下进而生成磷酸乙醇胺(phosphoryl ethanolamine, P-Etn)和脂肪醛(十六烷醛和二-羟基十六烷醛)。神经酰胺在内质网合成后可以通过囊泡或神经酰胺转运蛋白(ceramide transfer protein, CERT)被运送到高尔基体,进一步转化为鞘糖脂(GL)如肌醇磷酸神经酰胺(inositol phosphorylceramide, IPC)、甘露糖肌醇磷酸神经酰胺(mannosyl-inositol phosphorylceramide, MIPC)和甘露糖-(肌醇-P)2-神经酰胺[mannosyl-diinositol phosphorylceramide, M(IP)2C]。除了生成鞘糖脂,神经酰胺还可以在质膜上由神经酰胺激酶(ceramide kinase, CK)磷酸化生成神经酰胺1-磷酸盐(ceramide-1-phosphate, C1P)。此外,在哺乳动物细胞中,神经酰胺还能在鞘磷脂合成酶(sphingomyelin synthase, SMS)作用下进一步生成鞘磷脂(sphingomyelin, SM)和二酯酰甘油(diacylglycerol, DAG)80
鞘磷脂是细胞膜中最常见的四种磷脂之一,鞘磷脂的水解是维持膜稳态的重要部分。该过程由鞘磷脂酶家族(sphingomyelinase, SMase)催化生成神经酰胺和磷脂酰胆碱(phosphatidyl choline, PC)81。这种途径产生神经酰胺往往提示着细胞程序性死亡,当电离辐射引起某些细胞凋亡会激活细胞膜上的神经鞘磷脂酶,最终导致神经酰胺的产生81。鞘磷脂水解途径存在于哺乳动物细胞中,酵母细胞中不存在鞘磷脂82
大多数复杂鞘脂在内质网合成后被送到了质膜,少量送到了其他膜隔室,酿酒酵母中鞘糖脂占鞘脂总量超过75%83。因此通过补救途径,先将复杂的鞘脂转化为鞘氨醇,然后通过鞘氨醇的再酰化生成神经酰胺成为生产神经酰胺的可行方法。这个过程往往发生在酸性亚细胞间室、晚期核内体和溶酶体。富含鞘糖脂的膜通过低密度脂蛋白的内吞作用输送到溶酶体腔内,其中部分被内化与早期溶酶体融合,需要降解的鞘糖脂则在腔内形成多囊泡体从而进一步被分解84。鞘糖脂在溶酶体中经由葡糖脑苷酯酶和糖苷酶在酸性最佳pH条件下促使寡糖链末端逐步释放单糖单元水解为葡萄糖神经酰胺(glucosylceramide, GlcCer),最终分解成为神经酰胺85。在酵母中,复杂鞘脂头基由isc1基因编码的酶水解,产生植物神经酰胺和二氢神经酰胺,该酶对哺乳动物细胞中的复杂鞘脂和鞘磷脂也发挥作用82。随后,神经酰胺则在神经酰胺酶的作用下进一步水解生成鞘氨醇和游离脂肪酸进入胞质得到重复利用。因此,神经酰胺合成酶家族成员可能会捕获溶酶体释放的位于内质网表面或位于内质网相关膜的游离鞘氨醇。
合成通路重要酶包括丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶(SPT)、3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇还原酶(KDSR)和神经酰胺合成酶(CerS)。
在丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶(SPT)是一类磷酸吡哆醛(pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, PLP)依赖的AOS(allene oxide synthase)家族酶,它催化的L-丝氨酸与棕榈酰辅酶A缩合形成3-KDS的过程是所有鞘脂生物合成的起点86。这一过程在迄今研究的所有生物中都是保守的,但SPT亚细胞定位在不同生物群体间存在差异,该酶在细菌中存在于细胞质,而在酵母、植物和哺乳动物细胞中定位在内质网87。通过类比来自AOS家族的催化特性, SPT的催化机制也得到阐明,在静息状态下,SPT的活性位点与PLP辅因子通过席夫碱(Schiff’s base)与赖氨酸残基结合形成内部醛亚胺。当底物L-丝氨酸接近时,它取代PLP形成外部醛亚胺复合物,α-氢去质子化形成中间体,接着该中间体与棕榈酰- CoA反应生成3-酮二氢鞘氨醇并释放辅酶A。最后,赖氨酸侧链与PLP重新结合,进入下一轮催化8688。该过程涉及底物精确选择和PLP关键作用,因此SPT的催化机制在很大程度上受到酶在催化折叠中结合PLP辅因子及其底物的方式的影响。
SPT两个关键基因lcb1lcb2首次发现于酵母遗传筛选中,LCB1、LCB2的缺失都会终止酵母鞘脂的合成(图4)。利用AONS进行的模拟研究表明,SPT活性位点位于LCB1/LCB2异源二聚体的两个亚基之间的界面上89,LCB2含有PLP结合所需的保守氨基酸。除此之外,膜相关蛋白TSC3被认为是SPT的“第三个亚基”,免疫共沉淀实验证明它不是SPT活性必需的,但ΔTSC3突变体活性显示比野生型低30倍90。在酿酒酵母中,SPT的活性还受到ORM1和ORM2两种蛋白的负调控,这使细胞能够使SP代谢适应不断变化的环境条件,它们进一步结合形成SPOTS复合物[LCB1、LCB2、ORM1、ORM2、膜相关蛋白TSC3和磷脂酰肌醇-4-磷酸(PI4P)磷酸酶SAC1]调节SPT的活性。其中调控亚基TSC3结合SPOTS中的LCB2促进SPT活性,SAC1与LCB2结合并抑制SPT活性91。此外,研究发现神经酰胺通过与SPT-ORMDL复合物中的特定氨基酸残基相互作用,诱导并锁定ORMDL3的N末端进入抑制性构象,从而抑制SPT活性92
SPT的催化与调控是一个高度协调的生物化学过程,它不仅展示了酶如何在分子水平上精确地调控化学反应,也为我们理解鞘脂在生物体内的功能提供了重要线索。通过对SPT催化机制的深入研究,我们可以更好地理解脂质代谢的调控网络,并为神经酰胺的高效生物合成提供理论基础。
3-酮基-二氢鞘氨醇还原酶(KDSR)在神经酰胺从头合成途径中的主要功能是在NADPH的协助下将3-酮二氢鞘氨醇还原为二氢鞘氨醇。KDSR在酵母菌中由tsc10编码,属于短链脱氢酶/还原酶家族(short chain dehydrogenases/reductases, SDR),是位于内质网上的跨膜蛋白(图5)。该基因在突变抑制因子筛选实验中鉴定出来,并且其突变体表现出显著的钙敏感性,后续在白色念珠菌和烟曲霉中也鉴定出来93。TSC10包含320氨基酸,36 kDa,含有28个氨基酸的C末端拉伸锚定和引导酶到达内质网膜。在哺乳动物细胞中鉴定出TSC10同源蛋白FVT-1,与TSC10(csg2Δ的温度敏感抑制因子)的同源性为24%,相似性为42%94。KSDR的催化涉及一个保守的催化四联体,包括Ser、Tyr、Lys和Asn(在酵母Saccharomyces cerevisiae中的编号分别为Ser167、Tyr180、Lys184和Asn140),这些残基通过形成特定的氢键网络和电荷互补,稳定了反应中间体,促进了电子的转移95-96。在催化过程中,KDSR首先与NADPH结合,NADPH作为还原剂提供了所需的氢原子。随后,3-KDS作为底物与KDSR结合,形成了酶-底物复合物。在这个复合物中,3-KDS的3-酮基接受来自NADPH的氢原子,被还原为羟基,从而完成了从3-KDS到DHS的转化。这一过程是一个典型的氧化还原反应,其中NADPH被氧化为NADP+,而3-KDS被还原95-96。KDSR的底物特异性相对较宽,这意味着它可以处理不同长度的3-酮基鞘氨醇类似物86。例如,在曲霉属真菌(Aspergillus fumigatus)中,C8、C11和C12的类似物都可以被KDSR处理,尽管它们的Km(米氏常数)和Kcat(反应速率常数)可能会有所降低。这种底物特异性的宽度使得KDSR能够在不同的生物合成途径中灵活地发挥作用。对KDSR催化机理的深入理解,不仅有助于揭示鞘脂代谢的调控网络,还为鞘脂类物质生物合成提供了理论依据。
神经酰胺合酶(CerS)主要在内质网中催化鞘氨醇碱与脂肪酰基辅酶A反应合成神经酰胺。神经酰胺合成酶最初在酵母中发现,其中酰基辅酶 A 依赖性神经酰胺合成反应需要两个不同的成员LAG1和LAC197-98,两个催化亚基都可以催化鞘氨醇类碱基的N-酰化,lac1lag1基因编码两个同源膜蛋白,两者同源度为72%,二者协同作用参与神经酰胺合成酶的合成(图698-99。调节亚基LIP1与催化亚基的相互作用,维持了酰基链结合通道的稳定性,对神经酰胺的合成至关重要。哺乳动物细胞有6种与lag1lac1 同源的CerS同工酶(CerS1~CerS6),它们均定位在内质网中,且各自偏好特定链长的酰基-CoA底物,以合成不同链长的二氢神经酰胺。其中CerS1更偏好与硬脂酸辅酶A作为底物,主要产生C18神经酰胺,而CerS2更偏好产生C20~C26Cer,CerS5和CerS6偏好产生C16Cer100。在酿酒酵母中,CerS复合体偏好使用C26-CoA作为底物来生成C26-二氢神经酰胺或C26-植物神经酰胺。所有CerS都共享一个高度保守的Tram-Lag-CLN8(TLC)结构域,其中包含对CerS 活性至关重要的LAG1基序101。在酵母CerS复合体(LAC1-LIP1)的催化过程中,该复合体首先结合一个长链脂肪酰基-CoA和一个鞘氨醇底物。Lac1亚基包含一个亲水反应腔和一个疏水通道,亲水反应腔负责结合CoA部分,而疏水通道则结合C26酰基链。LIP1亚基通过与LAC1的相互作用,维持酰基链结合通道的适宜构型。在亲水反应腔内,高度保守的组氨酸(His)和天冬氨酸(Asp)残基可能参与催化,其中天冬氨酸残基可能作为一般碱来激活鞘氨醇的氨基,使其对C26-CoA的羰基碳进行亲核攻击,从而形成酰胺键并生成神经酰胺。催化完成后,生成的神经酰胺通过疏水通道释放至细胞膜,而游离的CoA-SH则释放到细胞质中101
对CerS的结构和功能机制长期以来缺乏更详细的了解,特别是LAC1和LIP1亚基如何协同作用于神经酰胺的合成过程。此外,CerS的活性调节机制,以及它们如何影响神经酰胺的特异性合成,是研究的难点,也是未来合成特定构象神经酰胺的关注重心。
生物合成途径改造策略包括途径调控与优化,产物的运输、储存与分泌,关键酶的挖掘与表达,以及其他策略。
(1)途径调控与优化(图7
包括强化前体代谢途径策略,竞争代谢途径的减弱,反馈抑制的解除,解除限速步骤、平衡合成途径策略。
① 强化前体代谢途径策略 在微生物细胞工厂的构建中,前体供应的优化是提高目标化合物产量的关键策略之一。棕榈酰辅酶A和L-丝氨酸作为鞘脂生物合成的直接前体,其浓度的调控直接影响到鞘脂的合成效率102。棕榈酰辅酶A是通过脂肪酸生物合成途径中的乙酰辅酶A和丙二酰辅酶A的缩合反应生成的,而L-丝氨酸则主要由糖酵解中间体3-磷酸甘油酸经过三步酶促反应合成。这两个合成途径在真核生物中高度保守,表明它们在生物合成中的基础性作用。
研究表明,L-丝氨酸可能是酵母新生鞘脂生物合成的限制性前体102。通过在发酵培养基中直接添加L-丝氨酸,可以显著提高TAPS(一种鞘脂类化合物)的产量。例如,添加5 g/L L-丝氨酸后,野生型和突变体的TAPS产量分别增加了1.49倍和1.93倍61。此外,通过代谢工程手段阻断L-丝氨酸的降解途径并敲除其脱氨酶编码基因,可以进一步提升TAPS的产量。Schorsch等57通过代谢工程阻断L-丝氨酸降解基因shm1、shm2,并敲除L-丝氨酸脱氨酶编码基因cha1,最终使得TAPS产量提升了3倍,达到65 mg/g DCW。
然而,对于棕榈酰辅酶A而言,简单地增加细胞内棕榈酰辅酶浓度可能不会达到产量提升的效果甚至会适得其反,通过体外实验验证SPT催化生成KDS过程中棕榈酰辅酶A依赖性时,显示SPT对棕榈酰辅酶A具有“钟形”依赖性,在约25 μmol/L处观察到最大活性103,超过此范围可能会导致活性下降,甚至产生抑制作用。此外,棕榈酸在培养温度下存在溶解性问题,因此在培养基添加棕榈酸往往效果不显著60。这一发现有助于指导在微生物细胞工厂中如何更有效地调控棕榈酰辅酶A的水平,以优化LCB和神经酰胺的形成,而不是简单地增加其浓度。
②竞争代谢途径的减弱 鞘脂的生物合成和代谢途径中,鞘氨醇激酶LCB4和LCB5在酵母中扮演着核心角色,共同催化二氢植物鞘氨醇和植物鞘氨醇的磷酸化,生成1-磷酸鞘碱,这一过程是通向十六烷醛、2-羟十六烷醛及硫酸乙醇胺等代谢产物的关键步骤2657104。这些代谢产物不仅参与细胞内信号转导,还可能竞争性消耗鞘碱,影响鞘碱及神经酰胺等产物的积累。
通过代谢工程策略削弱或阻断这一竞争性代谢途径,成为提高鞘碱及神经酰胺产量的有效手段。Schorsch等57在威克汉姆西弗酵母中,通过敲除LCB4激酶,成功阻断了长链鞘碱的磷酸化过程,使得细胞内TAPS的产量显著提升,达到了78%的增加率。同样地,Jungoh Ahn组60在解脂耶氏酵母中实施了相似的策略,通过删除lcb4基因,抑制了鞘脂降解途径,进一步促进了TAPS的积累,在摇瓶培养120 h后,TAPS产量相较于对照组提高了1.68倍。
③反馈抑制的解除 酵母中的ORM1和ORM2蛋白属于高度保守的ORMDL家族,这些蛋白质在内质网膜上发挥作用,通过调节限速酶SPT的活性来控制鞘脂的生物合成。ORM1通过TOR信号通路的调控参与鞘脂合成,这一过程是细胞生长和代谢的关键调节点。TOR信号根据营养信号调节细胞生长,而ORM1的磷酸化依赖于tap42磷酸酶复合物,该复合物作用于TOR蛋白激酶复合物1的下游105。ORM2蛋白水平的升高是对内质网应激压力的响应,特别是在未折叠蛋白反应诱导剂如衣霉素或二硫苏糖醇的刺激下。ORM2通过抑制SPT复合体的活性,在缺乏ORMDL调控的情况下,SPT会异常活跃并持续积累长链鞘碱106
在鞘脂代谢中,通过敲除orm1orm2基因来抑制鞘脂合成已成为常见策略。Eckhard Boles团队通过TBLASTN搜索在Pichia ciferrii(即威克汉姆西弗酵母)基因组中识别出一个名为PcOrm12的基因,通过对该基因的敲除TAPS的生产提高了60%,同时TriASa的产量也有所增加57。此外,通过同时敲除LCB4和ORM2,结果显示双缺失菌株EYS4839相对于出发菌株植物鞘氨醇的产量提升了2.37倍66。同样地,在巴斯德毕赤酵母中,敲除ORM1、ORM2同系物基因后,获得的改造菌株G-KO中Cer(d18∶0)神经酰胺合成量达到90.22 mg/L,相比出发菌株提升了872.20%71
这些研究成果不仅揭示了ORM蛋白在鞘脂代谢和细胞信号转导中的重要作用,而且为通过代谢工程改造微生物细胞工厂、提高特定代谢产物的生产效率提供了策略和方向。通过精确调控ORM蛋白的功能,研究人员能够优化细胞内代谢流,从而实现对目标代谢物产量的提升。
④解除限速步骤、平衡合成途径策略 鞘脂是生物膜结构的重要组成成分,鞘脂合成通路处于非常低的平衡水平,并严格控制以参与调节细胞的生长、分化、衰老和细胞程序性死亡等许多重要的信号转导过程。因此,在天然菌株中鞘脂合成相关酶的表达是有限度的,如何最大限度地平衡代谢流,将营养物质最大程度地转换为我们需要的鞘脂类产物(如鞘氨醇碱及神经酰胺)成了需要解决的关键问题。最常见的方法是通过改变启动子强度或通过改变质粒及基因组拷贝数来调节鞘脂代谢不同部分的基因表达水平。
丝氨酸棕榈酰基转移酶催化合成KDS为限速步骤,有研究表明,lcb2转录水平增加50倍会导致TAPS产量增加一倍68。Kim等68通过在Saccharomyces cerevisiae KCCM 50515中将神经酰胺合成基因lcb1、lcb2、tsc10、lac1、lag1、lur2拷贝到pYES2高拷贝载体上,研究其对神经酰胺合成的影响,结果显示神经酰胺产量有不同程度的提升,其中诱导表达TSC10(3-酮二氢鞘氨醇还原酶)的菌株神经酰胺产量为9.79 mg/g cell,是对照菌株2.08 mg/g cell的4.7倍。同样的,使用pESC-URA载体在S. cerevisiae SCEL2,1和S. cerevisiae SCEG1C1中分别过表达了lcb2、lcb1lag1lac1也能达到较高的神经酰胺水平(10.08 mg/g cell和9.88 mg/g cell)78
(2)产物的运输、储存与分泌
包括基于亚细胞定位的调控策略,产物运输与分泌策略。
①基于亚细胞定位的调控策略 通过在较小的亚细胞器上构建产物合成途径,不仅可以增强酶和底物的局部浓度,同时也可以防止中间代谢物的泄漏,降低有毒中间代谢产物对整个细胞的侵害。此外,代谢途径区室化调控能够消除代谢干扰,增强代谢效率。在酵母中,内质网和高尔基体协同完成蛋白质与脂质的合成、运输、修饰工作。大多数参与鞘脂合成的酶都定位于内质网和高尔基体这两个区室,但也有例外。Murakami等70通过将内质网滞留序列KKEK融合至人源鞘脂Δ4-去饱和酶基因hdes1的C末端,将HDES1定位于内质网上,能够第一时间将内质网上合成的二氢鞘氨醇转变为鞘氨醇进而特异性合成NS神经酰胺,通过该方法使得神经酰胺NS产量增加1.98倍。鞘脂合成过程中SPT和CerS以复合体形式存在,而KDSR和二氢鞘氨醇去饱和酶是否与SPT、CerS之间排列紧密或形成复合物暂未见报道,这种酶复合体能够有效调节神经酰胺生物合成,提高底物利用效率。
② 产物运输与分泌策略 在酵母中,神经酰胺在内质网合成,随后通过囊泡运输或非囊泡运输转移到高尔基体进行复杂鞘脂的合成。依赖ATP的COPⅡ囊泡运输占神经酰胺运输的60%~80%,囊泡运输的形成、断裂、转移和融合每一步过程都依赖于能量,C26-神经酰胺和GPI锚定蛋白被分类在相同的囊泡中,且囊泡主要参与超长链的神经酰胺运输107。在哺乳动物细胞中,非囊泡运输由神经酰胺转移蛋白CERT介导,主要负责运输C14~C20短链神经酰胺。酿酒酵母没有直接的CERT,一些内质网接触蛋白可以协助神经酰胺转移,如Nvj2p可以促进神经酰胺从内质网向高尔基体的非囊泡转移108,Tricalbin蛋白也被证明是神经酰胺非囊泡运输所必需的蛋白,该蛋白缺失会导致酰基神经酰胺增加及运输脂滴的增加来进行非囊泡运输以减轻神经酰胺毒性109
神经酰胺的分泌同样是缓解神经酰胺毒性同时提高产量的方法。不同结构的脂质具有不同的固有曲率,提供不同的弹性弯曲能量,从而调动膜功能。神经酰胺积累形成倒锥形结构,使疏水酰基暴露于水环境,产生膜包装缺陷,影响出芽囊泡形成,造成内质网功能紊乱,影响膜流动性110。天然产物外泌往往从膜流动性工程(添加表面活性剂)及产物外排策略(耐溶剂菌外排泵的筛选)考虑。Liu等111通过在培养基中加入亚油酸(C18∶2)通过在膜中掺入不饱和脂肪酸来恢复质膜的流动性,使得β-胡萝卜素的产量增加了24.3%。Bu等112采用不同的方式,通过过表达ole1基因增加酿酒酵母质膜稳定性,来抵消由β-胡萝卜素积累引起的膜流动性降低,改善了β-胡萝卜素的分泌。目前这些策略还没有应用于鞘脂的生产中。
(3)关键酶的挖掘与表达
引入其他宿主底物特异性不同的鞘脂生物合成酶以满足不同产物需求是常见的策略(图874。在酿酒酵母中,主要合成的是植物神经酰胺,为了合成神经鞘氨醇为碱基的神经酰胺,Murakami等70在酿酒酵母KCCM50515中消除二氢鞘氨醇C4羟化酶基因sur2和鞘脂脂肪酸羟化酶基因scs7,引入人类鞘脂去饱和酶基因des1,固定鞘脂合成类型,减少了二氢鞘氨醇和植物鞘氨醇类神经酰胺的合成,最终使神经酰胺NS的水平增加了2倍。同样引入威克汉姆西弗酵母来源的鞘氨醇酰化酶基因sli1、atf2,实现了在酿酒酵母和解脂耶氏酵母合成乙酰化植物鞘氨醇5860。除了合成不同类型的鞘氨醇碱,也可以通过控制脂肪酸合成模块合成特定区间链长的脂肪酸。elo3基因编码脂肪酸延长酶Ⅲ,具有催化C18-CoA的延长以形成C20-CoA~C26-CoA的活性,通过敲除elo3基因可以减少长碳链脂肪酸的合成,促进鞘氨醇的积累,合成更多短链神经酰胺66
不同的神经酰胺合成酶具有不同的催化特异性,如哺乳动物细胞的神经酰胺酶CerS1~CerS6分别偏好不同链长的酰基辅酶A83,位于最后两个跨膜螺旋间的11个氨基酸决定哺乳动物细胞CerS酰基链特异性101,具体的选择性机制还需要进一步的结构和生化研究来解析。在后基因组时代,通过数据挖掘异源特异性神经酰胺合成酶,基于AlphaFold2、蛋白结构、催化机理的研究,通过理性或半理性设计改造神经酰胺合成酶的催化活性及底物特异性以合成特定构型的神经酰胺产物,在未来或许是值得探寻的方向。
除此之外,在体外用生物酶法催化脂肪酸与鞘氨醇碱的酰胺化也得到了报道。Novozym 435是一类商业化的固定化脂肪酶,该酶具有良好的位置选择性和催化酰胺化反应活性,且无需辅因子,在环戊基甲醚反应系统中较稳定,能够回收循环使用。在植物鞘氨醇和脂肪酸酯反应体系中优化固定化脂肪酶Novozym 435、Lipozyme RM IM和Lipozyme TL IM(所述固定化脂肪酶的加入量为植物鞘氨醇质量的10%~30%),最终Novozym 435合成神经酰胺Ⅲ类化合物产率达到80%以上46-4855
(4)其他策略
包括诱变及高通量筛选策略、单倍体分离育种策略和发酵优化策略。
①诱变及高通量筛选策略 对于鞘脂代谢,虽然基因组内重要遗传靶点已经明确,但仍有未知靶点难以用理性方法鉴定,采用诱变育种是获得更多基因靶点的可行方法。常见诱变方法有紫外线诱变(UV)、γ射线诱变、常压等离子体(atmospheric and room temperature plasma, ARTP)诱变等物理法及添加环氧衍生物、亚胺类等化学物诱变法。诱变育种结合高通量筛选方法如微孔板培养技术、流式细胞仪、液滴微流控等能够取得一定效果。Park Su Bin等59开发了一种荧光激活细胞分选报告系统(FACS),用甲基磺酸乙酯(EMS)处理细胞生成突变文库,经BODIPY 505/515染色后进行多轮FACS,该方法诱变筛选得到高产突变菌株最终在5.6 L发酵罐水平得到5.114 g/L的植物鞘氨醇乙酰化物。Lee Pyung Cheon团队61通过采用γ射线照射W. ciferrii F-60-10A NRRL1031,获得了高产TAPS的突变体736号,用尼罗红染料结合荧光强度筛选过量产生细胞内脂质的微生物菌株。在补料分批发酵过程中TAPS达到9.1 g/L的产量,比野生菌高出5.35倍。南京工业大学纪晓俊团队62通过ARTP对筛选到的一株高产TAPS菌株进行诱变后,在5 L发酵罐上产量达到30.72 g/L,也是目前国内外报道的最高水平。
②单倍体分离育种策略 在TAPS生产菌株威克汉姆西弗酵母中,单倍体育种是一种常用的策略。初代威克汉姆西弗酵母NRRL Y1031(ATCC 14091)是一株双倍体菌株,Wickerham等56在其子囊孢子中分离到能够产生许多TAPS晶体单倍体交配型菌株F-60-10。后续研究者们推断二倍体酵母在减数分裂遗传物质重组形成子囊孢子过程中可能会产生TAPS产量远高于亲本的菌株。Park等63通过从二倍体威克汉姆西弗酵母(Wickerhamomyces ciferrii)ATCC-14091中分离单个孢子,基于薄层色谱高通量筛选方法筛选到高TAPS产量(19 g/L)的新型菌株DSCC 7-25(KCCM-10131)。而后,华熙生物基于全新的产孢子培养基从筛选到的高产菌株CGMCC 19562,其罐上产量为22.14 g/L64
③发酵优化策略 调整和优化发酵过程中的各种参数和条件,可以提高发酵效率、产量和产品质量。在酵母发酵过程中,通过优化培养基中的糖浓度、碳源,控制发酵温度和pH值、发酵方式等,以提高鞘碱产量。为了达到最大的TAPS产量,Park Su Bin等59评估了不同碳源对分批补料发酵的影响,发现添加糖蜜作为碳源能够明显增加突变菌株M40的产量,由最初的(97.31±4.24) mg/L提升至(143±5.49) mg/L,但以糖蜜作为唯一碳源会导致生长延迟,最终采用糖蜜+葡萄糖作为碳源,在发酵罐水平培养得到TAPS产量为2.895 g/L。Jungoh Ahn团队60配合特定的发酵条件,用植物油(橄榄油、棕榈油)代替120 g/L甘油作为碳源,最终在以橄榄油作为碳源的补料5 L分批补料生物反应器中发酵56 h,TAPS 产量达到(650 ± 24) mg/L。热休克蛋白的合成会积累海藻糖,可以增加神经酰胺的产量,Kwun Kyu Hyuk等67通过优化培养基pH并在发酵过程中40℃热休克处理1 h,神经酰胺的产量增加了5.9倍,随后采用Monod动力学和Leudecking-Piret模型建立了细胞生长和神经酰胺生成模型。
神经酰胺在维护皮肤健康和调节细胞功能上发挥重要作用,在化妆品及医药领域需求量日益增加。目前,基于天然提取法和化学合成法存在的局限性,通过微生物发酵生产神经酰胺日益在市场占有愈来愈重的席位。一些企业如德国赢创工业集团、深圳迪克曼生物科技有限公司、重庆智合生物医药有限公司、Syensqo、唯铂莱等在微生物合成方法上采用仿生发酵工艺,使产物更天然可控且与人体皮肤存在的神经酰胺构象一致。目前存在的微生物发酵生产一般是以酿酒酵母或威克汉姆西弗酵母为宿主生产鞘氨醇碱及鞘氨醇乙酰化衍生物,进行提取纯化后再采用化学法或生物酶法与相应脂肪酸反应生成特定的神经酰胺。虽然一些鞘脂类化合物已经可以微生物合成甚至已经达到工业生产规模,但是神经酰胺从头生物合成仍处于实验室规模且产量较低,通过微生物细胞工厂合成神经酰胺仍存在一些问题。
目前的合成方法依旧以生物合成鞘氨醇类前体辅助化学法酰化合成神经酰胺,而缺少一个高产的从头合成神经酰胺的方法,其中神经酰胺积累造成的细胞毒性是主要的阻碍因素。哺乳动物细胞由C15短链神经酰胺与效应蛋白VDC2结合诱导细胞凋亡,而在酵母中神经酰胺诱导细胞凋亡的机理并不明晰,强化神经酰胺的运输和外泌可以缓解胞内造成的聚集毒性。神经酰胺在内质网大量合成后,非囊泡运输的增强及内质网膜扩张能够在一定程度上有效缓解神经酰胺聚集毒性。神经酰胺如何从胞内膜结构分泌到胞外也是目前需要解决的主要问题之一,与高尔基体相比,复杂鞘脂和麦角甾醇更容易在分泌囊泡中富集,因此通过生物信息学方法挖掘潜在神经酰胺转运蛋白,或将其以酰基化神经酰胺的形式储存于胞内脂滴中,诱导其以胞吐方式外排也是一项值得研究的方向。
针对神经酰胺结构多样性,生物法合成专一构型的神经酰胺也是目前关注的重点。根据已有研究,借助机器学习和蛋白质数据库进行数据挖掘,结合蛋白质工程对蛋白结构、催化位点进行改造,以得到高专一性神经酰胺合成通路催化元件等在未来在鞘脂类产物生物合成方向有待深入分析。
神经酰胺由于其在胞吞胞吐、胞内运输、细胞信号转导、热休克反应、衰老和蛋白质折叠方面重要的生理功能,在细胞内含量严格控制在较低的水平范围内。鞘脂合成代谢与细胞生理功能之间的机制解析还不够深入,导致鞘脂代谢可调控靶点有限。高产四乙酰植物鞘氨醇威克汉姆西弗酵母测序和解析工作的开展,推动了高产鞘脂代谢机制研究。通过自然界筛选、诱变等方法获得高产鞘脂菌株,结合基因组、转录组学分析建立、优化代谢网络模型来寻找鞘脂代谢关键靶点的反向代谢工程的开展在未来有望进一步推动神经酰胺及鞘脂类化合物的生物合成。
将实验室规模的生物合成途径放大到工业生产规模也是一项需要多学科协作的复杂任务,必须综合考虑技术、成本、法规和市场需求等多方面的因素。可以采用一些创新技术,如人工智能和大数据分析,可以用于优化合成路线和生产工艺,提高生产效率和产量。智能辅助决策系统可以提供参数优化决策,提高生产过程的稳定性和产品质量的均匀性。此外,绿色化学和生物工程方法可以提高原材料利用率并减少对环境的影响,同时降低生产成本。通过持续的研究与创新,这一领域有望在未来取得显著进展,满足不断增长的市场需求。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32222069)
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-059
  • 接收时间:2024-08-01
  • 首发时间:2025-07-06
  • 出版时间:2025-04-30
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  • 收稿日期:2024-08-01
  • 修回日期:2024-10-11
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    1 江南大学生物工程学院,糖化学与生物技术教育部重点实验室,江苏 无锡 214112
    2 江南大学未来食品科学中心,江苏 无锡 214112

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刘延峰(1987—),男,博士,研究员。研究方向为微生物代谢工程。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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