Article(id=1148702764584202535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148702761211982101, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2024-035, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1711987200000, receivedDateStr=2024-04-02, revisedDate=1718899200000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-21, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751801680941, onlineDateStr=2025-07-06, pubDate=1738252800000, pubDateStr=2025-01-31, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751801680941, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751801680941, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751801680941, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148702761211982101, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2025', volume='6', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='227', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751801680138, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1757551070689, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1172817453043302691, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148702761211982101, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1172817453043302692, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148702761211982101, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=190, endPage=202, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149992671247478790, articleId=1148702764584202535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Two hypothesises for the origins of organisms from the synthetic biology perspective, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The inquiry into the essence of organisms has long been a thriving topic in biology and philosophy. Hypothesises are commonly employed in biological research to understand lives. These hypothesises can be grouped into two categories: ① the machine hypothesis, likening the components and organizational structure of organisms to the operation of machines, and ② the autopoietic hypothesis, likening organisms to complex systems with purposeful and unique attributes. Both play an epistemic role in various fields of biology, serving as theoretical hypotheses, heuristic tools, and means of scientific communication. The machine hypothesis, for instance, has been influential in areas such as molecular biology and systems biology, where organisms are viewed as intricate machines made up of interacting components. The autopoietic hypothesis, on the other hand, has been more prominent in theoretical biology and philosophy of biology, highlighting the self-organizing and self-producing nature of living systems. The development of synthetic biology, which aims to redesigning and constructing biological systems from scratch, has challenged the traditional dichotomy between natural and artificial entities. Both the machine and autopoietic hypothesises are reflected in the advancement of synthetic biology, as researchers attempt to engineer living systems using principles and methods adapted from various disciplines, including engineering, computer science, and materials science. While the hypothesises serve epistemic purposes, their usage also raises some controversies, particularly in the context of synthetic biology. The conflation of ontology and epistemology, where hypothesises are mistaken for literal descriptions of reality, can lead to ethical concerns. For example, the machine hypothesis may suggest that organisms are merely complicated machines to be manipulated, potentially diminishing their intrinsic value and ethical status. This article examines the origin and clarification of these two hypothesises, their applications in synthetic biology, and addresses the potential confusions and ethical implications arising from their usage. It advocates for a cautious approach to the usage of the epistemological hypothesis, considering both its epistemic impact and ethical consequence. As synthetic biology continues to advance, it is crucial to maintain a critical and nuanced understanding of hypothesises employed, recognizing their heuristic value while also acknowledging their limitations and potential pitfalls. The discussion of hypothesises for organism origins in the context of synthetic biology highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and dialogue between scientists, philosophers, and ethicists. By examining the philosophical and ethical issues of hypothesises, we can better navigate the complex and rapidly evolving landscape of synthetic biology, ensuring that our scientific endeavors are guided by a deep appreciation for the intricate and multifaceted nature of lives.

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对有机体本质的追问,一直是生物学和哲学久盛不衰的话题。在生物学研究中,经常使用隐喻来认识和理解生命现象。回顾生物学的发展历史,有机体的隐喻可以分为两类:①机器隐喻,将有机体的部件与组织方式类比为机器的运作;②自主系统隐喻,将有机体类比为具有目的性和独特属性的复杂系统。两种隐喻在生物学各个领域发挥认知作用,例如理论假说、启发式工具、科学传播的作用。在隐喻发挥认知作用的同时,也有隐喻使用的一些争议,这个问题在合成生物学的语境下,显得尤为重要。合成生物学旨在通过整合生命科学、化学、物理学、材料科学、计算机科学,利用工程学方法重新设计、从头设计生物系统。合成生物学的发展挑战了自然物/人工物的二分,也为重新理解有机体的本质和方式带来了机遇,从生物元件到合成生命系统,两种隐喻在合成生物学的发展中都有所体现。本文通过对两种隐喻概念的溯源和澄清以及两种隐喻在合成生物学中的应用,分析有机体隐喻使用中的本体隐喻/认识论隐喻的混淆问题,并说明在合成生物学的语境下,隐喻混淆带来的认知作用和伦理上的争议,例如过度依赖本体隐喻带来认知上的误导作用、隐喻混淆对合成有机体内在价值、道德地位的不当判断等。基于这些讨论,本文将辩护一种认识论隐喻的立场,不论从隐喻的认知作用还是伦理后果,都应谨慎使用隐喻。

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吴国盛(1964—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为科学技术史、技术哲学。 E-mail:
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李冀渊(1996—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为生物学哲学、一般科学哲学、生命伦理学。 E-mail:

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李冀渊(1996—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为生物学哲学、一般科学哲学、生命伦理学。 E-mail:

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合成生物学视域下有机体的两种隐喻
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李冀渊 1 , 吴国盛 2
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2025,6(1): 190-202
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2025, 6(1): 190-202
合成生物学视域下有机体的两种隐喻
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李冀渊1, 吴国盛2
作者信息
  • 1 华中科技大学哲学学院,湖北 武汉 430074
  • 2 清华大学科学史系,北京 100084
  • 李冀渊(1996—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为生物学哲学、一般科学哲学、生命伦理学。 E-mail:

通讯作者:

吴国盛(1964—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为科学技术史、技术哲学。 E-mail:
Two hypothesises for the origins of organisms from the synthetic biology perspective
Jiyuan LI1, Guosheng WU2
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Philosophy,Huazhong University of Science and Technology,Wuhan 430074,Hubei,China
  • 2 Department of the History of Science,Tsinghua University,Beijing 100084,China
出版时间: 2025-01-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-035
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对有机体本质的追问,一直是生物学和哲学久盛不衰的话题。在生物学研究中,经常使用隐喻来认识和理解生命现象。回顾生物学的发展历史,有机体的隐喻可以分为两类:①机器隐喻,将有机体的部件与组织方式类比为机器的运作;②自主系统隐喻,将有机体类比为具有目的性和独特属性的复杂系统。两种隐喻在生物学各个领域发挥认知作用,例如理论假说、启发式工具、科学传播的作用。在隐喻发挥认知作用的同时,也有隐喻使用的一些争议,这个问题在合成生物学的语境下,显得尤为重要。合成生物学旨在通过整合生命科学、化学、物理学、材料科学、计算机科学,利用工程学方法重新设计、从头设计生物系统。合成生物学的发展挑战了自然物/人工物的二分,也为重新理解有机体的本质和方式带来了机遇,从生物元件到合成生命系统,两种隐喻在合成生物学的发展中都有所体现。本文通过对两种隐喻概念的溯源和澄清以及两种隐喻在合成生物学中的应用,分析有机体隐喻使用中的本体隐喻/认识论隐喻的混淆问题,并说明在合成生物学的语境下,隐喻混淆带来的认知作用和伦理上的争议,例如过度依赖本体隐喻带来认知上的误导作用、隐喻混淆对合成有机体内在价值、道德地位的不当判断等。基于这些讨论,本文将辩护一种认识论隐喻的立场,不论从隐喻的认知作用还是伦理后果,都应谨慎使用隐喻。

合成生物学  /  有机体  /  隐喻  /  自主系统  /  机器

The inquiry into the essence of organisms has long been a thriving topic in biology and philosophy. Hypothesises are commonly employed in biological research to understand lives. These hypothesises can be grouped into two categories: ① the machine hypothesis, likening the components and organizational structure of organisms to the operation of machines, and ② the autopoietic hypothesis, likening organisms to complex systems with purposeful and unique attributes. Both play an epistemic role in various fields of biology, serving as theoretical hypotheses, heuristic tools, and means of scientific communication. The machine hypothesis, for instance, has been influential in areas such as molecular biology and systems biology, where organisms are viewed as intricate machines made up of interacting components. The autopoietic hypothesis, on the other hand, has been more prominent in theoretical biology and philosophy of biology, highlighting the self-organizing and self-producing nature of living systems. The development of synthetic biology, which aims to redesigning and constructing biological systems from scratch, has challenged the traditional dichotomy between natural and artificial entities. Both the machine and autopoietic hypothesises are reflected in the advancement of synthetic biology, as researchers attempt to engineer living systems using principles and methods adapted from various disciplines, including engineering, computer science, and materials science. While the hypothesises serve epistemic purposes, their usage also raises some controversies, particularly in the context of synthetic biology. The conflation of ontology and epistemology, where hypothesises are mistaken for literal descriptions of reality, can lead to ethical concerns. For example, the machine hypothesis may suggest that organisms are merely complicated machines to be manipulated, potentially diminishing their intrinsic value and ethical status. This article examines the origin and clarification of these two hypothesises, their applications in synthetic biology, and addresses the potential confusions and ethical implications arising from their usage. It advocates for a cautious approach to the usage of the epistemological hypothesis, considering both its epistemic impact and ethical consequence. As synthetic biology continues to advance, it is crucial to maintain a critical and nuanced understanding of hypothesises employed, recognizing their heuristic value while also acknowledging their limitations and potential pitfalls. The discussion of hypothesises for organism origins in the context of synthetic biology highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and dialogue between scientists, philosophers, and ethicists. By examining the philosophical and ethical issues of hypothesises, we can better navigate the complex and rapidly evolving landscape of synthetic biology, ensuring that our scientific endeavors are guided by a deep appreciation for the intricate and multifaceted nature of lives.

synthetic biology  /  organisms  /  hypothesis  /  autopoietic systems  /  machine
李冀渊, 吴国盛. 合成生物学视域下有机体的两种隐喻. 合成生物学, 2025 , 6 (1) : 190 -202 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-035
Jiyuan LI, Guosheng WU. Two hypothesises for the origins of organisms from the synthetic biology perspective[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2025 , 6 (1) : 190 -202 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-035
有机体概念在生物学和哲学领域中一直扮演重要的角色。对有机体本质的追问,一直是生物学和哲学久盛不衰的话题。有机体(organism)概念的历史可以从两个线索出发:一种是源于古希腊时期的有机体的定义,有机体一词源于古希腊的ὄργανον(órganon)和-ισμός(-ismós),意指成为一个具有生命形式的活着的系统,这种作为一个整体系统的有机体概念在德国17~19世纪的生物学、20世纪初的生机论、贝塔朗菲的机体论以及当代生物学扩展综合理论(extended evolutionary synthesis)中都有所体现1;另一种线索源于现代哲学时期在机械观图景下的有机体概念,这种立场强调有机体的物理构成性及其认识论的可分解性,这种机械观的有机体概念也一直影响着一些哲学立场和生物学理论,例如20世纪初洛布(Jacques Loeb)的“生命的工程化理想”2、勒杜克(Stephane Leduc)3提出的“合成生物学”构想、20世纪中期贝塔朗菲的系统论、维纳的控制论以及当代科学哲学中的新机制主义哲学(new mechanical philosophy)4。这两个线索也成为现代生物学理解有机体的两种路径5
在现代生物学的研究中,生物学家们使用大量的隐喻来描述和理解有机体的构造和运作方式,通过隐喻,可以把日常经验中概念(源域)的理解映射到未知现象(目标域)中。这些隐喻的使用不仅促进了对各种未知现象的理解,而且影响了科学话语体系和研究方向。例如,DNA编码的“信息”隐喻为破译遗传密码奠定了基础,而基因组作为“生命之书”的隐喻则是人类基因组计划启动的关键,阅读“生命之书”长期以来也成为生物学研究的目标6,还有诸如“分子马达”“细胞工厂”“蛋白质招募”等诸多隐喻7
根据有机体概念的两个线索,可以将有机体的隐喻分为两类:①机器隐喻(machine metaphor),通过把机器和其他技术的特征映射到有机体上,将有机体的部件与组织方式喻为机器的运作;②自主系统隐喻(autonomous system metaphor),将有机体喻为具有目的性的、有着独特属性的复杂系统8-9。这两种隐喻在实践中以不同的策略来发挥作用,其中机器隐喻强调有机体的可分解性,通过将有机体喻为机器,例如“分子马达”,可以对“马达”的运作机制进行分解与定位,就可以知道特定的机制是如何发生的10。自主系统隐喻则强调有机体的目的性和能动性,通过将有机体喻为自主系统,例如将细胞间的互动喻为一个高度有序的“社会系统”,可以从整体的角度理解有机体的运作方式。这两种隐喻既发挥了科学研究中的认知作用,同时带来了伦理的影响。这些认知作用和影响既有积极的推进科学发展的作用,同时也面临不当使用隐喻带来的认知作用争议和伦理上的后果。
首先是认知作用,布雷迪(Michael Bradie)11将隐喻在科学中的认知作用分为三类:作为理论假说,作为启发式工具,作为修辞工具。作为理论假说的隐喻是科学理解的主要手段,它们为目标域的概念化、表征和解释提供了基础;作为启发式工具的隐喻是科学发现的主要手段,这种隐喻可以将目标域的特征抽象化或理想化,促进科学的实证研究;作为修辞工具的隐喻是科学传播的主要手段,通过这种隐喻可以传播和教育大众关于目标域的知识。两种隐喻分别以还原的视角和整体的视角给出了理解有机体的不同方式,对于哪种隐喻有更好的认知作用和传播作用,近年来也有不同意见。例如皮柳奇(Massimo Pigliucci)等认为,使用机器隐喻既不能很好地理解有机体动态变化的过程,在科学传播中也会带来误导性的作用,会带来许多社会和伦理的后果;维尔特(Walter Veit)12认为在研究中使用自主系统隐喻中会使得实验结果受到拟人化词汇的影响,从而误导研究人员的理论选择。
其次是伦理影响,从早期遗传学、基因组学到后基因组学,从克隆研究到干细胞研究,隐喻不当使用带来的误导性理解会导致许多伦理上的争议。例如,将基因描述为“蓝图”或“指令”,过度强调基因的决定性作用,忽略了环境和表观遗传等因素对基因表达的影响。这种隐喻可能使人们过于简化和夸大基因的作用,引发优生学、基因决定论等伦理争论。隐喻的滥用也会影响对有机体、类有机体道德地位、内在价值的伦理考量,例如,将干细胞喻为“潜在的生命”或“再生的种子”,可能使人们对干细胞研究的实际应用和道德边界产生误解,从而阻碍科学进步或引发过度的伦理担忧。同样,将克隆技术描述为“复制人类”或“创造生命”则可能引发同一性和个体性等方面的争论13
如果从合成生物学的语境来看,这些问题会更加突出。合成生物学旨在通过整合生命科学、化学、物理学、材料科学、计算机科学,利用工程学方法重新设计/从头设计生物系统。合成生物学的发展不仅给有机体的本质带来了挑战,也给理解有机体的方式带来了新的视角。从有机体的本质来看,合成生物学产品的工程特性及其生命特性模糊了自然物与人工物的界限,贝克(Lynne Rudder Baker)14认为,合成生物学的研究范式与以往生命科学的研究范式有很大的不同,而这也带来了一种“本体论灾难”。根据贝克的说法,自然物和人工物存在的鸿沟,由于合成生物学的进步在逐渐消解。从理解有机体的方式来看,合成生物学强调“建物致知”,即使用“设计-构建-测试-学习”循环,不断探索有机体运作的方式,自下而上地构造生命系统,这种实践是从“阅读(reading)生命之书”到“书写(writing)生命之书”的转变,也是从“修补思维(tinkering thinking)”到“设计思维(design thinking)”的转变。从这两点来看,需要重新思考这两种隐喻的关系,以及如何更好地理解合成生命系统。此外,使用隐喻的同时,会产生一些伦理争议,例如某些人对合成生物学是“扮演上帝”的责难,或者通过诉诸自然的方式反对合成生物学的合理性15-16
在过往的讨论中,更多关注的是合成生物学中对有机体的隐喻使用带来的诸多后果,但并未进一步讨论隐喻使用的不同方式会带来什么样的后果。不论是有机体隐喻认知作用的讨论(例如有机体隐喻的结构17、不同类型有机体隐喻的适用程度18 ),还是隐喻带来的伦理后果(例如有机体隐喻带来的内在价值/道德地位的挑战19、不同类型隐喻带来的伦理意涵20 ),都需要回答应该在何种意义上使用隐喻的问题,即在使用有机体的各种隐喻时,是一种本体隐喻层面上的属性的投射,还是认识论隐喻层面上一种认知资源的迁移和整合?为了回答这个问题,本文通过对两种隐喻概念的溯源和澄清以及两种隐喻在合成生物学中的应用,分析有机体隐喻使用中的本体隐喻/认识论隐喻的混淆问题,说明在合成生物学的语境下,隐喻混淆带来的认知作用和伦理上的争议,例如过度依赖本体隐喻带来认知上的误导作用、隐喻混淆对合成有机体内在价值、道德地位的不当判断等。基于这些讨论,本文将辩护一种认识论隐喻的立场,不论从隐喻的认知作用还是伦理后果,都应谨慎使用隐喻。
有机体的机器隐喻源于笛卡尔(Rene Descartes)的自然哲学。笛卡尔的机器概念包含了笛卡尔形而上学的基于运动、力和几何形状定律作用的离散元素的规则相互作用物质(matter)的概念21。这种机械论的形而上学支撑并统一了笛卡尔的整个自然哲学体系,将有生命的和无生命的、自然的和人工的实体,都统摄在这种机械论的世界观中22。从这个视角看,就可以使用机器的特征来解释有机体的构成和运作。
笛卡尔认为“机器”是指所有能够以严格的顺序和确定性方式将机械力从一个部件传递到另一个部件的设备。对笛卡尔来说,当机器隐喻用于比较相同性质的事物时,它在本体论上是合理的,其中被比较的事物具有不同的大小、结构和复杂性。因此笛卡尔认为,根据我们对机器工作原理的理解来推断有机体的活动是完全合理的,因为他只是假设它们之间的差异是程度问题,而不是范畴的区别。在笛卡尔看来,虽然使用了机器隐喻的方式来定义有机体,但他的最终目标是证明有机体不仅和机器类似,而且可以在本体论上被视为一种机器。要理解有机体,我们只需要将其分解为其组成部分,然后确定这些部分的功能23。这个时期的机器隐喻更多关注有机体的机器特征。
对比笛卡尔时期的机器隐喻关注有机体的机器特征,在19世纪至20世纪,机器隐喻更多关注机器中体现的有机特性。从历史发展的脉络看,机器隐喻历经三个版本的发展24
第一个版本基于热力学理论,随着热力学理论的发展,系统论视角的机器隐喻也随之出现。这种形式的机器隐喻基于热力学第一定律和第二定律两个定律。首先基于热力学第一定律,有机体和机器一样,必须由恒定流量的燃料喂养,燃料必须燃烧,这样整体能量水平才能保持稳定。第二个隐喻是基于热力学第二定律,即所有系统趋向无序和熵增的趋势。而化学能的变化和有机体生理活动的相似性,也成为基于热力学系统的隐喻的基础25
第二个版本是基于控制论的机器隐喻。控制论关注的是处理环境信息并对其做出反应以实现其目标的系统。在维纳(Norbert Wiener)26《控制论》一书中,他提出了一种强调信息、代码、信息和反馈回路的有机体隐喻,诸如“机制”“机械”“程序”“设计”“控制”“反馈”“调节”“开关”“输入”“输出”“效率”,都有控制论机器隐喻的基础。这个隐喻由三部分组成。首先,机器的感觉器官就像有机体一样。它有温度计、光接收器和各种其他用于记录各种信号的工具。其次,机器和有机体一样具有运动功能。这些都是通过机器用来产生输出的设备实现的,例如发动机或加热元件。最后,在感觉器官和运动器官之间,机器有一个中央调节系统,该系统协调来自外部世界和内部器官的传入信息,然后指导系统产生适当的反应。基于控制论的机器隐喻强调机器中的机体特性,可以将机器系统中的信息反馈控制特性应用类比到有机体的活动中。
第三个版本是计算机的视角,在20世纪40年代,图灵发明了数字计算机。如果控制论告诉我们,研究生命包括研究信息的接收、传输、存储、转换和使用,那么计算为信息处理的实际工作提供了一个充实的理论。它通过吸引算法来做到这一点:以预定方式转换数据集的有限规则集。冯·诺依曼直接基于维纳对有机体的概念,提出了一种生物计算机的愿景,该机器能够通过遵循一组编码为基因的指令来自我繁殖。该基因被比作通用图灵机的信息磁带;它被设想为编码一组用于对有机体进行编程的指令27。这种基于计算机的机器隐喻,也成为现代生物学中的主要隐喻形式,例如“遗传程序”、基因的“编码”“剪切”“复制”等。
综上来看,机器隐喻有两种体现方式。一种是将有机体及其部件的运作方式类比为机器的运作,强调有机体的机器特性。例如阿尔伯茨(Bruce Alberts)28对“蛋白质机器”隐喻的说明:“为什么我们将构成细胞功能蛋白质的大型蛋白质组装体称为机器?正是因为,就像人类发明的用于有效处理宏观世界的机器一样,这些蛋白质组装体包含高度协调的运动部件。在每个蛋白质组装体中,分子间碰撞不仅限于一小部分可能性,而且反应C依赖于反应B,而反应B又依赖于反应A——就像在我们常见的机器中一样。”机器隐喻的另一种形式是将有机体的一些系统特性类比为机器,例如在探索细胞结构的时候,通常使用自组装(self-assembly)理论来解释细胞作为一个稳定系统的形成和维持活动,这些活动被理解为“构建块(building block)间的聚合”,可以通过细胞器的各种性质来理解整个细胞的运作29。但是两种类型的机器隐喻都有共通的认识论特性:即通过机器稳定的系统结构、还原式的组成关系、可预测的系统行为来解释有机体的组成和运作。
有机体的自主系统隐喻受到伯纳德(Claude Bernard)的内稳态学说、控制论和系统论的影响,衍生出不同形式的自组织理论,例如在20世纪中,马图拉纳(Humberto Maturana)和瓦雷拉(Francisco Varela)的自创生理论(autopoiesis theory)、甘蒂(Tibor Gánti)的化学子理论(chemonton theory)等30。早期的自主系统隐喻强调有机体与组成部分间的依赖关系,根据这种依赖关系,组件由系统生产和维持。
进入21世纪后莫雷诺(Alvaro Moreno)和莫西奥(Matteo Mossio)提出了有机体的“自主性理论(autonomy theory)”。自主性理论认为,有机体有别于其他自然系统的是有机体具有自主性(autonomy)。有机体可以产生和维持自己的生存条件。莫雷诺和莫西奥的理论受自创生理论的启发31。自创生理论认为,生物系统的特殊之处在于它们是自生成的(self-producing)。自生成需要两个特征的结合:拓扑边界和生物自主性。莫雷诺和莫西奥认为,如果一个有机体是生物自主的(biological autonomous),它必须至少具有两种不同的能力:①组织能力(organizational capacity),产生和维护有助于系统作为一个综合、可操作和拓扑不连续的整体发挥作用的部分;②互动,通过与环境的互动来促进其自身存在的条件。
莫雷诺和莫西奥认为,自创生理论错误地描述了组织能力,并在很大程度上忽视了互动的作用,自我生成理论并没有充分重视自我构建的重要性。有机体及其环境是一个耗散结构,“在远离热力学平衡条件下,存在特定能量和物质流的宏观有序配置(一种‘结构’)”。正是由于平衡的整体流动,为了维持自身,有机体必须对自身和环境进行工作,并且为了做到这一点,必须从环境中引导自由能量。另外,有机体所处的环境在构建有机体维持自身的过程中发挥着重要作用。
自主性也意味着自主具有能动性,能动性描述了自主系统对环境扰动的反应,然后对环境采取行动,促进系统的自我维持。例如细菌是一种耗散结构,为了维持自身,它必须进行工作——执行将物质和能量引导到自身的受限操作。要成为一个自我维持、自主的系统,它必须在莫雷诺和莫西奥的意义上是封闭的——必须有一组约束作用来引导能量和物质,其成员在一定程度上是其他约束作用的产物,并对系统中的其他约束产生影响。这种细菌通过调节跨膜流动和在环境中移动等方式表现出作用。它是适应性的,因为特定的限制(合成的催化特定反应的酶)可以在系统内改变(例如,根据需要表达不同的基因)32
贝特科尔(William Bechtel)33对自主性理论进行了总结:
①生物自主性是一种以系统约束作为标准的封闭系统,这是有机体的本质特征。封闭性构成了生物领域有序的基本原则;尽管生物组织经历了持续的变化,但它仍然保持着封闭性。
②生物组织构成了一种新的因果机制,因为组成部分之间的关联性产生了本体论的新颖性,从而产生了独特的功能和因果力。
③基于约束的系统封闭性是目的论、规范性和功能性的自然主义基础。从自主的角度来看,“组织”“封闭”和“功能”是内在相关的概念,所有这些都指的是相同的涌现机制。
④有机体作为耗散系统,只要与周围环境保持特定的相互作用,并保持足够的能量和物质流动,就可以存在。从积极的方面来说:自主性本质上意味着能动性,它是作为一个特定的功能子集来实现的,其影响作用于整个系统的边界条件。
⑤自主具有历史意义。这不仅仅是自发的自我组织,而是生命周期发育的结果,从自我维持的化学系统开始,逐渐增加其复杂性。生物复杂性的进化不能仅仅被理解为自然选择的结果,而是组织和选择之间基本相互作用的结果。
自主系统隐喻为生物学的研究带来许多不同于机器隐喻的视角,例如在蛋白质研究中,经常会将蛋白质喻为具有目的性的行动者(agent),即一个自主系统,也会把蛋白质的相互作用喻为蛋白质的招募(recruitment)或者蛋白质的合作(cooperation)。蛋白质的招募指的是蛋白质在特定位点形成化学键,创造出执行某些特定功能的多蛋白质复合物;蛋白质的合作指的是分子与蛋白质上一个位点的结合增加了相似分子与同一蛋白质上另一个位点的亲和力或结合机会。通过这种隐喻,将可以以更易于理解的、整体的视角来理解有机体的组成与运作。对比机器隐喻,自主系统隐喻强调的认识论特性是:通过自主系统中的目的性行为(goal-directed behavior)、动态变化中的鲁棒性来类比有机体中的动态变化34
合成生物学旨在使用工程学原理,会聚各个学科,设计和制造自然界中尚不存在的生物组件和系统以及重新设计和制造现有生物系统。这种工程学实践在福克斯·凯勒(Evelyn Fox Keller)看来是一种“认识即制造”(knowing as making)的过程,这种认识论实践体现了生命科学中普遍存在的认识(理解、表征)和创造(构建、干预)之间的复杂关系35。她认为,认识和理解生命的方式就是通过建模、隐喻、计算机模拟等形式,理解生命可能存在的形式36。合成生物学的工程化特性及其生物学的学科基础使得理解有机体方式有多元化的体现,其既有对有机体还原式的理解,“自下而上”地改造和构建现有的有机体,也有对有机体整体式的探索,从有机体的分层结构(hierarchy structure)中研究生命的涌现现象,设计和创造新的有机体形式。从隐喻的使用来看,机器隐喻和自主系统隐喻在合成生物学的实践中都有体现。
基于合成生物学的工程化特性,合成生物学使用了许多机器隐喻来描述合成生物学中的工程化操作。一些生物元件例如拨动开关、振荡器、计数器、定时器、细胞通信模块等37,通过工程学中的概念,以隐喻的方式来理解和利用有机体运作的逻辑。通过元件的模块化构建,为合成生物学的发展带来巨大的发展潜力,例如利用大肠杆菌作为底盘细胞构建青蒿素的合成路径38、在酵母菌将特定产物的生产路径类比为模块,进行产物回路的构建,实现阿片类药物的全合成39
此外,在合成生物学中,CRISPR-Cas9也扮演着重要的作用。CRISPER-Cas9是DNA“语言”“读写”隐喻的延伸,成为“修改”“书写”有机体的分子“剪刀”,可以用来“破坏”、“沉默”或“敲除”选定的基因,以研究它们对细胞和整个有机体的发育和功能的影响,并通过用自己设计的核苷酸序列补充DNA切割核酸酶,研究人员可以依靠细胞的天然DNA修复系统将基因“纠正”或“添加”到目标基因组中。CRISPR-Cas9为合成生物学的发展带来更多的可能性。2020年,利用CRISPR-Cas9技术编辑自体CD34+细胞首次在临床上成功治疗镰状细胞贫血和β-地中海贫血40、使用了AAV5病毒作为载体,搭载Cas9,通过视网膜注射给药,消除先天性黑矇的突变41
通过这些技术和模块化的隐喻,可以进一步重编程(reprograming)和重布线(rewiring)细胞回路。
干细胞研究是细胞重编程隐喻使用的主要领域。重编程涉及将成熟、分化的体细胞恢复到胚胎状态,从而产生所谓的诱导多能干细胞(iPSC)。从隐喻的角度来说,就是“擦除”和“重建”细胞发育过程中形成的表观遗传标记(组蛋白的化学“标记”和染色质“重塑”)。CRISPR-Cas9被用来创建“可编程人工转录因子”,以打开或关闭人类细胞中的内源基因。利用“编程”隐喻提供了一种类比机制,通过这种机制,可以更准确地理解功能的实现42
细胞的“重布线”指改变成熟体细胞响应外部信号的生理行为。其中所说的“线路”是指基因回路和信号通路,合成生物学希望应用基因组编辑和蛋白质工程(重新排列天然氨基酸序列并设计新序列)的原理来重新设计细胞功能和行为。例如在生物医学中利用T细胞的“重布线”,在癌细胞存在时启动免疫反应,癌细胞会分泌可抑制免疫细胞活性的特定表面蛋白。这些CAR-T细胞有望启动非常特异性的免疫反应,选择性地杀死癌细胞,而合成生物学家也尝试增加共刺激结构域,进一步使表达自杀基因以实现体内可控43
基于合成生物学的生物学科基础,有机体的自主系统隐喻主要体现在对蛋白质、细胞间以及生命系统中的动态变化。即使用具有目的的、社会性的术语来描述这些相互作用理解有机体的运作。例如细胞生物学家用“信号”、“受体”等术语来蛋白质对细胞功能的调节。这使得有机体能够作为一个连贯的集体整体来调节其活动并对其环境做出反应。例如蛋白质和细胞会有类似“招募”“合作”“自杀”等社会行为。分子与蛋白质上的一个位点的结合增加了类似分子与同一蛋白质上另一个位置的位点结合的亲和力或机会。这种蛋白质向更具亲和力位点结合的过程被称为“招募”;在细胞中如果一种正常组织细胞与其他完全隔离,它往往会恢复到更原始、分化程度较低的状态。如果培养基不能为其提供通常从其他组织细胞(生长因子、生存因子)接收到的某些信号,细胞就会枯萎并死亡,这种行为称为“自杀”。使用自主系统隐喻,能更好地把握有机体中的复杂作用。而合成生物学也利用这种隐喻,完成了相关研究,例如利用向导RNA招募内源脱氨酶实现目标RNA编辑的LEAPER技术44、利用纳米体招募靶标基因上的内源性染色质调控因子(chromatin regulator,CR),用于哺乳动物细胞的转录和表观遗传记忆调控的技术45
从以上的案例可以看出,不论是机器隐喻还是自主系统隐喻,如果作为认知工具,可以将人工制品或社会系统引入对目标域的理解。但是出于合成生物学的特性以及合成生物学产品特殊的本体论地位,这两种隐喻能否发挥认知作用,也引发一些争议。为了回应这些争议,需要重新考虑在合成生物学的语境下,这些隐喻突出的特征和问题以及使用这两种隐喻的方式。
皮柳奇等46认为,合成生物学的研究大多都受到了机器隐喻的影响,强调有机体的可分解性和模块化,通过对生命系统进行功能分析,并将其简化为具有特定功能和输入/输出特性的单个模块。这种机器隐喻的优点是能够理解有机体的机制、组成及其组织方式。但是仅仅使用机器的概念来理解有机体并不能很好地完成隐喻的作用。第一是理论假说的作用,作为理论假说的隐喻通常诉诸现有的科学理论及经验证据,但是在合成生物学的研究中,经常使用计算机模拟对合成生物学产品进行预测,而这种模拟会偏离对实际生物系统的理解,而且缺少经验上可借鉴的证据。第二是启发式的作用,尼科尔森(Daniel Nicholson)47认为,机器隐喻具有启发式的价值,可以通过机器的概念来理解与研究有机体的诸多特性,但是面临诸多限制。例如他引用了霍尔丹(J. B. S. Haldane)的观点,不同尺度上的现象不是简单的还原关系,而我们也不能完全使用宏观的机器概念来理解微观的细胞与微生物,因此机器隐喻在合成生物学中仅仅具有一种弱的启发式作用。第三是修辞的作用,具有修辞功能的隐喻用于向非专业人士传达技术和科学知识。一些生物学家认为,机器隐喻具有很大的修辞价值,因为可以很好地向非专业人士说明有机体特征48。但是这种修辞作用也面临一些问题,生物学家有机体的机器隐喻会无意中误导非专业人士,让他们认为有机体真的是机器。从这个意义上说,修辞隐喻是一把双刃剑,它们既可以增强科学理解,也可以阻碍科学理解49
沙克(Marianne Schark)认为,合成生物学的许多研究都不能用机器的概念来理解与形容,而是具有机器和有机体的混合特性。例如合成原细胞研究旨在合成适用于能够自我维持、自我繁殖和潜在进化的人工细胞系统的形式构建化学类生命集合,而现有的机器概念都不能很好地描述合成有机体的各种特性50。从这个角度看,合成有机体的系统特性可以使用自主系统隐喻来描述与理解,将合成有机体视为具有自主性的、有序的系统。但是自主系统隐喻同样很难发挥相应的作用。首先是理论假说的作用,从现有的科学理论来看,自主系统隐喻能够很好地符合有关生命、生命起源的相关研究。但是合成有机体在一些特性上并不完全等同于的有机体。合成生物学的主要目标是创造稳定的有机体,实现特定的功能。但是根据自主系统隐喻,一个有机体具有某种不受外在目的影响的内在规范,这与自主系统的核心承诺冲突。其次,在合成生物学的研究中,一方面强调合成有机体的机器特性,确保对所创建产品的控制和可预测性,同时也强调生命实体的可塑性,这种可塑性也意味着一种不可预测性,这也与合成有机体设计的初衷相悖。从这个角度来看,现有的自主系统隐喻也不能很好地作为理论假设,而这种机器特性与生命可塑性的张力也导致我们很难仅仅通过自主系统隐喻来获得某种启发式的知识。
从以上的争议来看,不论是机器隐喻还是自主系统隐喻,在合成生物学的实践中,都会在达成隐喻的认知作用时面临一些隐喻的不准确性问题。出现这些问题的原因在于,这些批评混淆了隐喻的两种类型:本体隐喻和认识论隐喻51-52。本体隐喻指的是将源域中的属性映射(mapping)到目标域之中,认为隐喻具有真理属性。一个好的隐喻应该能表征好的属性,使得目标域中的属性“足够真”(true enough)53,或者能够让认知主体掌握、拥有或者接受表征的内容或者源于提供的“解释性联系”(explanatory nexus)54。这种隐喻达成认知功能的方式是提供了关于现实世界的部分信息,通过这些信息,可以增加认知主体对世界的理解,例如将细胞喻为机器,就意味着做出了蛋白质具有和机器部分相同的属性。这些具有部分真理(partial truth)的断言会被逐渐理解为真命题,这些隐喻的属性也成为了判断目标域的真值条件。例如合成生命“是”一个机器或者“是”一个具有目的性、意向性的自主系统,这种推理在大多情况不是有效的,而且会引起皮柳奇指出的误导性作用。
认识论的隐喻则强调隐喻的工具性作用,即隐喻提供了一个理解目标域的视角,不要求隐喻提供真值条件,而是使用这个视角使认知主体利用现有的知识和推理能力,将认知主体拥有的认知资源迁移至目标域55。根据坎普(Elizabeth Camp)56的观点,隐喻提供了一个认识论的框架。这个认识论框架提供的是由框架(如隐喻)产生的认知结构和能力,以及利用它们的想象活动和推理。如果从这个角度看,当我们使用“分子马达”“蛋白质招募”“DNA剪刀”这类隐喻时,并非是承认了大分子、蛋白质、CRISPER-Cas9有着和马达、社会实体、剪刀一样的属性,而是通过这些来自经验的认识论资源,结合已有的生物学背景知识,构造大分子、蛋白质、CRISPER-Cas9的形态和运作方式,进行进一步的探索。这不是在使用隐喻时进行具有表征内容的断言。从这个角度看,不论是机器隐喻还是自主系统隐喻,并非是具有误导作用的推理方式,也不需要本体论的严格等同,而是作为一个认识论的工具,启发和指引新的研究思路。
有机体隐喻的使用除了认知作用上的争议,同时也带来诸多伦理上的争议。一些伦理学家认为,合成生物学中的隐喻的使用会挑战传统的生命观,也会带来生命的内在价值和道德地位的削弱。
第一是道德地位的削弱。一些伦理学家认为,有机体具有道德地位是因为其具有“内在目的性”,道德地位的削弱是因为隐喻的过度使用导致生命的“机械化”,弱化了有机体的内在目的性。例如文森特(Bernadette Bensaude Vincent)57认为设计合成有机体是还原论的有机体概念的体现。例如,生物砖(BioBricks)这样的模块化元件是根据机器的观念构建的,这种被构建的实体只有服务于人类的外在目的,而没有自然有机体的内在目的。机器隐喻的过度使用,会弱化自然有机体的道德地位。这种弱化的道德地位,容易使人们忽略合成有机体对环境和生态的潜在影响58
根据这样的思路,自主系统隐喻也会遇到类似的责难。因为自主系统隐喻同样将一种内在目的性附加在目标实体上,例如在“蛋白质招募”的隐喻中,会将蛋白质视为一个具有意向性的实体,它为了完成位点的结合“主动”行动。这种内在目的的赋予同样会导致道德地位的削弱59
第二是内在价值,自然生物具有合成有机体所缺乏的价值。这种观点认为,自然存在的实体具有“独立的价值”,这种价值基于自然实体独立于人类和人类目的这一事实。由于人工性等同于依赖人类的设计和人类的目标。如果一个有机体失去内在的价值,是因为它增加了人工性。如齐考克·李(Keekok Lee)60对人工制品的定义是:如果一个实体在某种程度上“体现了人类的目的”,那么它是人工制品。在合成生物学中的体现是,生命形式是人类干预的产物,我们可以根据人工参与的程度来为各种生命形式进行排序,如传统自然选择产生的有机体→科学育种和杂交产生的有机体→通过基因组水平干预产生的有机体。如果从机器隐喻的视角来看,像合成有机体这样高度人工化的实体,即便具有自然有机体的特性,也只有最低水平的内在价值。如果从自主系统隐喻的角度来看,对合成有机体内在目的性的赋予会导致其有超出自身定位的内在价值,导致错误的伦理考量和判断。
从以上两个伦理方面的争议来看,因为这两种原因而反对隐喻的使用是站不住脚的。从道德地位来看,基于内在目的性的道德地位的判断,会不当扩大道德考量的范围。如果从目的性的角度来考虑道德地位,那么微生物甚至很多生物的道德地位都处于危险之中。此外,道德地位的判断仍有很多判断标准,例如感受能力、认知能力、发育潜力等61。从其他的标准来看,合成有机体仍会拥有道德地位,此外,合成有机体仍有不同的发展层次,对这些实体道德地位的讨论不能简单地归于同一组织层次中。
从内在价值来看,首先,很难看出创造缺乏内在价值的东西本身是一个问题。齐考克·李提到新生物技术中的“自然替代”(nature replacing)概念,在合成生物学中,并没有任何东西被取代,现今的研究仅仅是从已有的自然素材进行再创造。其次,合成有机体具有内在的价值,是建立在独立于合成有机体之外的因素上的。例如它们体现了人类的才智和创造力。此外,合成有机体(和生态系统)保留了除了独立性之外的所有属性,这些属性有助于奠定其自然对应物的内在价值,如美丽或宏伟。例如,作者认为,一个宏伟人造生态系统具有内在价值,是因为与自然生态系统相同。因此,他们忽略了:①即使是机械也具有内在价值;②合成有机体(或生态系统)保留了机械所不具备的、以价值为基础的有机体(或生态系统)的其他属性。
从以上两种伦理争议来看,不论是机器隐喻还是自主系统隐喻,都存在着隐喻的过度使用问题,隐喻的过度使用导致了道德地位、内在价值的争议。这种过度使用的原因在于上一节提到的,混淆了隐喻的本体论和认识论维度。如果将两种隐喻作为本体隐喻,自然会将内在目的性、人工性等属性投射到合成生物学产品上,我们也会根据这些属性来做价值判断。但是这种本体隐喻并不能澄清合成有机体的特点以及是否需要对它进行伦理考量。
从以上的分析来看,如果从单一的隐喻来理解有机体,不免会面临许多误导性的理解,不仅对科学研究,而且对科学传播、伦理产生深远的影响。但是,这并非是我们反对使用隐喻的理由,不论是早期细胞理论的发现、DNA双螺旋结构的发现以及生物元件的模块化构建,在早期的探索过程中都需要隐喻作为“扶手椅”,从日常经验或者过往的科学经验中去推理未知的现象和机制。因此,需要重新审视隐喻在合成生物学发展中的作用。隐喻更多是一种具有认识论价值的工具,在特定的认识阶段有着不同的作用,例如在机器隐喻中,机制的发现源于我们对机器的熟悉和理解,但该术语的含义已经发生了显著变化。随着时间的推移,“机器”一词也已经发生变化,从最初指机器的设置方式,到机制概念中不同部件的因果联系。鲁斯(Michael Ruse)62认为,当今天的科学家谈到“遗传机制”或“选择机制”时,并没有暗示也没有必要引用任何类似机器的物理部件的排列,相反,它们是由物理部件组成的。其中所暗示的只是某个系统的初始状态和最终状态之间的常规因果关系。这时隐喻就变成了一个“死隐喻”(dead metaphor)。因此,在实际隐喻的使用中,应该结合两种隐喻,共同理解有机体的运作方式,同时也要注意隐喻是否还在发挥作用,否则会产生许多误导性的理解,从而会引发伦理和社会的后果。在伦理的争议中,合成生物学的不同隐喻会带来不同的价值观和价值判断,不论是内在价值还是道德地位,以机器隐喻的视角来看很难反驳合成生物学的合理性,而对自主系统隐喻而言,需要考虑的是拟人化的使用对价值判断的影响,比如使用“招募”“合作”等词一般会做出正面的反馈,但是在一些研究中使用诸如“作弊”“逃逸”等词即便描述的是一些有益的突变现象,仍会有负面的态度63。因此,在未来的研究中,应善用隐喻,但也应该对隐喻的使用保持警惕64
  • 国家重点研发计划(2018YFA0902400)
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-035
  • 接收时间:2024-04-02
  • 首发时间:2025-07-06
  • 出版时间:2025-01-31
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  • 收稿日期:2024-04-02
  • 修回日期:2024-06-21
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国家重点研发计划(2018YFA0902400)
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    1 华中科技大学哲学学院,湖北 武汉 430074
    2 清华大学科学史系,北京 100084

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吴国盛(1964—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为科学技术史、技术哲学。 E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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