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1,3-Propanediol (PDO) is an important chemical extensively used in material science and the cosmetics industry. The biomanufacturing of PDO offers numerous advantages, such as the renewability of raw materials and environmental friendliness. Among various microorganisms, Clostridium pasteurianum emerges as an ideal choice for industrial PDO production due to its safety, non-pathogenic nature, rapid glycerol metabolism, fast growth rate, independence from expensive culture medium components, and its inherent efficient metabolic pathway for PDO production. This review begins by introducing the current state and challenges of PDO biomanufacturing, followed by an in-depth discussion of the methods for producing PDO using C. pasteurianum. Special attention is paid to the glycerol metabolism mechanism, strategies for glycerol fermentation, and the design of the fermentation process. Notably, our research group has identified C. pasteurianum mutant strains and developed robust processes that have largely addressed the organism’s traditional sensitivities to environmental conditions, especially regarding iron concentration and impurities of raw glycerol. In an electricity-aided fermentation process, PDO concentration as high as 120.6 g/L was achieved, with a productivity of 4.8 g/(L·h) and a yield reaching the theoretical maximum. We further discuss the natural limitations of genetic engineering in C. pasteurianum, exploring strategies based on rational genomic modification and directed evolution. Finally, the development of efficient downstream processing technologies is emphasized as crucial for realizing the cost-effective microbial production of PDO from renewable resources, since the industrial application of PDO requires a very high purity (>99.9%). The discussion on PDO downstream processing mainly focuses on evaporation, distillation, and extraction-based purification techniques. Through a comprehensive coverage of metabolic engineering, strain evolution, fermentation optimization, and product separation technologies, this review discusses about the characteristics and advantages of PDO production from C. pasteurianum, highlighting key considerations for advancing this microorganism as a new industrial chassis.

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1,3-丙二醇(PDO)是一种重要的化工原料,广泛应用于材料和化妆品等领域。生物制造PDO具有原料可再生性和环境友好性等众多优点和广阔的发展前景。由于巴氏梭菌(Clostridium pasteurianum)菌株安全、非致病、代谢甘油速率快、生长快、不依赖昂贵的培养基组分、天然具备高效生产PDO代谢途径等条件,利用和改造巴氏梭菌作为工业底盘生产PDO呈现出得天独厚的优势。本文首先回顾了PDO的生物制造现状和挑战,随后深入探讨了采用巴氏梭菌生产PDO的方法,特别关注于巴氏梭菌的甘油代谢机制、甘油发酵的策略和发酵过程的工艺设计。值得一提的是,本文作者研究团队筛选到的巴氏梭菌突变体和随之开发的鲁棒性发酵工艺在一定程度上突破了传统巴氏梭菌对环境的要求,特别是对铁离子浓度的敏感性;在电辅助甘油发酵过程中,PDO产量达到120.7 g/L,生产强度达到4.8 g/(L·h),收率达到理论值;并进一步阐述了巴氏梭菌基因工程改造方面的天然屏障,围绕着理性基因组改造和定向进化等几个方面进行了详细讨论;由于PDO产品纯度(>99.9%)通常有较高要求,因此开发高效的下游处理技术对于实现利用可再生资源发酵生产PDO的工业化应用至关重要,本文在分离工艺方面主要讨论了基于蒸发和蒸馏的PDO纯化技术以及基于萃取的PDO纯化技术。通过对代谢工程、菌种进化、发酵过程优化以及产品分离等多个维度全方位分析,全面地解析了巴氏梭菌生产PDO的特点和优势,以及巴氏梭菌作为新型工业底盘微生物在未来发展过程中值得关注的问题。

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刘建明(1985—),男,研究员。研究方向为合成生物学,低碳生物制造,代谢工程等。 E-mail:

曾安平(1963—),男,讲席教授,博士生导师,德国工程院院士,西湖大学合成生物学与生物智造中心创始主任。研究方向为生物化工、合成生物学、新型催化软物质和功能材料等。 E-mail:

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刘建明(1985—),男,研究员。研究方向为合成生物学,低碳生物制造,代谢工程等。 E-mail:

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曾安平(1963—),男,讲席教授,博士生导师,德国工程院院士,西湖大学合成生物学与生物智造中心创始主任。研究方向为生物化工、合成生物学、新型催化软物质和功能材料等。 E-mail:

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曾安平(1963—),男,讲席教授,博士生导师,德国工程院院士,西湖大学合成生物学与生物智造中心创始主任。研究方向为生物化工、合成生物学、新型催化软物质和功能材料等。 E-mail:

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C6—glucose; C3—glycerin; C2—ethanol; C1—CO2 and methanol; GPD—glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GPP—glycerol-3-phosphate phosphohydrolase; GDHt—glycerol dehydratase; YqhD—nonspecific alcohol dehydrogenase; DhaT—1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase; GDH—glutamate dehydrogenase; KDC—keto acid decarboxylase; ACC—acetyl-CoA carboxylase; MCR—malonyl-CoA reductase; ydfG—3-hydroxy acid dehydrogenase; Mdh2—methanol dehydrogenase; KHB—2-keto-4-hydroxybutyrate aldolase; PDC—pyruvate decarboxylase; ADH—alcohol dehydrogenase; DERA—deoxyribose-5-phosphate aldolase

, figureFileSmall=U7M9gsaYQhQ7YPYKx15PRg==, figureFileBig=QF7ByswFJs60hpaHsx5Ryg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877029250966274, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=CN, label=图1, caption=利用不同原料生物合成PDO的代谢途径

C6—葡萄糖;C3—甘油;C2—乙醇;C1—二氧化碳和甲醇;GPD—甘油-3-磷酸脱氢酶;GPP—甘油-3-磷酸水解酶;GDHt—甘油脱水酶;YqhD—非特异性醇脱氢酶;DhaT—1,3-丙二醇脱氢酶;GDH—谷氨酸脱氢酶;KDC—酮酸脱羧酶;ACC—乙酰辅酶A羧化酶;MCR—丙二酸辅酶A还原酶;ydfG—3-羟基酸脱氢酶;Mdh2—甲醇脱氢酶;KHB—2-酮-4-羟基丁酸醛缩酶;PDC—丙酮酸脱羧酶;ADH—乙醇脱氢酶;DERA—脱氧核糖-5-磷酸醛缩酶

, figureFileSmall=U7M9gsaYQhQ7YPYKx15PRg==, figureFileBig=QF7ByswFJs60hpaHsx5Ryg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877029301297923, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Pathways of glucose and glycerol metabolism in C. pasteurianum [39]

Enzymes involved in the metabolic pathways are numbered as follow: 1—Propanediol dehydratase; 2—1,3-Propanediol dehydrogenase; 3—Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; 4—Dihydroxyacetone kinase; 5—Triosephosphate isomerase; 6—Hexokinase; 7—Phosphoglucose isomerase; 8—Phosphofructokinase; 9—Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; 10—Pyruvate kinase; 11—Lactate dehydrogenase; 12—Pyruvate formate-lyase; 13—Pyruvate-flavodoxin oxidoreductase; 14—NADH-dependent reduced ferredoxin: NADP+ oxidoreductase; 15—Ferredoxin hydrogenase; 16—Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase; 17—Alcohol dehydrogenase; 18—Phosphate acetyltransferase; 19—Acetate kinase; 20—Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase; 21—3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; 22—Crotonase; 23—2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase; 24—Ferredoxin dependent butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase/electron transferring flavoprotein complex (BCdH-ETF); 25—Phosphate butyryltransferase; 26—Butyrate kinase; 27—Aldehyde dehydrogenase; 28—Butanol dehydrogenase

, figureFileSmall=u8VCB/RQ1z8l6TtxBXAd8g==, figureFileBig=BOXCu7EmT+Jx5GdDg4ZlCQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877029347435268, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=CN, label=图2, caption=巴氏梭菌核心代谢途径:以葡萄糖和甘油为原料39

参与代谢途径的酶编号如下:1—丙二醇脱水酶;2—1,3-丙二醇脱氢酶;3—甘油-3-磷酸脱氢酶;4—二羟基丙酮激酶;5—三磷酸甘油醛异构酶;6—六碳激酶;7—磷酸葡萄糖异构酶;8—磷酸果糖激酶;9—甘油醛-3-磷酸脱氢酶;10—丙酮酸激酶;11—乳酸脱氢酶;12—丙酮酸甲酸裂解酶;13—丙酮酸-黄弗氏蛋白氧化还原酶;14—NADH依赖的还原铁硫蛋白:NADP+氧化还原酶;15—铁硫蛋白氢化酶;16—乙醛脱氢酶;17—醇脱氢酶;18—磷酸乙酰转移酶;19—乙酸激酶;20—乙酰辅酶A乙酰转移酶;21—3-羟基丁酰辅酶A脱氢酶;22—克罗托酶;23—2,4-二烯酰辅酶A还原酶;24—铁硫蛋白依赖的丁酰辅酶A脱氢酶/电子转移黄素蛋白复合物(BCdH-ETF);25—磷酸丁酰转移酶;26—丁酸激酶;27—醛脱氢酶;28—丁醇脱氢酶

, figureFileSmall=u8VCB/RQ1z8l6TtxBXAd8g==, figureFileBig=BOXCu7EmT+Jx5GdDg4ZlCQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877029401961221, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Energy, reducing equivalents and product balances in C. pasteurianum

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Substrate End-product Energy, reducing equivalents and product balances
glycerol PDO glycerol+NADH→PDO
lactate glycerol→lactate+NADH+ATP
acetate glycerol→acetate+CO2+2ATP+2NADH+FdH2
ethanol glycerol→ethanol+CO2+ATP+FdH2
butyrate 2glycerol→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+2NADH+2FdH2
*2glycerol→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+NADH+3FdH2
butanol 2glycerol→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+2FdH2
*2glycerol+NADH→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+3FdH2
glucose lactate glucose→2lactate+2ATP
acetate glucose→2acetate+2CO2+4ATP+2NADH+2FdH2
ethanol glucose+2NADH→2ethanol+2CO2+2ATP+2FdH2
butyrate glucose→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+2FdH2
*glucose+NADH→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+3FdH2
butanol glucose+2NADH→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+2FdH2
*glucose+3NADH→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+3FdH2
), ArticleFig(id=1164877029460681478, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

巴氏梭菌的能量、还原当量和产品平衡

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Substrate End-product Energy, reducing equivalents and product balances
glycerol PDO glycerol+NADH→PDO
lactate glycerol→lactate+NADH+ATP
acetate glycerol→acetate+CO2+2ATP+2NADH+FdH2
ethanol glycerol→ethanol+CO2+ATP+FdH2
butyrate 2glycerol→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+2NADH+2FdH2
*2glycerol→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+NADH+3FdH2
butanol 2glycerol→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+2FdH2
*2glycerol+NADH→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+3FdH2
glucose lactate glucose→2lactate+2ATP
acetate glucose→2acetate+2CO2+4ATP+2NADH+2FdH2
ethanol glucose+2NADH→2ethanol+2CO2+2ATP+2FdH2
butyrate glucose→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+2FdH2
*glucose+NADH→butyrate+2CO2+3ATP+3FdH2
butanol glucose+2NADH→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+2FdH2
*glucose+3NADH→butanol+2CO2+2ATP+3FdH2
), ArticleFig(id=1164877029511013127, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

PDO purification based on evaporation and distillation

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
分离步骤 作用与功能 存在的问题 分离物质
蒸馏 液态混合物中各组分沸点不同,去除残留甘油 残余甘油
离心和微滤 有效去除所有微生物细胞(生物量) 生物质
低分子截留 有效去除高含量的可溶性蛋白质,避免其在水分蒸发过程中严重起泡从而导致过程效率降低 可溶性蛋白
壳聚糖絮凝
活性炭吸附
纳滤 分离去除葡萄糖,避免葡萄糖在蒸发和蒸馏过程中发生沉淀 葡萄糖
离子交换吸附 有效去除发酵液中的有机酸盐和无机盐,因为盐在水分蒸发过程中部分结晶,结晶盐的沉积导致蒸发器底部形成黏稠的浆液,进而导致高能耗和目标产品的低产量 树脂的快速饱和,需要大量的NaOH和HCl溶液进行再生 有机酸盐和无机盐
电渗析 电渗析的能源和材料成本通常非常高,阻碍了其在廉价大宗化学品的商业生产中的实际应用
醇沉淀和稀释结晶 不足以有效去除在醇类中溶解度高的有机酸盐
蒸发 蒸发去除水分
), ArticleFig(id=1164877029561344776, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

基于蒸发和蒸馏的PDO纯化方法

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
分离步骤 作用与功能 存在的问题 分离物质
蒸馏 液态混合物中各组分沸点不同,去除残留甘油 残余甘油
离心和微滤 有效去除所有微生物细胞(生物量) 生物质
低分子截留 有效去除高含量的可溶性蛋白质,避免其在水分蒸发过程中严重起泡从而导致过程效率降低 可溶性蛋白
壳聚糖絮凝
活性炭吸附
纳滤 分离去除葡萄糖,避免葡萄糖在蒸发和蒸馏过程中发生沉淀 葡萄糖
离子交换吸附 有效去除发酵液中的有机酸盐和无机盐,因为盐在水分蒸发过程中部分结晶,结晶盐的沉积导致蒸发器底部形成黏稠的浆液,进而导致高能耗和目标产品的低产量 树脂的快速饱和,需要大量的NaOH和HCl溶液进行再生 有机酸盐和无机盐
电渗析 电渗析的能源和材料成本通常非常高,阻碍了其在廉价大宗化学品的商业生产中的实际应用
醇沉淀和稀释结晶 不足以有效去除在醇类中溶解度高的有机酸盐
蒸发 蒸发去除水分
), ArticleFig(id=1164877029611676425, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

PDO purification based on extraction

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
分离方法 作用与功能 存在的问题 提取率
液-液萃取 使用疏水有机溶剂乙酸乙酯 使用乙酸乙酯对生物合成的PDO进行溶剂萃取 从实际发酵液中回收PDO的最高分配系数仅达到0.14 12%
基于化学反应的反应萃取 将PDO转化为疏水性PDO衍生物,有机溶剂萃取后,通过逆反应以获得PDO 反应物和萃取剂都有毒,发酵液中与PDO具有相似化学结构的其他物质(如2,3-丁二醇、甘油、乙醇等)也会与反应物发生反应 91%
基于生物催化转化的反应萃取 利用与辛酸的酯化反应在脂肪酶催化下,将PDO转化为疏水酯 PDO和脂肪酸之间的反应效率低,需要重复三次脂肪酶催化的酯化反应 90%
两相盐析萃取 “K2CO3+K2HPO4”异丙醇盐析萃取系统 使用亲水有机溶剂的盐析萃取在从发酵液中回收亲水产品方面表现出显著更高的回收率 盐析萃取系统中形成两相所需的盐量大,且分离过程造成大量的废水排放 98%
由乙醇和碳酸钠组成的盐析萃取系统 97%
两步盐析萃取 第一步中,使用疏水性的正丁酸乙酯高效提丁酸,在第二步中,使用乙醇并添加NaH2PO4作为盐析剂,回收PDO 95%
), ArticleFig(id=1164877029662008074, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993962817417733, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

基于萃取的PDO纯化方法

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
分离方法 作用与功能 存在的问题 提取率
液-液萃取 使用疏水有机溶剂乙酸乙酯 使用乙酸乙酯对生物合成的PDO进行溶剂萃取 从实际发酵液中回收PDO的最高分配系数仅达到0.14 12%
基于化学反应的反应萃取 将PDO转化为疏水性PDO衍生物,有机溶剂萃取后,通过逆反应以获得PDO 反应物和萃取剂都有毒,发酵液中与PDO具有相似化学结构的其他物质(如2,3-丁二醇、甘油、乙醇等)也会与反应物发生反应 91%
基于生物催化转化的反应萃取 利用与辛酸的酯化反应在脂肪酶催化下,将PDO转化为疏水酯 PDO和脂肪酸之间的反应效率低,需要重复三次脂肪酶催化的酯化反应 90%
两相盐析萃取 “K2CO3+K2HPO4”异丙醇盐析萃取系统 使用亲水有机溶剂的盐析萃取在从发酵液中回收亲水产品方面表现出显著更高的回收率 盐析萃取系统中形成两相所需的盐量大,且分离过程造成大量的废水排放 98%
由乙醇和碳酸钠组成的盐析萃取系统 97%
两步盐析萃取 第一步中,使用疏水性的正丁酸乙酯高效提丁酸,在第二步中,使用乙醇并添加NaH2PO4作为盐析剂,回收PDO 95%
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刘建明 1, 2, 3, 4 , 张炽坚 5 , 张冰 1, 2, 3 , 曾安平 1, 2, 3, 4
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(6): 1386-1403
巴氏梭菌作为工业底盘细胞高效生产1,3-丙二醇——从代谢工程和菌种进化到过程工程和产品分离
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刘建明1, 2, 3, 4 , 张炽坚5, 张冰1, 2, 3, 曾安平1, 2, 3, 4
作者信息
  • 1 西湖大学合成生物学与生物智造中心,浙江 杭州 310030
  • 2 西湖大学工学院,浙江 杭州 310030
  • 3 浙江省全省智能低碳生物合成重点实验室,浙江 杭州 310030
  • 4 西湖大学未来产业研究中心,浙江 杭州 310030
  • 5 广东恒碳科技有限公司,广东 广州 510630
  • 刘建明(1985—),男,研究员。研究方向为合成生物学,低碳生物制造,代谢工程等。 E-mail:

    曾安平(1963—),男,讲席教授,博士生导师,德国工程院院士,西湖大学合成生物学与生物智造中心创始主任。研究方向为生物化工、合成生物学、新型催化软物质和功能材料等。 E-mail:

Clostridium pasteurianum as an industrial chassis for efficient production of 1,3-propanediol: from metabolic engineering to fermentation and product separation
Jianming LIU1, 2, 3, 4 , Chijian ZHANG5, Bing ZHANG1, 2, 3, Anping ZENG1, 2, 3, 4
Affiliations
  • 1 Center for Synthetic Biology and Biomanufacturing,Westlake University,Hangzhou 310030,Zhejiang,China
  • 2 Engineering institute,Westlake University,Hangzhou 310030,Zhejiang,China
  • 3 Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Low-Carbon Intelligent Synthetic Biology,Hangzhou 310030,Zhejiang,China
  • 4 Research Center for Industries of the Future,Westlake University,Hangzhou 310030,Zhejiang,China
  • 5 Guangdong C1 Life Biotech Co. ,Ltd. ,Guangzhou 510630,Guangdong,China
出版时间: 2024-12-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-030
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1,3-丙二醇(PDO)是一种重要的化工原料,广泛应用于材料和化妆品等领域。生物制造PDO具有原料可再生性和环境友好性等众多优点和广阔的发展前景。由于巴氏梭菌(Clostridium pasteurianum)菌株安全、非致病、代谢甘油速率快、生长快、不依赖昂贵的培养基组分、天然具备高效生产PDO代谢途径等条件,利用和改造巴氏梭菌作为工业底盘生产PDO呈现出得天独厚的优势。本文首先回顾了PDO的生物制造现状和挑战,随后深入探讨了采用巴氏梭菌生产PDO的方法,特别关注于巴氏梭菌的甘油代谢机制、甘油发酵的策略和发酵过程的工艺设计。值得一提的是,本文作者研究团队筛选到的巴氏梭菌突变体和随之开发的鲁棒性发酵工艺在一定程度上突破了传统巴氏梭菌对环境的要求,特别是对铁离子浓度的敏感性;在电辅助甘油发酵过程中,PDO产量达到120.7 g/L,生产强度达到4.8 g/(L·h),收率达到理论值;并进一步阐述了巴氏梭菌基因工程改造方面的天然屏障,围绕着理性基因组改造和定向进化等几个方面进行了详细讨论;由于PDO产品纯度(>99.9%)通常有较高要求,因此开发高效的下游处理技术对于实现利用可再生资源发酵生产PDO的工业化应用至关重要,本文在分离工艺方面主要讨论了基于蒸发和蒸馏的PDO纯化技术以及基于萃取的PDO纯化技术。通过对代谢工程、菌种进化、发酵过程优化以及产品分离等多个维度全方位分析,全面地解析了巴氏梭菌生产PDO的特点和优势,以及巴氏梭菌作为新型工业底盘微生物在未来发展过程中值得关注的问题。

生物制造  /  巴氏梭菌  /  1,3-丙二醇  /  粗甘油发酵  /  下游分离纯化

1,3-Propanediol (PDO) is an important chemical extensively used in material science and the cosmetics industry. The biomanufacturing of PDO offers numerous advantages, such as the renewability of raw materials and environmental friendliness. Among various microorganisms, Clostridium pasteurianum emerges as an ideal choice for industrial PDO production due to its safety, non-pathogenic nature, rapid glycerol metabolism, fast growth rate, independence from expensive culture medium components, and its inherent efficient metabolic pathway for PDO production. This review begins by introducing the current state and challenges of PDO biomanufacturing, followed by an in-depth discussion of the methods for producing PDO using C. pasteurianum. Special attention is paid to the glycerol metabolism mechanism, strategies for glycerol fermentation, and the design of the fermentation process. Notably, our research group has identified C. pasteurianum mutant strains and developed robust processes that have largely addressed the organism’s traditional sensitivities to environmental conditions, especially regarding iron concentration and impurities of raw glycerol. In an electricity-aided fermentation process, PDO concentration as high as 120.6 g/L was achieved, with a productivity of 4.8 g/(L·h) and a yield reaching the theoretical maximum. We further discuss the natural limitations of genetic engineering in C. pasteurianum, exploring strategies based on rational genomic modification and directed evolution. Finally, the development of efficient downstream processing technologies is emphasized as crucial for realizing the cost-effective microbial production of PDO from renewable resources, since the industrial application of PDO requires a very high purity (>99.9%). The discussion on PDO downstream processing mainly focuses on evaporation, distillation, and extraction-based purification techniques. Through a comprehensive coverage of metabolic engineering, strain evolution, fermentation optimization, and product separation technologies, this review discusses about the characteristics and advantages of PDO production from C. pasteurianum, highlighting key considerations for advancing this microorganism as a new industrial chassis.

biomanufacturing  /  Clostridium pasteurianum  /  1,3-propanediol  /  crude glycerol fermentation  /  downstream separation and purification
刘建明, 张炽坚, 张冰, 曾安平. 巴氏梭菌作为工业底盘细胞高效生产1,3-丙二醇——从代谢工程和菌种进化到过程工程和产品分离. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (6) : 1386 -1403 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-030
Jianming LIU, Chijian ZHANG, Bing ZHANG, Anping ZENG. Clostridium pasteurianum as an industrial chassis for efficient production of 1,3-propanediol: from metabolic engineering to fermentation and product separation[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (6) : 1386 -1403 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-030
生物制造作为我国战略性新兴产业,是大力发展新质生产力的重要途径之一。利用生物制造生产高附加值化学品,如生物材料、生物医药和燃料等,是建立绿色循环经济发展体系和创造新的经济增长点的一种重要实现方式1。据估计生物制造在21世纪末有望达到全球制造业产出的1/3以上,价值接近30万亿美元2-4。以生物制造生产1,3-丙二醇5(1,3-propanediol,PDO)为例,PDO是一种重要的化工原料,广泛应用于材料、化妆品、食品添加剂等领域。根据Market Research Future的预测,到2030年全球PDO市场规模预计将达到37亿美元3-4。与传统的石油化工生产PDO相比,生物制造PDO具有以下众多优势:可再生性,生物制造PDO可以利用可再生的生物质资源,如糖、淀粉、纤维素、二氧化碳等,实现可持续发展;环境友好性,生物制造PDO产生的污染物较少,对环境的影响较小(二氧化碳减排63%,能耗减少30%)。随着PDO市场需求的不断增长,生物制造PDO具有广阔的发展前景。
微生物制造PDO通常在温和、安全且环境友好的条件下进行,以可再生资源(如甘油和葡萄糖)为原料进行微生物发酵。目前,工业生产PDO有两条生物路线可用。
一条是使用由杜邦开发的重组大肠杆菌,它能够使用葡萄糖作为原料生产PDO36。通过引入酿酒酵母中的甘油3-磷酸脱氢酶(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase,GPD)和甘油3-磷酸磷酸酶(glycerol 3-phosphate phosphatase,GPP)来生产甘油,以及来自肺炎克雷伯氏菌的甘油脱水酶(glycerol dehydratase,GD)及其活化因子将甘油转化为3-羟基丙醛(3-HPA),从而在大肠杆菌中构建了一条非天然的从葡萄糖到3-HPA的途径(图1)。大肠杆菌内源性的氧化还原酶可以将3-HPA转化成PDO。该重组大肠杆菌可实现高达135 g/L的PDO产量和3.5 g/(L·h)的生产强度,这是迄今为止报道的PDO生物生产的最高纪录。然而,由于杜邦的知识产权保护和商业化,该途径的研究和PDO生产受到严格限制。近年来多条不同于杜邦路线的以大肠杆菌为宿主的PDO生产途径被相继开发出来,如同源丝氨酸依赖途径7、丙二酰辅酶A依赖途径8和和依赖于醛缩酶的以甲醛为碳源的C1途径等9-10图1)。所有这些新开发途径与杜邦途径相比的一个最大优势是在发酵过程中不需要添加昂贵的维生素B12来激活甘油脱水酶。然而,由于生物转化步骤复杂、关键酶的催化活性低或底物毒性抑制等原因,这些途径迄今为止都未实现工业化。
另一条用于工业生产PDO的途径是利用天然生产菌(如肺炎克雷伯氏菌、梭菌属和乳酸杆菌)将甘油通过微生物转化为PDO11-13。作为生物柴油和油脂化工产品的副产品,粗甘油目前是市场上最丰富廉价的原料之一13。PDO的高价值和粗甘油的过剩使得从粗甘油生物生产PDO具有产业化前景。在天然生产菌中,肺炎克雷伯菌属和丁酸梭菌由于其高水平PDO生产能力而受到广泛的关注14,如野生型肺炎克雷伯菌DSM4799可以使用粗甘油为底物生产PDO(80.2 g/L),生产强度为1.15 g/(L·h),而D-乳酸缺陷突变体肺炎克雷伯菌HR526可以使用纯甘油作为底物生产PDO(浓度高达102.06 g/L)15-16。最近,大连理工大学修志龙教授及其团队17报道了一株丁酸梭菌DL07,该菌株可使用纯甘油为底物可得到104.78 g/L的PDO,生产强度为3.38 g/(L·h);以粗甘油为底物可得到94.23 g/L的PDO,生产强度为3.04 g/(L·h),因此该菌株在补料发酵中表现出良好的PDO生产性能。尽管肺炎克雷伯菌和丁酸梭菌在PDO的生物合成方面展现出巨大潜力,但由于培养基灭菌、充氮气和添加昂贵有机氮源(如酵母提取物)的高成本,它们在工业规模上的应用仍然受限15-19。此外,由于其致病性,肺炎克雷伯菌在工业中的使用受到政府的许多限制20。值得注意的是,在欧盟丁酸梭菌被认为是新出现的病原体,可能导致婴儿肉毒症和早产儿坏死性小肠结肠炎(NEC)等疾病21-22。相反,乳酸杆菌属成员被普遍认为是安全的(GRAS),并且可以在葡萄糖/甘油共底物发酵过程中合成PDO20。由于世界上许多地方严格禁止在食品和医药中使用从基因改造菌株或致病菌株制成的产品,因此预计由非致病性天然生产菌生产的PDO将在市场上有更广泛的应用23。此外,乳酸杆菌属细菌不能将甘油转化为二羟基磷酸丙酮,避免了甘油向有机酸等副产物的碳损失,显著提高了PDO的产率24。Marx及其同事25使用乳酸杆菌Lactobacillus diolivorans DSM14421,其PDO生产浓度达到92 g/L,收率高达0.78 g/g。Ju等26筛选的一株天然乳酸杆菌L. reuteri可生产68 g/L的PDO,相应的收率高达0.82 g/g。但是,使用乳酸杆菌生产PDO的主要问题是它们需要添加复杂且昂贵的培养基成分(酵母提取物、肉提取物、酪蛋白胨、维生素B12),且PDO的整体生产强度对于高效工业过程来说通常较低13[通常低于1 g/(L·h)]。
另一个有前景的非致病性天然PDO生产菌是巴氏梭菌27-28Clostridum pasteurianum)。与前述微生物不同,巴氏梭菌能够在非洁净厌氧条件下以甘油作为唯一的碳源生长并生产PDO,该菌株的生长和代谢不需要复杂和昂贵的培养基成分。如在已报道的一个100 L规模的粗甘油补料发酵中,巴氏梭菌生产PDO的产量55 g/L,得率为0.52 g/g,总体生产强度为2.3 g/(L·h)27。整个过程使用质量分数50%的粗甘油和未经灭菌的合成培养基作为原料,证明了该菌株生产PDO的稳定性和成本效益。然而巴氏梭菌生产PDO的能力受培养基中铁离子的浓度影响较大,这是因为巴氏梭菌在不同铁离子浓度下,对生产PDO和正丁醇具有不同的选择性28-29。Groeger等报告称,在低铁离子浓度下(FeSO4·7H2O<1 mg/L),巴氏梭菌DSM 525以PDO为主要产物,而在高铁离子浓度下(FeSO4·7H2O>10 mg/L),则同时产生PDO和丁醇。随着铁离子浓度的增加,丁醇/PDO的摩尔比从0.27显著增加到1.429。因此,为了减少丁醇产生并提高PDO的产率,在巴氏梭菌的发酵过程中需要严格控制铁离子浓度。然而,在低铁离子浓度下,由于铁依赖的丙酮酸降低:铁蛋白氧化还原酶表达降低,进而导致丙酮酸向乙酰辅酶A的转化减少,因此显著降低了生物量的形成,最终降低了总甘油消耗和PDO浓度29。此外,许多研究表明,巴氏梭菌对粗甘油毒性的耐受性较低30-32。为了避免生长抑制,在补料发酵过程中使用了低初始粗甘油浓度(<30 g/L)和低补料速率[<10 g/(L·h)],这也大大限制了PDO的生产强度27。曾安平团队33-35在利用巴氏梭菌生产PDO方面取得了一系列突破,包括筛选到对铁离子浓度不敏感的巴氏梭菌突变株C8,发展了不需要灭菌和不包含酵母提取物等昂贵组分的廉价培养基,建立了鲁棒性强的发酵工艺。利用纯甘油作为原料,PDO浓度达到91 g/L,生产强度达到4.6 g/(L·h)。在巴氏梭菌C8的基础上通过在工业粗甘油培养基上的定向进化获得性能更好的突变菌G8,以粗甘油为原料,最终通过补料发酵,PDO的浓度达到95 g/L和生产强度达到3.2 g/(L·h),基于甘油的得率为0.51 g/g34。在电辅助生物反应器中,PDO的浓度达到120.7 g/L,生产强度达到4.8 g/(L·h),基于甘油的得率为0.49 g/g, 同时获得19.5 g/L乙酸和25.9 g/L丁酸,它们可以作为高附加值有机酸便捷地从发酵液中回收35。这些数据都强有力地证明了巴氏梭菌生产PDO的巨大潜力,为建立基于巴氏梭菌的新型PDO生产工艺奠定了良好的基础。下面将围绕着巴氏梭菌的代谢、菌种构建、发酵工艺优化和产物分离纯化等各个方面进行详细阐述。
巴氏梭菌是一种革兰氏阳性、非致病性细菌,能在厌氧条件下以甘油作为唯一碳源和能源生长。它是首个被发现能从甘油合成PDO的微生物36-37。与其他梭菌属(Clostridia spp.)进行的传统丙酮-丁醇-乙醇(ABE)溶剂发酵不同,巴氏梭菌利用甘油产生PDO、丁醇和乙醇作为溶剂产品,这一过程被称为PBE过程,以反映其产生PDO而非丙酮的特点3038。其产生的副产物包括乳酸、甲酸、乙酸、丁酸以及二氧化碳和氢气。此外,与ABE发酵中特有的两阶段行为(即酸类产生和溶剂产生明显分离)相比,巴氏梭菌能够同时从甘油中产生酸类和溶剂。这主要是由于巴氏梭菌和其他溶剂产生梭菌在氧化还原平衡模块上的差异。与在酸性物质生成期间通过形成氢气来平衡过量NADH的溶剂产生梭菌(如C. acetobutylicum)不同,巴氏梭菌中用于PDO产生的净NADH消耗途径可以有效地作为细胞内氧化还原平衡的NADH消耗出口。因此,在巴氏梭菌的甘油发酵过程中,酸类发酵(产生NADH)和PDO产生(消耗NADH)是相互联系的,显示出在菌株生长过程中的非两阶段代谢模式。
巴氏梭菌中甘油的代谢包括还原途径和氧化途径。在还原途径中,甘油首先在甘油脱水酶(GDHt)的催化下脱水形成3-羟丙醛(3-HPA)。随后,3-HPA被NADH依赖的1,3-丙二醇氧化还原酶(PDOR)还原为PDO。NAD(P)H依赖的非特异性醛脱氢酶也可能参与这个还原反应。在氧化途径中,甘油被NAD+依赖的甘油脱氢酶(GDH)氧化生成二羟基丙酮(DHA)。随后DHA被ATP依赖的二羟基丙酮激酶(DHAK)磷酸化为二羟基丙酮磷酸(DHAP),然后通过糖酵解途径转化为丙酮酸2839。负责甘油厌氧转化的关键酶(GDHt、GDH、DHAK、PDOR)的编码基因位于dha调控子40,具体来说,在巴氏梭菌的dha操纵子中,dhaBdhaEdhaC基因分别编码GDHt的三个亚基α、β和γ;甘油脱水酶是PDO生物合成途径中的关键限速酶,在催化过程中很快被底物甘油失活;dhaBCE基因还编码GDHt的激活蛋白,dhaTdhaDdhaK基因分别编码PDOR、GDH和DHAK41
在巴氏梭菌的厌氧生长过程中,丙酮酸代谢对于细胞生长至关重要,主要通过两种关键酶介导:乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)将丙酮酸转化为乳酸,以及丙酮酸亚铁蛋白氧化还原酶(PFOR)将丙酮酸转化为乙酰辅酶A(图2)。研究表明,发酵培养基中的铁离子浓度对巴氏梭菌丙酮酸代谢的选择性上有着显著影响29。在铁离子过量的条件下,丙酮酸主要在PFOR的催化下被氧化为二氧化碳和乙酰辅酶A。在这个酶促步骤中,接受了丙酮酸电子的还原亚铁蛋白形成,并同时由铁蛋白依赖的氢化酶催化还原亚铁蛋白的再氧化和氢气的产生。相反,在铁离子限制条件下,PFOR和氢化酶的表达水平会显著下调。在这种情况下,更多的丙酮酸将在NADH依赖的LDH催化下被还原为乳酸。尽管丙酮酸也可以在丙酮酸甲酸裂解酶(PFL)的催化下转化为乙酰辅酶A和甲酸,但无论铁离子是否充足,巴氏梭菌中PFL的表达水平通常低于PFOR29。因此,在高铁离子浓度下,源自乙酰辅酶A的乙酸、丁酸和丁醇将是甘油的主要最终产物,而在铁离子限制下,平衡甘油氧化产生的过量NADH的PDO和乳酸的产量将显著增加。由于从乙酸、丁酸和丁醇的形成产生的能量(ATP)远高于来自乳酸形成产生的能量(表1),在铁离子过量条件下,巴氏梭菌的甘油发酵通常会得到更高的生物量积累和底物消耗2942-43
除了甘油,巴氏梭菌还可以利用葡萄糖作为碳源进行生长。由于从葡萄糖到PDO的生产途径在巴氏梭菌中不存在,葡萄糖主要通过糖酵解途径转化为丙酮酸。研究表明,与甘油相比,巴氏梭菌从葡萄糖中产生的丁醇量显著降低44-45。相反,产生了更多的酸类,导致在使用葡萄糖作为碳源时ATP产生率和生物量形成更高。表1总结了巴氏梭菌使用甘油和葡萄糖作为唯一碳源时的能量、还原当量和产物平衡。可以看出,甘油的所有酸类形成途径都是净NADH产生的,而葡萄糖作为碳源时只有生成乙酸的途径会有净NADH产生。需要注意的是,涉及丁酸或丁醇形成的关键酶促步骤之一,即从巴豆酰辅酶A转化为丁酰辅酶A,也会影响NADH的可用性。通常情况下,丁酰辅酶A是由NADH依赖的双烯酰辅酶A还原酶从巴豆酰辅酶A形成的,消耗1 mol NADH/1 mol丁酰辅酶A46。然而,最近的研究发现,巴氏梭菌中巴豆酰辅酶A向丁酰辅酶A的还原也可以由铁蛋白依赖的丁酰辅酶A脱氢酶/电子转移黄素蛋白复合物(BCdH-ETF)催化,这需要消耗2 mol NADH/1 mol丁酰辅酶A2947-48。当涉及BCdH-ETF催化的反应时,由于NADH的双分歧电子还原铁蛋白,生产1 mol丁酸或丁醇将需要更多的1 mol NADH(图2表1)。据报道,在高铁离子浓度下,铁蛋白依赖的丁酰辅酶A脱氢酶和电子转移黄素蛋白的表达水平都显著上调29,这导致双分歧反应更多地参与,从而减少了用于产生PDO和丁醇的NADH可用性。
巴氏梭菌发酵甘油的产品种类和产量在很大程度上取决于培养基组成和发酵参数。尤其是铁离子浓度,这是影响PBE发酵过程中PDO和丁醇产品选择性的最重要因素。Gallardo等49在2014年研究并比较了巴氏梭菌DSM 525在铁离子限制条件(1 mg/L)和铁离子过量条件(11 mg/L)下的甘油发酵。在较高铁离子浓度下,产生了更多的丁醇50-51,丁醇/PDO的摩尔比高达5.03。相反,铁离子限制有利于PDO的产生,最终PDO和丁醇的浓度相近。其他显著影响产量和生产率的参数包括培养基的pH、温度、搅拌速率、初始甘油浓度、接种状态和初始生物量浓度303852-54。据报道,在最佳发酵条件下,即接种16 h、初始生物量浓度0.4 g/L、pH 6.8、温度30°C,丁醇产量最高可以达到0.35 mol/mol,比未优化时高出219%303855
与单独使用甘油作为唯一碳源相比,将葡萄糖作为共底物加入到巴氏梭菌的甘油发酵过程中,可以显著增强细胞生长、整体生产率和产品产量。从葡萄糖发酵得到的主要产品是乙酸和丁酸等有机酸,其过程中可产生充足的能量(ATP),因此减少了巴氏梭菌在共底物发酵中甘油代谢到有机酸的比例,结果是更多的甘油可以直接转化为丁醇。此外,如果葡萄糖产生乙酸,多余的NADH也可以用于从甘油中生产PDO。然而,巴氏梭菌通常从葡萄糖中产生的丁酸比乙酸多56。因此,通常使用葡萄糖和甘油的共底物发酵策略来增加巴氏梭菌的丁醇产量44-4557-58。Sabra等44报告了在混合底物发酵中巴氏梭菌DSM 525的丁醇产量提高。当葡萄糖与甘油的比例为1∶1(60 g/L葡萄糖+60 g/L甘油)时,与单一甘油发酵相比,丁醇的最终浓度从13.9 g/L增加到21.1 g/L,收率从0.25 g/g增加到0.38 g/g,PDO的最终浓度5.2 g/L基本无变化。这些结果代表了巴氏梭菌批次发酵中达到最高丁醇生产水平。
除了与葡萄糖的共底物发酵外,另一种能够改变碳流并增强巴氏梭菌中电子密集产物形成的有效策略是阴极电辅助发酵(CEF)59-64。众所周知,NADH/NAD+的比例在操控ABE或PBE发酵产品种类方面起着关键作用6365。研究报告称,来自阴极电极的电子供应可以增加巴氏梭菌体内NADH/NAD+的比例,从而导致丁醇或PDO产量显著增加,以快速调节氧化还原平衡565966。在之前的研究中,通过巴氏梭菌DSM 525评估了CEF系统在增强电子密集产物生产方面的可行性56。在一个设定在+0.045 V vs. SHE的阴极室中,巴氏梭菌的代谢发生了转变,朝向消耗NADH的代谢产物,与对照发酵相比,PDO的浓度增加了150%。研究还发现,少量电子(<10%的总NADH供应)通过mediator来自阴极,导致体内NADH/NAD+比例更高,代谢显著转向净NADH消耗化合物59。在另一项由Utesch等592019年进行的研究中,使用一种将工作电极和对电极结合成整体的“All-in-One”电极,研究了CEF对巴氏梭菌DSM 525的影响。与传统的两室生物电化学系统不同,后者使用膜来分隔两个电解室,“All-in-One”电极可以轻松放入普通生物反应器中进行电助发酵,使CEF的pH控制和放大更加方便高效59。使用“All-in-One”电极提供的-400 mA阴极电流,并添加中性红作为电子介质,将电子从阴极转移到巴氏梭菌的NADH池,与不使用电力的发酵相比,PDO产量显著增加(未发表数据)。尽管上述发现表明CEF是调控巴氏梭菌代谢的有效方法,但巴氏梭菌的电子摄取机理和CEF中代谢转变的机制还需要进一步评估。
尽管通过优化发酵条件和工艺过程已经取得了上述进步,但野生型巴氏梭菌通常容易受到底物(粗甘油)和产物(丁醇)的抑制,这显著降低了发酵过程的产量。此外,巴氏梭菌能够在厌氧条件下将甘油转化为许多发酵产物(PDO、丁醇、有机酸、二氧化碳、氢等),但对于特定有价值的产物(如PDO或丁醇),产量通常较低,无法实现经济上有竞争力的工业过程。通过对菌株进行合理的基因和代谢工程改造,可以进一步提高巴氏梭菌产生目标产品的生产率和产量。然而,在巴氏梭菌的基因改造中存在两个主要障碍:①与革兰氏阴性细菌相比,革兰氏阳性的巴氏梭菌具有较厚的肽聚糖细胞壁网络,这阻止了外源DNA进入细胞。因此,向革兰氏阳性细菌转化外源DNA通常不如革兰氏阴性菌株高效。②未知限制性-修饰系统攻击进入的外源DNA,导致巴氏梭菌的转化效率低67-69。为了克服转化效率低的问题,2013年Pyne等67首先建立了一种用于巴氏梭菌遗传操纵的体内甲基化和电转化方法。巴氏梭菌ATCC 6013中Ⅱ型限制性内切酶CpaAⅠ被认为是破坏递送入巴氏梭菌外源DNA的主要酶。在电转化前,利用E. coli中的M.FnuDII甲基转移酶对外源DNA上的识别位点(5′-CGCG-3′)进行体内甲基化。在这种情况下,CpaAⅠ不能作用于甲基化的DNA,因此电转化后含有外源DNA的质粒可以在巴氏梭菌中成功保留。然而仅甲基化并未导致高水平的DNA转移到巴氏梭菌中(每微克DNA仅产生2.4×101个转化体)。但是通过预处理,如使用甘氨酸削弱细胞壁和乙醇介导的膜溶解,然后电转化甲基化的DNA到巴氏梭菌中,转化效率可以显著提高大约3个数量级(每微克DNA 7.5×104个转化体)。
基于巴氏梭菌的代谢网络,近期的研究尝试修改巴氏梭菌的代谢途径以提高其代谢产物的生产率和产量。例如,Schwarz等39首次尝试敲除巴氏梭菌DSM 525中的hydA基因(编码氢化酶),结果表明,该突变体在葡萄糖的批次发酵中的最终丁醇浓度比野生型菌株高出5倍。由于醇类产物的生产与分子氢的形成竞争电子,降低电子向H2合成的流量可能是丁醇浓度增加的主要原因70。在同一研究中,巴氏梭菌DSM 525中的dhaBCE(编码甘油脱水酶)也被成功敲除,产生了一种能够在甘油发酵中消除PDO合成的突变体。然而,由于氧化还原失衡,该突变体在以甘油为唯一碳源的Biebl培养基中无法生长。尽管在含有甘油的2× YT培养基中,dhaBCE突变体的生长速率与野生型相当,但源自乙酰辅酶A的代谢产物(丁酸、乙醇和丁醇)的产量基本不变。Sarma等69的另一项研究旨在过表达巴氏梭菌的dhaD1dhaK基因,这些基因分别编码甘油脱氢酶和二羟基丙酮激酶。研究发现,DhaD1K2+突变体消耗了更多的甘油,并产生了比野生型菌株高2倍的PDO和高1.5倍的丁醇,这证明了过表达与甘油氧化相关的酶能够增强巴氏梭菌的甘油摄取能力。尽管已经开发了向巴氏梭菌引入外源DNA的遗传操作工具,如基因敲除、敲低或过表达,但由于未知的限制性-修饰系统,巴氏梭菌的靶向基因改造仍面临巨大挑战67-68,不同质粒转化常常失败,原因不明确71,后续应进一步开发更为高效的巴氏梭菌基因编辑方法。
正如上文所述,阻碍巴氏梭菌工业应用的主要瓶颈之一是菌株对粗甘油及其代谢产物的低耐受性,这在一定水平上导致甘油的不完全转化,以及目标产物的低生产率和低产量72-73。由于低转化效率限制了基于高通量库的基因组工程工具的使用,随机诱变在过去几年中被广泛用作获取巴氏梭菌突变体的替代方法31-32497274。通常随机诱变可以通过化学诱变和物理诱变分别实现。然后,突变体库涂布在含有目标抑制剂(粗甘油/PDO/丁醇/有机酸等)的琼脂板上,或者接种在含有目标抑制剂的液体培养基中进行定向选择。在第一轮选择中,固体或液体培养基通常包含比野生型菌株初始耐受浓度(90%的细胞能存活的浓度)稍高的目标抑制剂浓度(高出5~10 g/L),携带不利突变或未突变的细胞的生长基本被抑制。通过在每轮选择中逐渐增加抑制剂的浓度,培养过程中耐受性更好的突变体种群逐渐积累32。据报道,使用乙基甲烷磺酸盐(EMS)、N-甲基-N′硝基-N-亚硝基胍(NTG)和N-乙基-N-亚硝脲(ENU)等化学诱变剂可以直接通过替换嘌呤或嘧啶碱基作用在微生物基因组上,而基于UV或等离子体暴露的物理诱变则通过诱导自由基形成嘧啶二聚体和DNA链断裂,与使用单一诱变策略发展突变体相比,化学和物理诱变的结合可以增加获得稳定且高耐受突变体的机会7375。此外,有时需要重复进行随机诱变,以构建更大的突变体库进行定向选择3273。2012年Jensen等3174通过使用化学诱变剂EMS对巴氏梭菌DSM 525进行随机诱变,接着在粗甘油浓度从50 g/L增至110 g/L(每轮选择增加10 g/L)的琼脂板上进行筛选。结果产生的突变体巴氏梭菌MNO6显示出比野生型更高的粗甘油消耗率。在初始粗甘油浓度为120 g/L的批次发酵中,突变体的最大甘油摄取率从4.08 g/(L·h)增加到7.59 g/(L·h)。然而,突变体在含有粗甘油的培养基中接种后仍然有20 h的漫长滞后期,PDO和丁醇的产量基本不受影响,表明突变体的耐受性并不理想。为了确保足够数量的突变从而缩短获得超高耐受性生产菌株的时间,2015年Sandoval等32对野生型巴氏梭菌ATCC 6013进行了两次NTG化学随机诱变。结果产生的菌群仅在粗甘油浓度不断增加(80~150 g/L)的液体培养基中经历了10天的选择,表现最好的突变体(M150B)在150 g/L粗甘油中显示出强劲的生长并几乎没有滞后时间,而在相同的粗甘油浓度下野生型菌株的生长被完全抑制。突变体对100 g/L粗甘油的批次发酵也显示出比野生型高65%的甘油消耗(40.4 g/L)和高91%的丁醇产量(最终浓度为7.1 g/L)。对突变体和野生型菌株进行全基因组测序和比较分析发现,孢子形成的主要转录调节因子spo0A基因突变是该菌株增加粗甘油耐受性的主要原因。2019年Yang等73的另一项研究旨在通过结合化学和物理随机诱变增加梭菌属丁酸菌对其代谢产物PDO的耐受性,野生型菌株首先通过NTG诱变,然后涂布在含有70 g/L PDO(比初始耐受浓度高5 g/L)的琼脂板上。收集菌落,用于下一轮筛选,PDO浓度比上一轮高5 g/L,此程序重复进行直到5~50个菌株存活。选出的菌落随后经过等离子体(ARTP)的物理诱变,然后使用与NTG诱变相同的筛选方法,研究发现,最终的突变体对PDO的耐受性大幅增加至85 g/L,而野生型和NTG突变体的初始耐受度分别为65 g/L和80 g/L。在纯甘油的补料批次发酵中,最终的突变体菌株产生了37.20 g/L的PDO,比野生型菌株(28.73 g/L)获得的浓度高出29.48%。PDO的更高耐受性可以归因于通过NTG和ARTP处理在菌株基因组中形成的更有利的突变。
虽然随机诱变技术常用于提高梭菌属菌株的耐受性,但用于诱变的化学诱变剂或UV/等离子体照射对操作人员构成健康风险76-77。此外,由诱变化合物或辐射触发的高突变率可能通过快速积累有害突变而降低细胞活力,从而阻碍适应细胞的适当选择78。与导致基因破坏性突变和降低细胞活力的化学或物理随机诱变不同,适应性实验室进化(ALE)依赖于在特定环境中微生物细胞连续传代过程中基因组中的自发突变78-79。2019年Zhang等80对野生型丁酸梭菌进行了ALE,以提高对甘油和丁酸的耐受性。在ALE的第一轮中,从30 g/L增至110 g/L甘油的反复批次培养,最终适应的菌株进一步经历第二轮ALE,通过从5 g/L增至20 g/L丁酸的反复批次培养。最终的突变体在补料批次发酵中实现了更高的PDO浓度(42.88 g/L vs. 61.77 g/L),这是由于对甘油和副产物丁酸的耐受性增加所致。然而,为了获得具有增强PDO产量的高耐受性丁酸梭菌变体,ALE在每个抑制剂浓度下至少需要10次反复批次培养以实现生长恢复和稳定。在整个ALE过程中总共进行了超过80次批次培养。很明显,直接的ALE方法可以作为菌株改良的强大工具,但通常需要很长时间和大量工作来创建和选择有益突变。缩短长期进化实验时间并降低劳动成本的一种策略是应用自动化ALE装置81-83。最近我们团队33自主搭建一套自动化ALE装置并成功应用于巴氏梭菌在粗甘油培养基中的进化,最终筛选到能够耐受120 g/L粗甘油的巴氏梭菌突变体,通过在1000 L的发酵罐测试,在粗甘油培养基中,PDO生产浓度达到81 g/L,生产强度达到4.3 g/(L·h)。
开发高效的下游处理技术(DSP)对于实现可再生资源微生物发酵生产PDO的成本效益至关重要84-85。这是因为PDO工业应用通常要求非常高的纯度(>99.9%),但PDO的发酵液总是伴随着大量无机介质盐和发酵副产物(有机酸、其他多元醇等)86-87。PDO从所有这些杂质中的完全分离通常会导致从微生物发酵液中回收PDO的产量较低。此外,PDO在发酵液中的高沸点、低挥发性、高亲水性和低浓度进一步增加了分离的难度112388。已经报道了多种生物合成PDO的纯化方法。其中,主要方法可以分为两大类:基于蒸发/蒸馏的DSP和基于萃取的DSP。
蒸发和蒸馏技术在工业上广泛用于液体混合物的分离(表2)。因此,这些技术已被尝试用于去除水分和回收PDO1189-90。第一步中,应完全去除微生物细胞(生物量),以得到无不溶性固体的发酵液,然后通过蒸发去除水分。传统上,离心和微滤足够有效去除所有生物量,但它们无法去除在发酵过程中细胞释放的可溶性蛋白。据报道,高含量的蛋白质会在水分蒸发过程中导致严重起泡,从而降低过程效率27。因此,应集成超滤等技术,使用低分子截留27、通过添加壳聚糖进行絮凝91或使用活性炭吸附以去除可溶性蛋白。由于葡萄糖的高沸点和其可能在蒸发和蒸馏过程中发生沉淀,有时还需要纳滤来去除发酵液中的残余葡萄糖。在第二步中,应去除发酵液中溶解的无机盐和有机酸盐。否则,这些盐在水分蒸发过程中部分结晶,在PDO蒸馏过程中形成沉淀,结晶盐的沉积导致蒸发器底部形成黏稠的浆液,进而导致高能耗和目标产品的低产量8892。去除发酵液中盐分的主要方法是离子交换吸附和电渗析。杜邦公司在一项专利中描述了使用强酸性阳离子交换树脂,随后使用弱碱性阴离子交换树脂来去除盐分的方法93。超过98%的矿物盐和有机酸盐能被有效去除。这个过程的主要缺点是树脂的快速饱和,需要大量的NaOH和HCl溶液进行再生。Gong等92报告了在蒸发前使用电渗析进行脱盐,由于通过离子交换膜的扩散,PDO的损失约为6%。脱盐过程越长,观察到的PDO损失越大。Wu等94提出使用双极膜电渗析进行脱盐,将盐转化为相应的酸和碱。然而,盐分的去除率仅约为85%。需要提到的是,电渗析的能源和材料成本通常非常高,阻碍了其在廉价大宗化学品的商业生产中的实际应用。此外,无论是离子交换还是电渗析脱盐,都不可避免地产生大量废水(发酵液体积的1~3倍),给环境带来巨大负担。尽管如此,经过脱盐处理的发酵液可以用多效蒸发器或蒸汽机械再压缩(MVR)蒸发器去除水分,随后通过蒸馏塔将PDO与残留甘油等高沸点杂质分离。由于盐分被脱除,去除水分后,PDO的质量分数可以超过70%,蒸发/蒸馏过程中PDO的回收率可以超过90%93。相反,如果发酵液没有事先脱盐,蒸发/蒸馏过程中将损失超过20%的PDO9295。为了避免在下游处理过程中产生大量高盐废水,Gao等96提出了另一种脱盐方法,即通过醇沉淀和稀释结晶。首先通过减压蒸馏把发酵液进行1~3倍浓缩,然后将短链醇类(如乙醇)与浓缩液混合。由于无机矿物盐在醇类中的溶解度低,它们会结晶沉淀。然而,这种方法不足以有效去除在醇类中溶解度高的有机酸盐,例如乙酸钠和丁酸钠。因此,这种方法只能用于低含量有机酸盐的发酵液的脱盐。为了高效去除有机酸盐,而不使用离子交换吸附或电渗析,Kaeding等27提出了另一种改良的蒸发/蒸馏过程,用于从巴氏梭菌的甘油基发酵中分离PDO。在上游发酵过程中,使用氨水溶液而非NaOH或KOH溶液控制pH。经过超滤去除生物量和蛋白质后,所得含有有机酸铵盐的发酵液直接进行蒸发/蒸馏过程,由于在真空压力和加热下,有机酸铵盐可轻易解离成氨气和非解离的酸分子,后者便可蒸发并进入蒸馏物,该过程在10 L小型中试线规模上进行了验证,并成功获得了高纯度的PDO(>99%),且未产生任何高盐废水。
众所周知,水分蒸发是PDO生产下游处理中耗能最高的步骤。将PDO从水相萃取到低沸点且易挥发的有机溶剂相中,可以大幅降低能耗。然而,由于亲水性PDO在水中的溶解度远高于在疏水溶剂中,因此通常使用疏水溶剂的液-液萃取并不足以有效从水相中回收PDO(表3)。2010年Boonsongsawat等97研究了使用乙酸乙酯对生物合成的PDO进行溶剂萃取。从实际发酵液中回收PDO的最高分配系数(溶剂相中PDO浓度/水相中PDO浓度)仅0.14,表明大部分PDO仍然留在水相中。增加PDO在疏水溶剂中溶解度的一种策略是将PDO转化为疏水性PDO衍生物,然后在溶剂萃取后,通过逆反应以获得PDO。例如,2010年Boonoun等98提出了一种利用乙醛作为反应物和乙苯作为萃取剂,从发酵液中回收PDO的反应萃取过程。PDO通过PDO和乙醛之间的乙酰化反应,在低成本磺化碳基催化剂催化下转化为2-甲基-1,3-二&amp;#x2bac7;烷,在水性发酵混合物中的转化率超过92%,大部分PDO衍生物被乙苯萃取。然后通过水解反应将PDO衍生物转化回PDO,转化率高达99%。使用反应萃取策略纯化PDO的主要难题是反应物和萃取剂都有毒,且发酵液中与PDO具有相似化学结构的其他物质(如2,3-丁二醇、甘油、乙醇等)也可能与反应物发生反应。最近,Cui等99提出了一种利用生物催化转化的环境友好型反应萃取策略用于分离PDO。通过利用与辛酸的酯化反应在脂肪酶催化下,将PDO转化为疏水酯。该反应对PDO具有非常高的特异性,而PDO的转化率达到62%,2,3-丁二醇和甘油的转化率仅为0.06%和0.08%。此外,PDO-辛酸酯和未反应的辛酸均为疏水性且不溶于水,可以通过简单的上层相分液从发酵液中轻松分离,无需使用任何有毒萃取剂。最后,通过脂肪酶定向的酯水解可以获得PDO。然而,为了达到PDO的回收率高于90%,需要重复3次脂肪酶催化的酯化反应。由于PDO和脂肪酸之间的反应效率低,回收效率对于工业过程来说太低。
另一种从发酵液中提取PDO的策略是两相盐析萃取,该方法使用无机盐作为盐析试剂和亲水有机溶剂作为萃取剂。在盐析试剂的帮助下,PDO在发酵液中的溶解度显著降低,迫使PDO扩散到萃取剂中。与使用疏水有机溶剂的传统溶剂萃取和反应萃取相比,使用亲水有机溶剂的盐析萃取在从发酵液中回收亲水产品方面表现出显著更高的回收率。2018年Vivek等100研究了使用K2CO3+K2HPO4/异丙醇盐析萃取系统从发酵液中分离PDO。溶剂相中PDO的最大回收率达到98.27%,同时高效去除了细胞和介质盐,然而,总有机酸盐(乳酸和醋酸)的去除率不足65%。另一个由乙醇和碳酸钠组成的盐析萃取系统,PDO的回收率高达97.9%,同时去除了99.1%的细胞、81.9%的蛋白质、75.5%的有机酸和78.7%的水101。为了提高PDO和丁酸的分离和回收,最近Li等102提出了一种新的两步盐析萃取策略,用于从发酵液中回收PDO和丁酸。在第一步中,使用疏水性的正丁酸乙酯高效提取了超过96%的丁酸,而大部分PDO仍留在底部水相中。在第二步中,使用乙醇并添加NaH2PO4作为盐析剂,回收了95.5%的PDO。需要注意的是,在盐析萃取系统中形成两相所需的盐量大(每升发酵液中200~300 g),因此盐的循环使用对于使盐析过程在工业应用中更具经济性和环境友好性至关重要。为了避免使用大量盐并减少废水排放,研究人员还调查了由葡萄糖和溶剂组成的脱糖萃取系统,用于从发酵液中分离二元醇11103。使用丁醇和葡萄糖组成的脱糖萃取系统分离2,3-丁二醇,回收率为76.3%。
巴氏梭菌在生物制造PDO方面呈现出广阔的前景,其代谢甘油速率快并且PDO产量高,而且发酵培养基中不需要添加酵母粉等昂贵的原料,生产工艺鲁棒性好,简单培养基组分和高浓度的产品又为后续的分离纯化节省了成本。未来利用巴氏梭菌生产PDO的研究重点主要体现在以下几个方面:①原料问题,目前粗甘油主要来源于生物柴油行业,产能有限而且市场价格波动较大,未来应该着重开发利用可持续的原料,包括纤维素水解糖和基于二氧化碳的低碳原料,通过代谢工程改造,在巴氏梭菌中建立高效的糖/低碳原料生产PDO的路线;②菌种遗传改造问题,巴氏梭菌遗传改造工具匮乏,而且其自身的限制修饰系统往往导致外源基因转化效率低下,未来应该着重解析巴氏梭菌的基因遗传修饰机制,攻克巴氏梭菌的难转化、难改造的瓶颈,为改造巴氏梭菌的底物拓展和丰富产品种类奠定基础。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2023YFA09014003)
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2024年第5卷第6期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-030
  • 接收时间:2024-03-27
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-12-31
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-27
  • 修回日期:2024-06-18
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国家重点研发计划(2023YFA09014003)
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    1 西湖大学合成生物学与生物智造中心,浙江 杭州 310030
    2 西湖大学工学院,浙江 杭州 310030
    3 浙江省全省智能低碳生物合成重点实验室,浙江 杭州 310030
    4 西湖大学未来产业研究中心,浙江 杭州 310030
    5 广东恒碳科技有限公司,广东 广州 510630
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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