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Hydrogenases are the most important enzymes in biological hydrogen production and hydrogen energy utilization. They are widely distributed, oxygen-sensitive, multiunit complexed metal enzymes. In vitro synthetic enzymatic biosystems (ivSEB) is a type of in vitro biotransformation (ivBT) technology, which is an emerging biomanufacturing powerhouse that combines microbial fermentation with enzymatic biocatalysis, allowing for novel and efficient hydrogen production, also breaking the Thauer limit and achieving a yield of hydrogen close to the theoretical value of chemistry (1 mole of glucose to produce 12 moles of hydrogen in maximum). It represents the future direction of biological hydrogen production. However, the recombinant expression of hydrogenase is the main bottleneck limiting the wide application of ivSEB for hydrogen production technology. Hydrogenases are widely distributed in all life domains, but are oxygen-sensitive and mostly consist of metalloproteins with multi-subunits, bearing [Fe] only, [NiFe] or [FeFe] dinuclear core in their catalytic center. Oxygen not only inhibits the activity of hydrogenase, but also affects the transcription of the enzyme-encoding gene and post-translational process of the enzymes. As a result, the levels of recombinant hydrogenase are usually low and the enzymatic activities are also incomparable to the native enzymes, often leading to high production costs due to the strict anaerobic purification procedures. In order to meet the requirements of industrial hydrogen production, hydrogenases must possess excellent catalytic properties, such as a high catalytic turnover number, great thermal stability, and the ability to tolerate trace amounts of oxygen. This review summarizes the studies on the structural and catalytic characterizations of hydrogenases, including their classification, oxygen resistance mechanisms, and progress in recombinant expression. Additionally, the evolution of natural electron transfer chains and the design of artificial routes, which can improve hydrogen production efficiency and reduce costs, are briefly discussed. The review also discussed the progress in the studies on the mechanisms of hydrogenases’ tolerance toward oxygen, the strategies for microbial expression of recombinant hydrogenases as well as the optimization of the artificial electron transfer chains adapted for the production of hydrogen using ivSEB, in expectations of promoting the applications of hydrogenases involved ivSEB, from renewable energy storage, anaerobic artificial respiration, to clean hydrogenation or dehydrogenation in biocatalysis.

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氢酶是生物制氢和氢能利用的最关键酶,它是一类广泛分布的对氧敏感的多亚基金属复合酶。体外多酶分子机器是体外生物转化技术中的高效酶生物催化系统,利用该分子机器生产氢气是一种新型高效的绿氢生产技术,它突破微生物产氢的Thauer极限,将葡萄糖产氢的转化率提高至接近化学理论值(1 mol葡萄糖裂解水生产12 mol氢气),代表着生物产氢的未来方向。氢酶的制备及催化性能是限制多酶分子机器产氢技术广泛应用的主要瓶颈;氧气不仅抑制氢酶的活性,也是氢酶转录翻译及翻译后加工的重要影响因素。体外多酶分子机器对氢酶的耐氧性能、热稳定性及高周转性能等参数提出高要求。本文结合氢酶在多酶分子机器制氢应用中的技术障碍,针对迫切的基础科学问题,分别从氢酶分类、结构功能、重组表达技术进展、(仿生)辅酶的适配等方面对其进行了相关的总结,并初步对氧的抑制机制、微生物重组表达氢酶以及产氢人工电子传递链的优化等难点问题的研究进行了跟踪,期待能够为氢酶在体外合成生物学的应用提供参考。

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李怡霏(2000—),女,硕士研究生。研究方向为氢酶参与的体外多酶分子机器构建。 E-mail:

孙俊松(1974—),男,博士,研究员。研究方向为氢酶表达、微生物代谢改造及生物合成。 E-mail:

张以恒(1971—),男,博士,研究员,中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所低碳合成工程生物学(全国)重点实验室主任,曾任美国弗吉尼亚理工大学终身正教授。研究方向为体外合成生物学、新质生物制造、生物炼制和淀粉储能。 E-mail:

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2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100049,China
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李怡霏(2000—),女,硕士研究生。研究方向为氢酶参与的体外多酶分子机器构建。 E-mail:

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孙俊松(1974—),男,博士,研究员。研究方向为氢酶表达、微生物代谢改造及生物合成。 E-mail:

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张以恒(1971—),男,博士,研究员,中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所低碳合成工程生物学(全国)重点实验室主任,曾任美国弗吉尼亚理工大学终身正教授。研究方向为体外合成生物学、新质生物制造、生物炼制和淀粉储能。 E-mail:

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张以恒(1971—),男,博士,研究员,中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所低碳合成工程生物学(全国)重点实验室主任,曾任美国弗吉尼亚理工大学终身正教授。研究方向为体外合成生物学、新质生物制造、生物炼制和淀粉储能。 E-mail:

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figureFileSmall=RvQnQjA/Vs6lYc0d96IHeA==, figureFileBig=vAFh8038fjbTxQ0H9uiK7Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116148560009, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=The advantages of starch for energy storage and hydrogen production by ivSEB using “one-pot enzymes” strategy, figureFileSmall=jzUxhLJP9HrzXeOOLgfN2A==, figureFileBig=PY3HoSGgJ1MUWPfxWtSwUQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116228251786, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=CN, label=图3, caption=ivSEB产氢中淀粉的储能优势及“一锅酶”产氢示意, figureFileSmall=jzUxhLJP9HrzXeOOLgfN2A==, figureFileBig=PY3HoSGgJ1MUWPfxWtSwUQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116282777739, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Key breakthrough points of ivSEB hydrogen production, figureFileSmall=SinfHz9dgYlOpqxnsBcS4g==, figureFileBig=0jwDJTmBpJA3O7MraZWG2g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116408606860, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=CN, label=图4, caption=ivSEB产氢重要突破节点, figureFileSmall=SinfHz9dgYlOpqxnsBcS4g==, figureFileBig=0jwDJTmBpJA3O7MraZWG2g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116458938509, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=The main limiting factors in ivSEB hydrogen production, figureFileSmall=N27PPBEbmf0SBWPd2pDjoQ==, figureFileBig=qjeG944ig/GLKglEwb/XUg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116509270158, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=CN, label=图5, caption=ivSEB产氢的主要限制因素, figureFileSmall=N27PPBEbmf0SBWPd2pDjoQ==, figureFileBig=qjeG944ig/GLKglEwb/XUg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116567990415, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=The application of artificial electron coenzyme to improve the efficiency of electron transport in ivSEB system for hydrogen production

(The impact of different artificial electron transfer pathways on the synthesis) G6PDH—Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase; 6PGDH—6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase; DI—diaphorase; SHⅠ—soluble hydrogenaseⅠ; BCV—the coupled benzyl viologen

, figureFileSmall=hYBWAM3jSZYewZ2FaEguYQ==, figureFileBig=FpXNcw8LAmK3HLPknuazLw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116618322064, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=CN, label=图6, caption=人工电子辅酶对产氢电子传递的效率有提升作用

(构建不同的人工电子传递通路对产物合成的影响)G6PDH—葡萄糖6-磷酸脱氢酶;6PGDH—6-磷酸葡萄糖酸脱氢酶;DI—黄递酶;SHⅠ—可溶氢酶Ⅰ;BCV—偶联的苄基紫精

, figureFileSmall=hYBWAM3jSZYewZ2FaEguYQ==, figureFileBig=FpXNcw8LAmK3HLPknuazLw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877116672848017, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Recombinant [FeFe] hydrogenase activity

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

氢酶

Hydrogenase

表达宿主

Expression host

成熟蛋白

Maturation protein

全细胞活性

Whole cell activity

纯化酶活性

Purified enzyme activity

参考文献

References

CacHydA C. acetobutylicum Host NR 162 [100]
CacHydA E. coli C. acetobutylicum 96 75 [101]
CacHydA E. coliiscR C. acetobutylicum 1.3 ①,* 96 [102]
CacHydA S. elongatus C. reinhardtii NR 0.05 [103]
CacHydB E. coli C. acetobutylicum NR 8.6 [101]
CbuHydA E. coli Host 500 NR [104]
CpaHydA C. pasteurianum Host 1681 1236 [105]
CpaHydI E. coli S. oneidensis NR 1087 [106]
CpaHydI Synechococcus sp. Host NR 4.6 [98]
CreHydA1 C. reinhardtii Host 13.8 ②,* 741 [107]
CreHydA1 C. acetobutylicum Host NR 625~760 [108-109]
CreHydA1 E. coli C. reinhardtii NR 0.4 [110]
CreHydA1 E. coli C. acetobutylicum 61 150 [101]
CreHydA1-Fd E. coli C. acetobutylicum NR 1000 [111]
CreHydA1 E. coli S. oneidensis NR 641 [106]
CreHydA1 S. oneidensis Host NA 740 [112]
CreHydA1 Synechocystis sp. Host NR 0.1 [113]
CreHydA2 E. coli C. acetobutylicum 108 116 [101]
CsuHydA E. coli S. oneidensis NA 6.5 [114]
EhaHyd E. coli Host NR 70 [115]
EhiHyd E. coli Host NR 0.04 [116]
PgrHyd E. coli Host NR 2131 [117]
SobHydA1 C. acetobutylicum Host NR 633 [108]
SonHydA Anabaena sp. S. oneidensis NR 0.06 [118]
), ArticleFig(id=1164877116752539794, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

重组[FeFe]氢酶活性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

氢酶

Hydrogenase

表达宿主

Expression host

成熟蛋白

Maturation protein

全细胞活性

Whole cell activity

纯化酶活性

Purified enzyme activity

参考文献

References

CacHydA C. acetobutylicum Host NR 162 [100]
CacHydA E. coli C. acetobutylicum 96 75 [101]
CacHydA E. coliiscR C. acetobutylicum 1.3 ①,* 96 [102]
CacHydA S. elongatus C. reinhardtii NR 0.05 [103]
CacHydB E. coli C. acetobutylicum NR 8.6 [101]
CbuHydA E. coli Host 500 NR [104]
CpaHydA C. pasteurianum Host 1681 1236 [105]
CpaHydI E. coli S. oneidensis NR 1087 [106]
CpaHydI Synechococcus sp. Host NR 4.6 [98]
CreHydA1 C. reinhardtii Host 13.8 ②,* 741 [107]
CreHydA1 C. acetobutylicum Host NR 625~760 [108-109]
CreHydA1 E. coli C. reinhardtii NR 0.4 [110]
CreHydA1 E. coli C. acetobutylicum 61 150 [101]
CreHydA1-Fd E. coli C. acetobutylicum NR 1000 [111]
CreHydA1 E. coli S. oneidensis NR 641 [106]
CreHydA1 S. oneidensis Host NA 740 [112]
CreHydA1 Synechocystis sp. Host NR 0.1 [113]
CreHydA2 E. coli C. acetobutylicum 108 116 [101]
CsuHydA E. coli S. oneidensis NA 6.5 [114]
EhaHyd E. coli Host NR 70 [115]
EhiHyd E. coli Host NR 0.04 [116]
PgrHyd E. coli Host NR 2131 [117]
SobHydA1 C. acetobutylicum Host NR 633 [108]
SonHydA Anabaena sp. S. oneidensis NR 0.06 [118]
), ArticleFig(id=1164877116836425875, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

The activities of the reported recombinant [NiFe] hydrogenases

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

氢酶

Hydrogenase

表达宿主

Expression host

成熟蛋白

Maturation protein

全细胞活性

Whole cell activity

纯化酶活性

Purified enzyme activity

参考文献

References

AmaHynSL A. macleodi ∆HynSL Host 0.03 ①,* 0.1 [119]
AmaHynSL E. coli A. macleodii 3×10-3~70×10-3 ①,* NR [120-121]
AmaHyaAB T. roseopersicina Host, A. macleodii 5×10-3 ① NR [122]
AflHydSL E. coli Host NA 77 [123]
DgiHynAB D. gigas ∆HynAB Host 1.9 ①,* 91 [124]
DgiHynAB D. fructosovorans ∆HynAB Host 0.2 NR [125]
EcoHyd1 E. coli ∆Hyd1 Host 4×10-2~7×10-2 ①,* 1×10-2~3×10-2 ① [126-127]
HmaMBH E. coli E. coli 0.07 ①,* 0.03 [127]
NpuHupSL E. coli E. coli 208 NR [128]
PfuSH E. coli P. furiosus 2.9 100 [43]
PfuSHI T. kodakarensis Host 23.6 880 [45]
ReuMBH R. Eutropha H16 Host 1.0 ③,* 170 [129]
ReuMBH P. stutzeri R. eutropha 17~19 ③,* NR [130]
ReuRH E. coli R. eutropha NR 0.8 [131]
ReuRH E. coli R. eutropha 1.2 ②,* 230 [132]
RopSH R. eutropha ∆SH ∆MBH Host, R. opacus 5.9 ①,* NR [133]
SynSH E. coli Synechocystis sp. 0.04 ①,* NR [134]
), ArticleFig(id=1164877116907729044, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993959034155477, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

重组[NiFe]氢酶活性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

氢酶

Hydrogenase

表达宿主

Expression host

成熟蛋白

Maturation protein

全细胞活性

Whole cell activity

纯化酶活性

Purified enzyme activity

参考文献

References

AmaHynSL A. macleodi ∆HynSL Host 0.03 ①,* 0.1 [119]
AmaHynSL E. coli A. macleodii 3×10-3~70×10-3 ①,* NR [120-121]
AmaHyaAB T. roseopersicina Host, A. macleodii 5×10-3 ① NR [122]
AflHydSL E. coli Host NA 77 [123]
DgiHynAB D. gigas ∆HynAB Host 1.9 ①,* 91 [124]
DgiHynAB D. fructosovorans ∆HynAB Host 0.2 NR [125]
EcoHyd1 E. coli ∆Hyd1 Host 4×10-2~7×10-2 ①,* 1×10-2~3×10-2 ① [126-127]
HmaMBH E. coli E. coli 0.07 ①,* 0.03 [127]
NpuHupSL E. coli E. coli 208 NR [128]
PfuSH E. coli P. furiosus 2.9 100 [43]
PfuSHI T. kodakarensis Host 23.6 880 [45]
ReuMBH R. Eutropha H16 Host 1.0 ③,* 170 [129]
ReuMBH P. stutzeri R. eutropha 17~19 ③,* NR [130]
ReuRH E. coli R. eutropha NR 0.8 [131]
ReuRH E. coli R. eutropha 1.2 ②,* 230 [132]
RopSH R. eutropha ∆SH ∆MBH Host, R. opacus 5.9 ①,* NR [133]
SynSH E. coli Synechocystis sp. 0.04 ①,* NR [134]
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体外多酶分子机器产氢应用中的氢酶研究
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李怡霏 1, 2, 3, 4 , 陈艾 1, 2, 3, 4 , 孙俊松 1, 2 , 张以恒 2, 3, 4, 5
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(6): 1461-1484
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(6): 1461-1484
体外多酶分子机器产氢应用中的氢酶研究
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李怡霏1, 2, 3, 4 , 陈艾1, 2, 3, 4, 孙俊松1, 2 , 张以恒2, 3, 4, 5
作者信息
  • 1 中国科学院上海高等研究院低碳生物转化团队,上海 201210
  • 2 中国科学院大学,北京 100049
  • 3 中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所低碳合成工程生物学(全国)重点实验室,天津 300308
  • 4 中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所体外合成生物学中心,天津 300308
  • 5 合成生物学海河实验室,天津 300308
  • 李怡霏(2000—),女,硕士研究生。研究方向为氢酶参与的体外多酶分子机器构建。 E-mail:

    孙俊松(1974—),男,博士,研究员。研究方向为氢酶表达、微生物代谢改造及生物合成。 E-mail:

    张以恒(1971—),男,博士,研究员,中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所低碳合成工程生物学(全国)重点实验室主任,曾任美国弗吉尼亚理工大学终身正教授。研究方向为体外合成生物学、新质生物制造、生物炼制和淀粉储能。 E-mail:

Studies on hydrogenases for hydrogen production using in vitro synthetic enzymatic biosystems
Yifei LI1, 2, 3, 4 , Ai CHEN1, 2, 3, 4, Junsong SUN1, 2 , Yi-Heng P. Job ZHANG2, 3, 4, 5
Affiliations
  • 1 Low Carbon Biotransformation Group,Shanghai Advanced Research Institute,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Shanghai 201210,China
  • 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100049,China
  • 3 Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-Carbon Manufacturing,Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Tianjin 300308,China
  • 4 In Vitro Synthetic Biology Center,Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Tianjin 300308,China
  • 5 Haihe Laboratory of Synthetic Biology,Tianjin 300308,China
出版时间: 2024-12-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-052
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氢酶是生物制氢和氢能利用的最关键酶,它是一类广泛分布的对氧敏感的多亚基金属复合酶。体外多酶分子机器是体外生物转化技术中的高效酶生物催化系统,利用该分子机器生产氢气是一种新型高效的绿氢生产技术,它突破微生物产氢的Thauer极限,将葡萄糖产氢的转化率提高至接近化学理论值(1 mol葡萄糖裂解水生产12 mol氢气),代表着生物产氢的未来方向。氢酶的制备及催化性能是限制多酶分子机器产氢技术广泛应用的主要瓶颈;氧气不仅抑制氢酶的活性,也是氢酶转录翻译及翻译后加工的重要影响因素。体外多酶分子机器对氢酶的耐氧性能、热稳定性及高周转性能等参数提出高要求。本文结合氢酶在多酶分子机器制氢应用中的技术障碍,针对迫切的基础科学问题,分别从氢酶分类、结构功能、重组表达技术进展、(仿生)辅酶的适配等方面对其进行了相关的总结,并初步对氧的抑制机制、微生物重组表达氢酶以及产氢人工电子传递链的优化等难点问题的研究进行了跟踪,期待能够为氢酶在体外合成生物学的应用提供参考。

氢酶  /  生物产氢  /  体外多酶分子机器  /  仿生辅酶  /  人工电子传递链

Hydrogenases are the most important enzymes in biological hydrogen production and hydrogen energy utilization. They are widely distributed, oxygen-sensitive, multiunit complexed metal enzymes. In vitro synthetic enzymatic biosystems (ivSEB) is a type of in vitro biotransformation (ivBT) technology, which is an emerging biomanufacturing powerhouse that combines microbial fermentation with enzymatic biocatalysis, allowing for novel and efficient hydrogen production, also breaking the Thauer limit and achieving a yield of hydrogen close to the theoretical value of chemistry (1 mole of glucose to produce 12 moles of hydrogen in maximum). It represents the future direction of biological hydrogen production. However, the recombinant expression of hydrogenase is the main bottleneck limiting the wide application of ivSEB for hydrogen production technology. Hydrogenases are widely distributed in all life domains, but are oxygen-sensitive and mostly consist of metalloproteins with multi-subunits, bearing [Fe] only, [NiFe] or [FeFe] dinuclear core in their catalytic center. Oxygen not only inhibits the activity of hydrogenase, but also affects the transcription of the enzyme-encoding gene and post-translational process of the enzymes. As a result, the levels of recombinant hydrogenase are usually low and the enzymatic activities are also incomparable to the native enzymes, often leading to high production costs due to the strict anaerobic purification procedures. In order to meet the requirements of industrial hydrogen production, hydrogenases must possess excellent catalytic properties, such as a high catalytic turnover number, great thermal stability, and the ability to tolerate trace amounts of oxygen. This review summarizes the studies on the structural and catalytic characterizations of hydrogenases, including their classification, oxygen resistance mechanisms, and progress in recombinant expression. Additionally, the evolution of natural electron transfer chains and the design of artificial routes, which can improve hydrogen production efficiency and reduce costs, are briefly discussed. The review also discussed the progress in the studies on the mechanisms of hydrogenases’ tolerance toward oxygen, the strategies for microbial expression of recombinant hydrogenases as well as the optimization of the artificial electron transfer chains adapted for the production of hydrogen using ivSEB, in expectations of promoting the applications of hydrogenases involved ivSEB, from renewable energy storage, anaerobic artificial respiration, to clean hydrogenation or dehydrogenation in biocatalysis.

hydrogenase  /  bioproduction of hydrogen  /  in vitro synthetic enzymatic biosystems  /  biomimetic coenzyme  /  artificial electron transport chain
李怡霏, 陈艾, 孙俊松, 张以恒. 体外多酶分子机器产氢应用中的氢酶研究. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (6) : 1461 -1484 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-052
Yifei LI, Ai CHEN, Junsong SUN, Yi-Heng P. Job ZHANG. Studies on hydrogenases for hydrogen production using in vitro synthetic enzymatic biosystems[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (6) : 1461 -1484 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-052
氢经济是指以氢气为能源载体,以其替代石油煤炭等化石燃料而发展的新型经济结构,涉及氢能的生产、配送、贮存及使用等1。氢经济核心优势是提升能源利用效率以及降低用户端污染,发展氢经济可以推动可持续能源的转型、碳排放的减少、能源安全的提升,并为未来提供清洁、可再生的能源解决方案2
但是,氢能的制取和储存运输成本昂贵,全球氢能行业当前还仅处于发展初期,在终端能源消费量中占比仍然很低。目前,氢制备产业主要使用两种较为成熟的技术路线:一是以煤炭、天然气为代表的化石能源重整制氢(灰氢)3-4;二是以焦炉煤气、氯碱尾气、丙烷脱氢为代表的工业副产物制氢(蓝氢)5-6。但是清洁能源制氢(绿氢)技术正在飞速发展7,也造就氢能产业的巨大市场空间,它主要包括光伏电解水产氢、生物质制氢、光解制氢、多酶分子机器裂解水等方式。据国家发改委发布的《氢能产业发展中长期规划(2021—2035年)》,我国目前氢气供给结构中约近80%来源于煤制氢或焦炉煤气副产氢,该方法存在氢储排放压力大、制氢工艺碳排放严重、氢产物需要提纯及去除杂质等不足。
电解水制氢结合光伏产电可生产绿氢,但需要光伏电池板和电解槽设备,初期设备投入较大;光伏系统具有间歇性发电特性,且易受到光照条件的影响。此外,电解系统在成本和效率上仍存在较大优化空间8
生物制氢是另一种碳中性的氢能生产路径,以廉价的含碳生物质作为原料,利用微生物发酵或体外多酶分子机器裂解水生产氢气,这种工艺制取的氢气绿色环保能耗低,且产物硫、氮含量低,没有CO,符合氢能可持续绿色发展的需求9。如图1所示,根据是否使用微生物,分为微生物发酵产氢及无细胞酶解制氢,传统的微生物发酵制氢是目前能实现规模化生产的生物制氢方法,其工艺成熟且简单。其生产技术可以追溯到20世纪70年代。早期技术主要使用蓝细菌之类的光合细菌,这些微生物可利用廉价的无机盐培养基和太阳能进行物质的代谢合成,同时释放氢气,因此被认为是一种可持续的能量来源10。然而,其单位面积产氢速度慢且光化效率低11。此外,该技术还存在一些其他限制,如来自非氢酶途径的电子竞争、太阳能直接光解产氢效率低等12。基于生物制造“道法术器”的理论分析13,该方法难以产业放大,进行经济性工业生产。同时,研究人员发现了许多厌氧菌或兼性厌氧菌在特定培养条件下无需光照便可稳定持续产氢,俗称暗反应产氢,针对其产氢机理已有深入研究14。参与暗反应产氢的宿主细胞通常具有更广泛的碳源谱和更好的生长性能,是规模化生物制氢的可能选择15。随着基因工程和代谢工程的成熟和发展,研究人员通过改造微生物的代谢途径,对其涉及产氢的物质和能量代谢方式以及关键酶的表达量等方面进行优化,从而提高产氢效率12。营养限制和底物利用等研究揭示了产氢微生物中的替代代谢途径及其多维度调控机制,但是与现有以化石资源为原料的工业规模的产氢方式相比,微生物产氢的产量及经济性均难以企及。由于微生物生长与发酵过程中能量代谢的需求及热力学反应的固有限制,微生物制氢存在一个能量转化的上限,即转化1 mol葡萄糖时理论上最多只能将其33%的还原力转化成氢气,也就是只能产出4 mol氢气,这个理论是由德国马普土壤微生物研究所的Thauer提出的,又称为Thauer极限16。尽管人们在菌株筛选、代谢改造、底物优化、产氢反应链改造、发酵和节能优化等方面做出努力,Thauer极限没有被打破17-18。高温微生物,例如Thermotoga maritima,通过突变或遗传改造可以接近这个极限,但是改造后的微生物的糖代谢速率下降,微生物的生长密度较低,产氢速率不高19。微生物暗发酵制氢方法还是难以产业化。
无细胞制氢主要包括多酶分子机器制氢及氢酶-光耦合产氢(图1),其中张以恒教授首先提出的多酶分子机器制氢是一种体外多酶生物转化技术(in vitro synthetic enzymatic biosystem, ivSEB),它不仅大大地突破了产氢微生物的Thauer极限,还将葡萄糖产氢的转化率提高至接近化学理论值20-21。多酶分子机器技术利用重组表达的酶元件,通过设计包括辅酶在内的由多酶复合体构成的催化回路,摆脱细胞能量代谢瓶颈,实现特定产物合成以及生物能量转换的人工多酶体系,迅速成为体外合成生物学的研究热点。例如,以淀粉为原料,利用该技术产氢,先将多糖降解为葡萄糖1-磷酸(G1P),通过13个酶的“一锅法”反应将其完全降解为CO2和水,并将保存于糖分子的化学能裂解水释放产物氢气22。因此,多酶分子机器产氢是目前唯一能够产生接近理论得率氢气的绿色温和途径,每摩尔葡萄糖可以产生近12 mol H2。2008年,英国皇家协会指出:该项研究作为一种廉价、绿色、高得率制氢的开始,是合成生物学的代表性工作,突破生物体能力极限23。此外,光合-氢酶耦合系统产氢也是一种高效的前沿技术,近十几年来国内外的多个研究团队对[FeFe]、[NiFe]或[NiFeSe]氢酶利用包括石墨烯在内的无机导电材料固定24-26,将其替代昂贵的金属催化剂,可以实现太阳能的捕捉和稳定的水解产氢,这类杂合氢酶研究对于利用太阳能直接光解产氢具有重要意义27-28
氢气产量及能源效率是氢气生产的最关键的经济因素,多酶分子机器作为一种新型高效的合成生物学产氢技术,代表着未来生物产氢的技术前景,但是目前该技术因重组氢酶生产成本的约束,对产氢的酶周转性等参数提出更高要求,所以绿氢的生产只有在已获得3×107 mol产品/mol酶的总周转数值(TTNW)的稳定多酶体系中,结合使用低成本且稳定的仿生辅因子时29,才可能将每千克氢气的生产成本降至每千克2~3美元以下,该技术才会真正得以规模化产业应用。
体外多酶催化系统中的酶元件可通过酶及宿主细胞的精准设计,强化酶的催化性能,提升酶的表达效率,从而降低酶的使用成本。在淀粉ivSEB产氢体系中,氢酶作为电子接受体,氧化并再生辅因子的同时产生氢气,而氢气从反应体系中分离,推动反应向前进行。高温体系会加速产氢反应,降低气体溶解度,从而可以保护该体系中对氧敏感的氢酶,因此,在优化的ivSEB产氢系统中使用了来自极端嗜热古菌Pyrococcus furiosus的热稳定胞质[NiFe]氢酶(Pf SHⅠ),并搭配体系中其他热稳酶元件29。但氢酶的催化亚基的结构复杂,含有独特的金属活性中心,严格厌氧,且通常需要适配的电子传递亚基。另外,氢酶在细胞内表达后需要经过多蛋白构成的翻译后成熟体系进行加工,才能具有催化活性30。作为产氢体系中的核心酶元件,其规模化生产及技术瓶颈的突破仍需深入研究。同时,氢酶的导电属性也赋予其珍贵的研究价值,对于构建新多酶分子机器有着重要意义。本文将结合其在ivSEB产氢中的应用前景,对氢酶的分类、催化机制、耐氧机理、重组表达以及产氢多酶分子机器的系统优化等方面的研究现状作初步的介绍。
氢酶(hydrogenase)是一种复杂且结构比较保守的金属蛋白,广泛存在于许多微生物和植物之中,于1931年由Stephenson和Strickland首次发现并命名31。氢酶利用辅因子进行电子转移并开展产氢或利用氢放电的化学过程,因此,在燃料电池、产氢或细胞的能量代谢平衡等方面均有很大的应用空间。氢酶根据其活性中心的金属元素成分,通常可分为单铁氢酶([Fe]-hydrogenase)、铁铁氢酶([FeFe]-hydrogenase)及镍铁氢酶([NiFe]-hydrogenase)。[Fe]氢酶展示了不同于[NiFe]氢酶和[FeFe]氢酶的催化机制,如甲烷发酵过程中催化了特定的氢化物转移32。它催化H2的裂解并可逆地将氢化物离子转移至亚甲基四氢甲烷蝶呤,这类酶的活性位点含有铁-鸟苷基吡啶醇(FeGP)辅因子和一个单核铁中心,该中心由通过酰基碳和吡啶醇氮与吡啶醇络合的低自旋Fe(Ⅱ)和两个CO配体组成33,缺乏[NiFe]氢酶和[FeFe]氢酶中含有的铁硫簇,因此其催化H2异裂后不涉及电子转移。与无FeS簇的[Fe]氢酶相比,[FeFe]和[NiFe]氢酶的结构更为复杂,一般为多亚基结构,其中活性位点深埋在催化亚基内部,其电子传递是由位于一个或多个亚基上的几乎线性排列的硫化亚铁簇介导的。它们的本质是一类可以催化电子传递反应链末端,将质子还原产氢的含金属蛋白。该可逆反应为:2H++2e-⇔H2。一方面,氢酶在细胞内利用有机分子辅酶(如NADH/NADPH)或辅助蛋白[如铁氧还蛋白(ferredoxin)等],还原质子实现电子排泄;另一方面,在自养生物中,氢酶可利用氢气的还原力进行CO2的还原固定34。因此,氢酶是许多微生物能量代谢网络中重要的催化单元,既可以利用氢酶开展全细胞产氢或多酶分子机器产氢,也可以利用氢酶和氢能开展大宗化工原料或高价值医药中间体产品的生物合成,是目前生物能源合成及生物转化领域的热点。
[FeFe]和[NiFe]氢酶在翻译后成熟组装的过程中,催化亚基首先以无辅助金属离子或辅因子的形式合成(即apo-酶),随后通过专门的成熟机制获取所需的金属辅因子,最终形成具有催化活性的完整酶(即holo-酶),这一过程确保了酶的正确组装和催化活性的产生,对于酶的功能和活性至关重要(图2)。对于[FeFe]氢酶,其成熟机制包括三种不同的成熟酶(图2,HydE、HydF、HydG)参与。这些成熟酶的作用是帮助氢酶蛋白正确组装并获得所需的金属辅因子,从而形成具有催化活性的全酶。而[NiFe]氢酶则需要更多辅助蛋白来完成这些过程。除了需要辅助蛋白参与氢酶的全酶制备,氢酶的基础和应用研究也面临着其他诸多挑战,如氢酶对氧气十分敏感,易失活,导致活性氢酶的结构不易解析,而其产氢反应的电子传递机制尚不十分清晰,且效率有待提高,翻译后成熟过程也未完全阐明。尽管如此,近年来,氢酶的重组表达及其应用取得了很大的成果,部分氢酶或其亚基的结构解析也促进了模拟氢酶的化学催化剂的研究。对氢酶的诸多科学问题的进一步探索,必将有力地推动氢酶在氢经济发展中的应用。
在ivSEB反应体系中,依照酶元件的最适反应温度范围可分为热稳酶与常温酶两类,它们在生物技术与工业生产中各自有着重要应用。常温氢酶的重组表达通常用于解析酶的催化性能及其结构研究35-36,或者用于常温底盘宿主细胞的微生物产氢应用37-40,也可用于体外电化学-生物酶耦合产氢的前瞻性研究41。热稳酶是在高温环境下仍能保持稳定活性的酶,与常温酶元件相比,使用热稳酶元件有着诸多优势。第一,热稳酶元件参与的ivSEB的反应速率高,并可促进产物的气相分离22。高温可以提高酶分子的振动和碰撞频率,促进底物与酶的结合和反应进行,因此,高温酶参与催化反应时比同源常温酶单位时间内的转化率更高。第二,高温酶元件在通过常温底盘菌株重组生产时,可通过高温裂解细胞进行分离提取,因此获取粗酶液的成本更低,此制取过程无需使用昂贵的亲和树脂或其他纯化材料,而且热处理纯化可轻易扩展到大规模生产,适用于酶元件的工业规模生产。第三,高温反应环境可有效抑制可能的微生物污染,从而保持酶促反应系统的稳定性,延长多酶混合液体的使用周期。综上所述,热稳酶元件的筛选、改造及运用为解决体系的酶成本及鲁棒性问题提供了良好的设计基础。
目前最常用的热稳定氢酶是极端嗜热古菌P. furiosus来源的热稳定胞质[NiFe]氢酶(Pf SHⅠ)42。2010年以前,开展高温氢酶的重组表达是十分具挑战性的工作,因为形成有活性的[NiFe]催化位点需要多酶精确协调参加翻译后修饰过程,但得益于在高温氢酶重组表达工作方面的不断推陈出新,基于Pf SHⅠ的产氢应用,ivSEB产氢工艺得以逐步优化。Adams团队首先探索了以大肠杆菌为底盘菌的Pf SHⅠ的异源表达工作43,在攻克高温古菌P.furiosus遗传操作效率的难题后,又开展了该氢酶的同源表达研究44。而本文作者所在团队也以T. kodakarensis KOD1为底盘高温菌,首次在国内建立了高温古菌氢酶的重组表达系统,获得了稳定的重组热稳Pf SHⅠ。由于来自底盘菌的TkSH与重组Pf SHⅠ的序列相似性高达83.7%,所生产的重组氢酶活性比空载宿主菌株的原有氢酶提高了1200倍以上45
[FeFe]和[NiFe]氢酶均可以催化产氢反应,其中[FeFe]氢酶广泛存在于厌氧细菌或含有光合细胞器的真核生物中,且原先认为在古细菌中不存在[FeFe]氢酶46,但是随着对微生物多样性的认识以及宏微生物组数据的爆发式增长,人们认识到,在古细菌中不仅存在[FeFe]氢酶,而且还大量分布着[NiFe]和[FeFe]氢酶的原始杂合体47。[FeFe]氢酶在结构上的差异性较大,既有简单的单一肽催化蛋白,也有由多亚基构成的复合酶,但是这类酶都含有一个独特的催化中心,即H-簇,它由[FeFe]亚簇和[4Fe-4S]簇组成,通过桥接的半胱氨酸硫醇配体连在一起。其中,[FeFe]-中心的每个铁原子分别连接2个CO和1个CN,并通过1个额外的CO桥接,此外,该[FeFe]中心通过一个桥接的半胱氨酸残基连接到 [4Fe-4S]簇。这些独特的共价相连的配体有助于形成稳定的结构并参与氢酶的催化活性[4Fe-4S]簇通常在氢酶中起着电子传递和催化作用。它由[FeFe]亚簇和[4Fe-4S]簇的半胱氨酸残基作为桥接基团,有助于维持整个H-簇的结构和功能30。[NiFe]氢酶广泛分布于古菌和细菌中,但是不存在于真核生物中。[NiFe]氢酶由至少一个含有[NiFe]活性中心的大亚基和携带几乎线性排列的FeS簇的小亚基组成。[NiFe]中心深藏在大亚基中,并通过4个半胱氨酸衍生的硫醇与酶相连。镍由其4个半胱氨酸配位,其中两个作为桥联配体,同时也与铁原子配位,铁原子进一步由1个CO和2个CN配体配位。这两种金属离子以及二原子配体是通过复杂的后翻译插入到apo-氢酶中。
虽然[FeFe]和[NiFe]氢酶在一级和二级结构上的同源性很低,但是这两类氢酶在催化位点的结构上异曲同工,具有在其催化位点上类似的特征性非蛋白配体,有着共同的电子转移特征,均可以催化氢气和质子、电子之间的相互转化,但是它们参与氢气裂解或合成的方式并不相同,体现了进化中实现的两种独立的解决方案。因此,[FeFe]和[NiFe]氢酶被认为是收敛进化最深刻的案例(收敛进化是指不同物种或群体在相似的环境条件下,独立演化出相似的形态、生理特征或行为的现象)。[FeFe]氢酶主要分布在厌氧发酵微生物中,主要功能是通过产生氢气回收电子,利用氧化电子辅酶的反应使其循环利用,因此是细胞能量代谢的重要组成。而[NiFe]氢酶的功能十分多样,既可产氢也可用氢,或参与还原力的再生等4548。依据其在细胞中的定位可分为可溶性及膜结合[NiFe]氢酶。可溶的胞内[NiFe]氢酶主要在能量代谢中催化氢气的氧化,可能是早期生命中的关键酶,代表了现代呼吸代谢的前身。[FeFe]或[NiFe]氢酶从细胞内分布的性质均可分为可溶性氢酶或膜结合型氢酶,膜结合型氢酶赋予氢酶更多的功能,可参与细胞最基础的能量转化反应,如组成电子呼吸链等功能,但是胞内可溶氢酶更适合组建ivSEB系统。与[NiFe]类型相比,[FeFe]氢酶催化H2合成的比酶活通常更佳,至少高出一个数量级或更高的效率,然而,该类氢酶对氧气更敏感。这两类金属类型不一的氢酶对氧气的敏感差异比较大,[FeFe]氢酶在存在微量氧气时大多会不可逆地失活,而许多[NiFe]氢酶虽也受氧气抑制,但是在去除氧气后可重新激活49-50。基于两类氢酶不同的特性及各自的催化优势,它们已分别应用于不同领域,如[FeFe]氢酶常用于构建氢酶-光催化混合复合体的构建,用于开展H2的光合生产51-52。除了产氢特性外,对[NiFe]氢酶的H2氧化活性的研究也用于电化学燃料电池中,这些电池利用生物催化剂替代昂贵的铂催化剂53。氢酶还已成功用于H2驱动的辅因子再生系统,用于回收NAD(H)和NADP(H)等昂贵辅酶,其效率高于NADH/NADPH氧化酶且能耗低、无需氧气参与54
另有一些[NiFe]氢酶的活性位点中含有硒代半胱氨酸(Sec),它取代了原有的半胱氨酸(Cys),这类氢酶有时也称为[NiFeSe]氢酶。Sec是Cys的同源氨基酸,几乎只存在于氧化还原酶的结构域中55,它相比Cys降低了侧链的pK a,加强了亲核性,提升了相比同源的Cys更强的可逆的氧化性能56,Sec的人工翻译已被证实可影响氢酶活性位点的电子性质、催化速率以及对氧的敏感性57-59。Sec的人工翻译可由宿主细胞自主完成。它在信使核糖核酸的翻译区通过识别一种特种特异性的mRNA发夹环结构(也称为Sec插入序列)后,通过匹配UGA密码子插入到多肽链中60。目前,通过利用并改造大肠杆菌的硒代半胱氨酸插入序列(selenocysteine insertion sequence, SECIS),并表达相应的tRNASec及针对性的延伸因子(SelB),可实现包括[NiFeSe]氢酶或其他含有Sec的蛋白的基因在大肠杆菌的重组表达61
氢酶因其高效的产氢或氢电转换性能,在生物产氢及燃料电池开发中起着重要作用,然而对氧的高度敏感性限制了其应用范围。过去三十年间,为了揭示对氧敏感的分子机制,研究人员开展了大量的实验和理论探索62。通过对来自不同生物体的氢酶进行的遗传生物学、结构生物学、电化学和光谱学等领域的系统研究,揭示了一部分氢酶活性位点的作用、分子伴侣的参与、亲水性空腔的水运动、气体扩散的影响、质子转移途径及对多聚体结构的依赖等多因素影响机制63-65,并对其催化位点开展了分子动力学模拟、密度泛函理论计算、体积溶剂可及性图等计算分析,这些研究为增加氢酶的氧耐受性的突变设计提供了重要线索66。探究氧气是否使氢酶失活而广泛使用的实验技术是蛋白质膜伏安法(PFV),该技术能够精确测量被吸附蛋白质的酶活性。早期研究用PFV研究了在不同条件下(氧气浓度、氢气浓度和或氧化还原电位不同)的氢酶失活动力学,发现[NiFe]和[FeFe]氢酶经历不同的中间状态,以显著不同的速率失活67-68。[NiFe]氢酶在饱和空气缓冲液中的半衰期约为几十分钟,一些[NiFe]氢酶能够从氧气失活状态中重新激活,而[FeFe]氢酶的半衰期大约为几十秒,只能在有限程度上从氧气结合状态重新激活6669-70。氢酶的酶活恢复速率取决于氢气浓度、氧气暴露时间和氧化还原电位等失活条件6668
氧气对[FeFe]氢酶的抑制机制是一个不十分清晰且存在争议的复杂反应过程,对其解析十分依赖于活性氢酶的结构特征,而[FeFe]氢酶只有少数状态下是与催化相关的71,难以用传统的动力学技术对其进行研究。[FeFe]氢酶具有一个独特的活性中心,即“H-簇”,目前对于[FeFe]氢酶氧敏感的主流观点是氧气或其衍生的活性氧物质(reactive oxygen species,ROS)氧化了氢酶中的甲硫氨酸,破坏了“H-簇”并引发了活性位点中的[FeFe]和[4Fe-4S]簇的降解,因而影响蛋白质的功能性质或导致氢酶的降解和失活72。与[NiFe]氢酶不同,[FeFe]氢酶必须在完全厌氧的条件下纯化,这并不是因为它们比其他氢酶更快受到抑制,而是因为与氧气反应产生了一些无法重新激活的酶的非活性形式73。阐明抑制机制对于通过蛋白质工程改善氧气耐受性十分重要。Orain等69在研究氢酶的厌氧失活机制后,提出并应用了一种新方法来研究失活反应,他们通过对氢酶周转速率的电化学测量,解析抑制反应的最初步骤并准确确定它们的速率。研究展示了分别来自Chlamydomonas reinhardtiiClostridium acetobutylicum的两种模式[FeFe]氢酶与氧气发生反应并被抑制的过程和机制。根据电化学测量结果,丁酸丁醇梭菌(C. acetobutylicum)的[FeFe]氢酶在氧气存在下的失活起源于缓慢和可逆的O2加合物形成,随后是不可逆的转化74。研究表明,与通常假设的不同,这两种[FeFe]氢酶都会在氧气的短时暴露后发生可逆性抑制,因此氧气攻击的初始位点的抗氧化设计与氧耐受[FeFe]氢酶的进化研究更具有相关性。Thomas Happe团队75通过在Clostridium pasteurianum 来源的[FeFe]氢酶中引入靠近Fe-S中心的突变位点,增加其局部亲水性,从而提高氧耐受性。还可以通过替换远离活性位点的表面残基,例如将甲硫氨酸残基替换为亮氨酸残基,从而减少氧气驱动的降解,提高氢酶对氧气的耐受性。对氢酶活性中心位点分子结构修饰和电势的观察也加深了对氢酶氧化或催化过程中的动态变化的理解,从而可以设计通过外围效应控制活性中心无机位点的反应性76。此外,提高[FeFe]氢酶氧气耐受性的策略还包括阻止氧气扩散至活性位点或是将氧气转化为无害产物等77
对[NiFe]氢酶的氧失活机制研究发现,如同[FeFe]氢酶那样,氧气也会进入并结合到氢酶的活性位点,但对已知的具有氧气耐受性的[NiFe]氢酶来说,这种结合是可逆的,不会导致酶的不可逆降解;通常氧气会迅速通过利用质子和电子还原为水分子,并留下一个羟基固定在活性位点上,然后消耗一组质子和电子以另一个水分子的形式去除羟基78-80。这些实验和理论研究提出了导致羟基结合和完全重新激活状态的多种途径,它们都强调了向氧气结合的活性位点迅速提供质子和电子的重要性81-85。活性位点附近的特定残基被认为负责质子转移,而靠近活性位点的Fe-S簇被认为是电子的来源。研究证实了具有额外两个半胱氨酸的非常规[4Fe-3S]邻近簇对于一些[NiFe]氢酶的氧气耐受性至关重要648286-87,这是由于在Fe-S簇附近的额外的半胱氨酸使电子能够快速传递到活性位点,有助于氢酶的脱氧和耐受。
为了提升氢酶的氧气耐受性能,研究人员还开发了一些并非针对活性中心的工程策略,如对酶进行化学处理88、实现硅化诱导的细胞聚集89以及水凝胶保护90、蛋白融合91和羧酶体外壳保护等92,这些策略可以减缓氧气对氢酶的损害,延长其使用寿命。针对氢酶进行定点或随机突变也是提升氢酶氧耐受性的常规策略93,但是这种策略需要结合高通量筛选方法才能得以高效地实施94,基于无细胞蛋白生产技术的应用95,研究人员获得了具有改善氧耐受性的[FeFe]氢酶变体。然而,这种有限的成功仍不足以使其性能满足实际应用,未来仍需进一步提高氢酶在富氧或微氧环境中的耐受性。
为了能够利用氢酶开展应用研究,或者对其催化机理进行深入解析,研究人员需要获取足量的氢酶,但却往往受限于氢酶的胞内浓度不高,或是其原宿主细胞发酵密度低。此外,天然氢酶缺乏利于纯化的亲和标签肽,导致纯化过程中酶活的损失较大,因此,急需对氢酶开展重组表达。几十年以来,研究人员一直在尝试各种表达策略,开展了[FeFe]和[NiFe]氢酶的同源或异源重组生产。但是由于对氢酶翻译后成熟机理的理解不多,2010年以前外源表达功能性的[FeFe]氢酶的尝试只取得了有限的成功,主要是由于异源宿主无法合成完整的H-簇,导致获得的要么是无催化活性的apo-酶96-97,或者只能获得活性很低的重组酶98-99。但这些初期的尝试让研究人员发现了氢酶表达需要完备的成熟蛋白体系,同时也认识到其对氧的高敏感性带来的纯化挑战,这些前期经验对后期氢酶的重组表达工作积累了宝贵的经验。因此,近十几年来,世界各地研究人员先后通过使用同源和异源宿主成功表达了多种[FeFe]氢酶(表1)或[NiFe]氢酶(表2)。其中,利用成熟的大肠杆菌进行[NiFe]氢酶过表达的突破由美国佐治亚大学的研究组实现,他们在大肠杆菌中过表达高温古菌Pf SHⅠ的四个结构基因和九个成熟基因(hypABFCDEhycIslyDfrxA43,实现了有活性高温氢酶的重组生产,并且通过组氨酸标签的使用,大大降低了氢酶的纯化成本和难度。研究还表明,即使在异源重组表达时,也不是所有的氢酶加工蛋白都需要共表达。研究发现,只需过表达结构基因和氢酶大亚基的成熟蛋白酶(FrxA),大肠杆菌就可产生有活性的Pf SHⅠ。重组氢酶的比酶活相比天然氢酶相距较远,这表明在厌氧发酵时,大肠杆菌膜结合氢酶相关成熟蛋白也可参与外源高温氢酶的翻译后加工,尽管其效率不及天然高温成熟蛋白。由此,利用天然宿主(同源重组表达)或其亲缘较近物种进行重组氢酶基因表达,更容易实现功能性氢酶的过表达生产。例如,Desulfovibrio gigas的[NiFe]氢酶可成功地在Desulfovibrio fructosovorans MR400中重组表达,这两种微生物的氢酶亚基显示出64%的同源性和80%的相似性。Song等45使用与火球菌P. furiosus亲缘关系相近的Theromococcus kodakarensis KOD1作为底盘细胞,通过穿梭质粒高效表达并纯化了P. furiosus来源的可溶性氢酶SHⅠ。另一来自嗜氢高温菌Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus TH-1的[NiFe]氢酶也成功地在常温嗜氢菌Ralstonia euatropha H16中成功表达,并进行了活性氢酶的性能表征135。但是利用高温古菌进行同源重组表达也面临微生物发酵密度低、酶表达量不足的困境,因此,开展研究实现高温古菌的高密度发酵,或者着力提升氢酶异源表达的加工效率仍然十分必要136
与此同时,厌氧纯化技术经多年的发展也得到明显提升。由于多数重组氢酶为胞内可溶蛋白,其提取需要经过细胞裂解,从这一过程开始到氢酶的不断分离纯化,乃至储存过程,每一步骤中氢酶酶活均有损失。Girbal等108在氢酶纯化方案中引入了一个优化技巧,即在细胞培养结束时用纯H2冲洗细胞,以防止蛋白质的氧化损伤,此外,在培养结束后立即对新鲜收获的细胞进行细胞破裂。通过这种优化的纯化方案,Demuez等100将丁酸梭菌[FeFe]氢酶的产H2比活性提高了16倍,而H2氧化比酶活则提高了130倍。
近年来,无细胞蛋白表达技术的进步也让研究人员开始寻求使用体外加工途径开展氢酶的翻译后成熟,Pagnier等137-138先利用重组表达获取氢酶,再针对apo-氢酶利用化学合成的辅因子进行氢酶的活性中心加工,生产了具有功能活性的氢酶。此外,氢酶重组研究的另一个重要方向是最小化人工氢酶蛋白的进化和表达,这项研究可为化学仿真氢酶的开发提供原始氢酶模型,并促进人工仿酶在电化学中的应用139。为了促进更广阔的生物技术应用,理想的重组氢酶不仅应具备较高的氧耐受性和催化稳定性,还应拓展其对辅酶(电子供体/受体)的适应性,使其具有天然氢酶所没有的酶学特征,从而避免使用昂贵的天然辅酶140,这些要求为氢酶的老酶新用改造或者性能的革命性进步指出了研究方向。
除了开发蛋白类新型酶种,非多肽仿真人工催化剂的研究也备受重视。例如,仿真人工氢酶可以弥补天然氢酶在应用中的诸多挑战,如获取成本高、对氧超级敏感等。因此,研究人员正着力于通过对氢酶活性中心的结构及化学配位原则进行探究,利用金属有机物设计并模拟出天然氢酶的活性位点,获得可以实现氢气的氧化及质子还原功能的仿真催化剂141,这类氢酶仿真催化剂的开发依赖于研究人员对天然氢酶结构和功能的了解。1995年,Volbeda等142解析了来自Desulfovivrio gigas的[NiFe]氢酶的首个2.85 Å(1 Å=0.1 nm)晶体结构,推动了氢酶仿真物的研究,开发出了一系列模拟复合物作为H2生产的催化剂。同时有研究表明,[FeFe]氢酶在质子还原为H2的过程中效率最高,其转化频率可高达104 s-1[143,研究人员通过模拟H簇的双铁位点,使用azadithiolate(ADT)连接[FeFe]氢酶的两个铁原子后,实现[FeFe]氢酶金属簇的仿生模拟144
自然界大多数生物质是由植物细胞通过光合作用,将无机CO2利用太阳能固定后生成的,包括淀粉、纤维素、葡萄糖、蔗糖等,其总方程式可归纳为6 CO2 + 6 H2O→C6H12O6 + 6 O2。最常见的碳水化合物分子,如葡萄糖,在被细胞利用时,经好氧呼吸的糖酵解和三羧酸循环等途径可彻底氧化,生成CO2和H2O,其方程式可归纳为C6H12O6 + 6O2→6 CO2 + 6 H2O。葡萄糖在氧化过程中,其还原电子被氧气氧化生产水。但是葡萄糖在厌氧氧化过程中,如果其还原力(NADPH)经氢酶催化传递给水的质子,则可生成氢气,其总方程式为C6H12O6 + 6 H2O→6 CO2 + 12 H2。所以,可以认为以上厌氧糖氧化过程是一种人工呼吸作用,以水替代氧气,实现糖分子的厌氧完全氧化。
体外多酶分子机器是一种由多个酶分子构建的无细胞(或胞外)催化系统145,这些酶分子构成精心设计的反应链或人工代谢途径,协同工作,可大幅提升催化效率和反应的特异性。多酶分子机器通过模拟这种自然界的多酶系统,可以执行通常在细胞内才能完成的复杂生化反应,设计出人工多酶催化系统,可用于工业生产、药物合成和生物传感器等领域。例如,以淀粉为原料人工合成肌醇(一种广泛应用于医药、保健品和化妆品等领域的维生素B8),利用多种酶催化实现高效转化,得率高达98.9%,解决了传统生产方法原料供应不足和成本高等问题。该技术已成功实现工业化,成为全球首个体外合成生物学的成功范例145。葡萄糖或其多聚淀粉是一种天然储能载体。ivSEB制氢技术的突破让淀粉有可能成为新储氢载体或储电介质,其储氢质量密度超过14%,储电密度超过3000 W·h/kg淀粉,远高于压缩氢气146。此外,淀粉来源广泛,易于收集和运输且性质稳定,因此,若以淀粉作为储氢原料,可用于氢能的转化和运输,能够克服氢气储存难的风险。张以恒教授于2007年首次将自然界不同来源的酶元件组装成人工代谢途径,该体外生物转化法(ivSEB)制氢则可以提升制氢效率,是一种绿色、经济可行、高得率的碳中性氢生产方式21。如图3所示,该体系以淀粉为底物,精巧地设计了一个人工代谢途径,将蕴含于植物大分子淀粉中的还原能级联释放,对糖分子实现完全氧化,其绿氢得率接近100%。与微生物发酵法不同,ivSEB避免了细胞工厂需满足的生存需求(如新陈代谢、细胞维护和复制),避免了生物体代谢中的能量损失;这种体外代谢途径无需制造维持生命的数以千计的不同蛋白,仅包含制造特定产品所需的酶蛋白。
同其他工业制造技术一样,ivSEB若要实现特定产品的产业化,也必须要满足产品的经济性。在生物转化过程中,基于重量的总周转次数(weight-based total turnover number,TTNW)是经济性的一个重要影响因素,它是生产产物质量与所需要的生物催化剂的质量的比值147。微生物发酵的TTNw通常为0.001~20148,例如,利用微生物可将发酵的糖底物的大约一半质量转化为乙醇,酵母细胞需要量大概占乙醇质量的1/6,因此其TTNw约为6;若酵母细胞被回收利用形成产品,则该生产过程的TTNw上升至10以上。但若是使用植物或动物或其培养的细胞进行生物制造,其TTNw值要低得多,大约为0.01,因此,利用动植物只适合生产高价值产品。而ivSEB只使用酶,针对底物进行直接的生物转化,因此其TTNw值会大幅提升,一般是50以上,甚至能达到100万。如果在ivSEB中结合酶固定化技术,其TTNw可比使用游离酶再高出两个数量级以上。例如纤维素酶水解纤维素生物质类生产乙醇,其TTNw可比使用游离酶再高出两个数量级以上;纤维素酶水解纤维素生物质类生产乙醇,其TTNw值在50~100之间,而淀粉酶水解淀粉生产乙醇,由于成熟的工业淀粉酶和葡萄糖淀粉酶活性很高,导致TTNw提高至5000。因此,利用玉米原料生产乙醇比利用木质纤维素生物质制造乙醇便宜很多。在生物制氢方面,张以恒团队设计的ivSEB途径在以淀粉为底物时,可以获得接近理论转化值的12 mol氢/mol葡萄糖,其产氢TTNw也是微生物发酵难以实现的。该多酶体途径主要包含五个子模块:①由磷酸化酶催化将多聚糖转化为葡萄糖-1-磷酸(G1P);②由磷酸葡糖异构酶催化从G1P生成葡萄糖-6-磷酸(G6P);③由两种脱氢酶所化产生NADPH和磷酸戊糖;④由磷酸戊糖途径(PPP)的八种酶催化从核糖-5-磷酸再生G6P;⑤由氢酶催化从NADPH生成氢气20-21。2015年,张以恒研究团队149继续展示了基于体外合成酶途径将植物生物质中的纤维多糖和木聚糖原料完全转化为H2和CO2的过程,同时将酶元件反应温度提升到50 ℃,并经遗传算法对非线性动力学模型的参数拟合,由全局敏感性分析确定了对反应速率和产量影响最大的酶。经模型对酶载荷优化后,H2产量增加了3倍,达到32 mmol/(L·h);再通过提高反应温度、底物和酶浓度后,产氢速率提升至54 mmol/(L·h),与初始研究相比提高了67倍。2018年,他们继续实现突破,以15种超热嗜热酶替代之前的中温酶元件,引入基于NAD的戊糖磷酸途径,设计了由黄递酶(DI),电子中介物苄基紫精(BV)和一种可溶性[NiFe]氢酶组成的新型电子传递链,并且优化了淀粉的磷酸化,因此在80 ℃下,该途径实现了530 mmol/(L·h)的生物产氢新速率29。在测试的9天持续产氢中,NAD的总周转次数超过10万次29。如图4所示,ivSEB产氢在近年来产氢速率因多尺度集成得到大幅提升,这种具有最高化学能效率和以超高反应速率为特征的糖水制氢技术有望解决与成本效益、氢气高密度储存相关的技术挑战,形成分布式氢气工业生产的技术基础。此外,利用碳材料、金属及半导体、高分子或MOF固定化氢酶有利于提高氢酶的稳定性,改善氢酶对于氧气的敏感性,增加反应体系对氢酶的负载率,从而提升产氢效率150
对比微生物发酵产氢,ivSEB产氢体系展现出多方面的优势:①可实现小型分布式碳中性产氢的新方法;②所产氢气的纯度高,副产物少;③即产(氢)即用(氢);④从碳水化合物到氢能的能量转换效率最高。这些技术优势为淀粉作为高密度储氢载体迈出了关键性的一步。尽管如此,现有ivSEB糖产氢技术依然难以实现工业应用的经济性,其主要限制因素是产氢反应速率及反应中加入的酶及辅酶的成本(图5)。对于产氢反应速率,有许多策略可以有效进行提升,如(超)热稳定酶替代、提高反应温度、优化关键酶比例、增加底物浓度、增加酶载量甚至代谢产物通道化等,这些方式可以将生物氢产生速率加快数个数量级。例如,微生物燃料电池的功率密度在过去十年中提高了大约106倍。近年来,宿主菌的系统优化、发酵控制技术的进步让重组蛋白生产的成本大大降低151-152。此外,通过使用(超)热稳定酶、酶固定化、低成本快速的酶纯化技术等,也让重组酶的成本进一步下降。例如,长期热稳定酶的固定化在工业上已成功应用。1 kg固定化葡萄糖异构酶可以在55 ℃左右转化至少15 000 kg果葡糖浆,并可在持续几个月后才进行更换13
在构建ivSEB代谢途径时,由于产物与底物的多样性,会对酶的底物特异性或广谱性提出要求,有时不仅要求一些酶对底物有很高的特异性,同时也会需要提高另一些酶的代谢广谱性。ivSEB产氢途径依赖氧化还原酶捕获还原力,并最终由氢酶获得电子产氢,该人工途径不仅需要糖基脱氢酶、氢酶等催化单元,还需要辅酶参与电子传递。而天然辅酶,如NAD+或NADP+等,目前的工业应用主要是医药产物或昂贵的化学中间体的合成153,在生物产氢领域很难规模化使用。因此,为降低产氢ivSEB的使用成本,提升其电子传递系统的效率,除了针对关键酶开展工程改造,还需要通过特定辅因子的添加或改造而扩大底物范围。一些低成本、稳定且具备优良辅助性能的人工小分子也不断被开发,作为酶元件的仿真辅因子用于构建催化模块。它们在途径中不仅可以增强酶的性能、扩展生物代谢途径,还能丰富催化反应的反应类型,从而增强途径中关键反应的鲁棒性。对于基于氧化还原酶路径设计的ivSEB产氢体系而言,辅酶/仿生辅酶更是不可或缺的功能元件,它承接了糖基碳水化合物的氧化还原反应与质子还原中的电子转移。由于ivSEB产氢酶系的复杂性,对天然辅酶提出了诸多要求,主要包括:①辅因子的通用性和稳定性。在产氢多酶体系的辅因子多为NAD+/NADP+为辅酶,但各个酶对NAD+或NADP+的偏好性和催化效率并不一致,为此,研究人员开展了其中葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶(G6PDH)和6-磷酸葡糖酸脱氢酶(6PGDH)的辅因子蛋白改造,使这两种脱氢酶的辅酶偏好性由NADPH进化为NADH29。②辅酶或仿真辅酶的使用成本。氢经济对生产成本十分敏感,因此辅酶或仿真辅酶的生产和应用成本不能过高。辅酶要易于规模化制备,且成本不宜过高,同时其使用周期要尽量长效,以减少它们在ivSEB产氢体系中的使用及补加量。因此,目前作为生命活动为最常见的辅酶NAD+/NADP+,由于其高温稳定性、制造成本等因素,成为ivSEB产氢体系中急需被替代的元件。
典型的辅因子包括烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(NAD+)、烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(NADP+)、泛醌(CoQ)和黄素单核苷酸(FMN/FAD),其中NAD+作为80%氧化还原酶的辅因子,具有较高的对映选择性和最广泛的酶元件适配性。NAD+及其还原形式NADH是许多氧化还原反应中必要的电子载体,也是一些生物反应的底物,在细胞代谢中起着重要作用154-155。然而,像NAD+这样的天然辅因子在高温下的稳定性不足,体外使用的代价昂贵,并且在体内难以进行量的控制156,这限制了它们在大规模合成中的应用。为了解决供需不平衡、生产成本高和代谢过程中辅因子稳定性低等问题,一些非天然辅酶(mNAD)如烟酰胺胞嘧啶二核苷酸(NCD)和烟酰胺单核苷酸(NMN)已被开发用于体外多酶体反应中。结合随机突变、半理性设计和理性设计,已实现了专门使用mNAD作为辅酶的突变酶。此外,非天然核苷酸(XNA)和非天然氨基酸(nnAA)等新组分越来越多地用于半合成生物体的创建,以提高酶的性质和功能,并解决具有挑战性的生物催化问题。天然辅因子的结构分为负责转移氢和电子的烟酰胺单核苷酸(NMN)部分和负责锚定辅因子和酶相互作用的腺苷酸磷酸(AMP)部分。一些mNAD是通过修改或替换NAD+的羧酰胺基157、腺嘌呤碱基158-159和烟酰胺核糖160与替代功能基团进行合成的。由于NAD+的氧化还原反应发生在NMN部分,因此mNAD+的合成主要涉及修改天然辅因子的AMP部分161,可以分为两类:一类是半合成的仿生辅因子,其结构类似于天然烟酰胺辅因子,通常是天然辅因子的截短形式(如NMN)或仅修改和替换部分天然烟酰胺辅因子的一些基团162-163;另一类是完全合成的仿生辅因子164,通常体积较小(例如BNA),仅保留负责电子转移的烟酰胺基团。目前已报道了一系列具有生物活性的NAD+类似物,如非天然辅酶烟酰胺胞嘧啶二核苷酸(NCD),与NAD+仅有一个碱基差异165。NCD的合成前体NMN已在大肠杆菌中进行了生物合成。迄今为止合成NMN最高产量为通过基于质粒的蛋白表达系统,从葡萄糖和NAM中通过工程大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)菌株外源合成6.79 g/L的NMN166。他们确定了两种活性功能转运蛋白(NiaP和PnuC)和一种高活性关键酶(Nampt),使其能够吸收NAM,将PRPP(由葡萄糖提供)和NAM高效转化为NMN,以及外源NMN排泄。增强PRPP生物合成途径和优化单个基因表达导致比先前报道的NMN产量高得多。上述生物合成方法预计将用于利用微生物工业生产低成本、高质量的mNAD。根据已有人工辅酶的研究基础,更多具有高稳定性、优异溶解性以及与酶元件高度兼容性的新的人工辅酶(PNA+、HPNA+、NCD+、NFCD+)正被理性设计并合成出来。这些成果为也未来脱氢酶的辅酶改造研究提供了新方向和应用基础。
氢酶常用的电子辅酶除NAD+及NADP+外,还包括铁氧还蛋白(ferredoxin)和细胞色素C3等167。近年来,对氧不敏感的小分子人工染料类电子中介体被成功用于氢酶介导的体外生物合成反应中。早期,这类染料,如甲基紫精(methyl viologen,MV)或蓝紫精(benzyl viologen,BV)可用于替代NAD+/NADP+,进行氢酶酶活的测定,而且,使用MV或BV测得的氢酶酶活会显著高于使用NAD+/NADP+时的活性168,差距通常在一个数量级以上。因此,利用MV或BV构建氢酶的电子传递链往往能够大幅提升体外合成反应链的催化效率,如图6所示,Kim等29引入偶联的BV(BCV)以及可以进行BV和NAD+转换的黄递酶[比较图6(a)图6(b)],进一步还可将NAD+分子偶联至葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶上,可将葡萄糖产氢的速率提升10倍以上[图6(c)],同时辅酶TTNw值可提高1个数量级以上[图6(d)]。另外,MV或BV类的小分子人工染料价格低廉,热稳定性强,使用周期长。因此,若能进一步针对底物的氧化还原酶进行人工染料的适配,必将会进一步优化人工体外生物合成体系的构成并降低体外产氢体系中元件的使用成本,同时大幅提升氢酶介导的生物合成效率。
绿氢的生产是氢经济的重要组成部分,也是碳中性氢能利用中的重要一环。体外多酶体产氢技术十分简便高效,其转化率为目前生物制氢的最高水准。但是该合成生物学产氢技术对氢酶的耐温性、体外反应中的稳定性和可规模化的氢酶重组生产及纯化、产氢人工电子传递链的构建等方面提出了严苛要求。我国学者在体外多酶体产氢途径的构建、氧化还原酶的定向进化以及人工辅酶的适配等方面已取得重大突破,然而在重组氢酶的筛选、产氢体系中氢酶耐氧性能的提升、半人工氢酶的设计以及产氢酶微生物菌株的构建等方面,亟需进一步深入研究,从而大幅降低体外产氢的生产成本,真正实现体外多酶产氢产业技术的应用和规模化。
(1)应当结合生物信息学研究,利用组学工具开展具备优异催化性能的高温氢酶元件的挖掘。可应用于体外多酶体产氢途径构建的氢酶应当结构相对简单,具备较好的耐氧性能、可接受广谱的电子辅酶并实现高效的产氢速率。目前虽然来自超高温古菌的四亚基[NiFe]氢酶已实现稳定的重组生产,但是未来也应该加强产氢[FeFe]氢酶的研究。目前已经发现一些只利用NADH产氢的高温[FeFe]氢酶,但是高温多亚基[FeFe]的重组表达以及与产氢ivSEB体系中其他酶的适配研究仍一片空白。
(2)常规的底盘微生物,如大肠杆菌在重组表达高温氢酶方面具有天然的优势,其生长密度高,且生长温度与重组高温氢酶的最适温度差异大,利于高温氢酶在表达后的高温破碎,从而降低氢酶的制备成本。但是由于菌种间的巨大差异,高温重组氢酶在常温宿主细胞中的翻译后加工的效率远不如天然菌株,因此,应当开展大肠杆菌氢酶表达系统的全面优化,强化重组高温[NiFe]或[FeFe]氢酶的翻译后加工效率,提升氢酶的表达强度和比酶活,从而降低氢酶的生产成本。
(3)继续优化体外产氢多酶机器中的酶种及辅酶构成、比例等因素,构建更高效的人工电子传递体系,通过酶系元件的人工进化,利用廉价元件实现体系中昂贵辅酶的替代,同时通过反应条件优化,加强“一锅法”中氢酶的厌氧保护,结合酶的固定等工程技术提升体外产氢多酶机器的效率和系统的运行稳定性,实现产氢成本的大幅下降。
氢酶在体外多酶产氢技术中显示出巨大的应用潜力,该技术的进步和完善将有力地推动分布式绿氢的生产和应用,也将促进生物能源的转换和利用,它不仅是一项重要的基础生物能源研究,更是体外合成生物技术的典范,其研究成果不仅可以推动高效生物制氢技术的发展,也有助于理解生物体系复杂的物质和能源代谢机理。但是,目前作为该体系中最重要组成部分的氢酶,其基础和应用研究仍待进一步加强,利用ivSEB进行生物制氢的研究仍任重道远。
  • 国家重点研发计划“合成生物学”重点专项“糖水氢电系统——体外多酶高效产氢及氢电装置的基础及工程研究”(2022YFA0912000)
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2024年第5卷第6期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-052
  • 接收时间:2024-07-09
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-12-31
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  • 收稿日期:2024-07-09
  • 修回日期:2024-09-25
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国家重点研发计划“合成生物学”重点专项“糖水氢电系统——体外多酶高效产氢及氢电装置的基础及工程研究”(2022YFA0912000)
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    1 中国科学院上海高等研究院低碳生物转化团队,上海 201210
    2 中国科学院大学,北京 100049
    3 中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所低碳合成工程生物学(全国)重点实验室,天津 300308
    4 中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所体外合成生物学中心,天津 300308
    5 合成生物学海河实验室,天津 300308
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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