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Production of chemicals using renewable bioresources and green biomanufacturing processes is highly important for sustainable bioeconomy. Diols are important bulk chemicals widely used in the production of polymers, cosmetics, fuels, food, and pharmaceutical industries due to their versatile functional properties. Currently, most of diols are produced mainly from fossil resources via energy-cost chemical approaches. The development of biosynthetic routes for the production of diols from renewable resources such as biomass and C1 has garnered significant attention due to its potential in reducing the utilization of fossil resources and carbon dioxide emissions. Although biological production of 1,3-propanediol, 1,3-butanediol and 1,4-butanediol has been commercialized, the biosynthesis of other major diols remains challenging due to the absence of efficient natural biosynthetic pathways and low efficiency of the recombinant microbes. Recent development of metabolic engineering and synthetic biology enables the production of non-natural chemicals via artificial metabolic pathways and novel biological parts, significantly expanding the boundary of biomanufacturing. This review comprehensively explores recent advances in the microbial synthesis of diols, emphasizing the development of new pathways and engineering strategies for the biosynthesis of C2 to C5 diols. Especially, we focus on the innovative approaches include constructing non-natural synthetic pathways to achieve the biosynthesis of non-natural diols, or using alternative carbon sources such as lignocellulose through specific metabolic pathways to synthesize diols. Furthermore, this review also discusses the primary challenges and future perspectives in transforming these biosynthetic processes toward industrial applications. Key challenges involve the accessibility of low-cost and sustainable raw materials, the complexities in scaling up these processes, the development of extraction techniques that cater to specific downstream requirements, and the economic assessment of these processes to ensure profitability and sustainability. These advancements are essential for the economic and environmental viability of producing diols from renewable resources, thereby facilitating the transition to more sustainable industrial practices globally.

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二元醇是一类重要的大宗化学品,在高分子材料、化妆品、燃料、食品和制药行业有着广泛应用。开发可利用生物质及碳一原料等可再生原料生产二元醇的生物合成路线对于降低化石资源依赖、减少二氧化碳的排放具有重要意义,近年来受到了国内外广泛关注。虽然通过生物法生产1,3-丙二醇、1,3-丁二醇和1,4-丁二醇已实现商业化,但大多数其他二元醇的高效生物合成仍面临挑战,主要原因包括缺乏有效的天然生物合成途径、基因工程菌的产率低等。本综述全面探讨了微生物合成二元醇的最新研究进展,特别是在开发新代谢途径和代谢工程策略方面,以实现C2至C5二元醇的高效生物合成。例如通过对非天然合成途径的设计和构建以实现系列非天然二元醇的生物合成,以及利用非传统的碳源(如木质纤维素等)通过特定的代谢途径和优化策略合成二元醇,为生物合成领域开辟新的道路。此外,本文还讨论了这些生物合成过程向工业应用转化的主要挑战和未来的发展前景,包括廉价和可持续原料的获取、大规模放大过程的复杂性、满足下游特定需求的后提取工艺开发等。

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竺方欢(1996—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为二元醇的绿色生物制造。E-mail:

岑雪聪(1996—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为二元醇的绿色生物制造。 E-mail:

陈振(1983—),男,副教授,博士生导师。研究方向为材料、化学品及生物医药的绿色生物制造。E-mail:

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Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 2019, 116(7): 1627-1643., articleTitle=Enhanced electron transfer of different mediators for strictly opposite shifting of metabolism in Clostridium pasteurianum grown on glycerol in a new electrochemical bioreactor, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1164877146448212513, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, awardId=2021YFC2100900, language=CN, fundingSource=国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2100900), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1164877146506932770, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, awardId=22078172, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(22078172), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1164877146565653027, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, awardId=21938004, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(21938004), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1164877143818383855, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, xref=1, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1164877143826772464, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, companyId=1164877143818383855, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1 Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis (Ministry of Education),Department of Chemical Engineering,Tsinghua University,Beijing 100084,China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1164877143835161073, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, companyId=1164877143818383855, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1 清华大学化学工程系,工业生物催化教育部重点实验室,北京 100084)]), AuthorCompany(id=1164877143889687026, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, xref=2, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1164877143898075635, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, companyId=1164877143889687026, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2 Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology,Tsinghua University,Beijing 100084,China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1164877143902269940, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, companyId=1164877143889687026, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2 清华大学合成与系统生物学中心,北京 100084)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1164877145265418767, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=Biosynthetic pathways of EG

X1P—Xylulose-1-phosphate; R1P—Ribulose-1-phosphate The enzymes encoded by the genes: serA—phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase; serC—phosphoserine aminotransferase; serB—phosphoserine phosphatase; sdC—L-serine decarboxylase; ao—amine oxidase; agt—serine-glyoxylate aminotransferase; mdlC—benzoylformate decarboxylase; fucO/yqhD—alcohol dehydrogenase; xdh—D-xylose dehydrogenase; xylB—xylulokinase; xylC—xylonolactonase; yjhG/yagF—D-xylonate dehydrogenase; yjhH/yagE—2-keto-3-deoxy-D-pentose aldolase; xylA—D-xylose isomerase; khk-C—D-xylulose kinase; aldoB—D-xylulose-1-phosphate aldolase; dte—D-tagatose epimerase; fucK—fuculokinase; fucA/rhaD—D-ribulose 1-phosphate aldolase

, figureFileSmall=B4sZDV1NtD519pIkGxH8jQ==, figureFileBig=9reyW/ghqLHPQfJc1wWOXA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145324139024, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图1, caption=乙二醇的生物合成路径

X1P—木糖醛酸-1-磷酸; R1P—核糖醛酸-1-磷酸图中基因所编码的酶:serA—磷酸甘油酸脱氢酶;serC—磷酸丝氨酸氨基转移酶;serB—磷酸丝氨酸磷酸酶;sdC—丝氨酸脱羧酶;ao—胺氧化酶;agt—丝氨酸-乙醛酸氨基转移酶;mdlC—苯甲酰甲酸脱羧酶;fucO/yqhD—醇脱氢酶;xdh—D-木糖脱氢酶;xylB—木糖激酶;xylC—木糖醛酸酯酶;yjhG/yagF—D-木酮酸脱氢酶;yjhH/yagE—2-酮-3-脱氧-D-戊糖醛缩酶;xylA—D-木糖异构酶;khk-C—D-木糖醛激酶;aldoB—D-木糖醛糖-1-磷酸醛缩酶;dte—D-塔格糖异构酶;fucK—岩藻糖激酶;fucA/rhaD—D-核糖醛糖-1-磷酸醛缩酶

, figureFileSmall=B4sZDV1NtD519pIkGxH8jQ==, figureFileBig=9reyW/ghqLHPQfJc1wWOXA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145387053585, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Biosynthetic pathways of 1,2-PDO

The enzymes encoded by the genes: gldA/dhaD—glycerol dehydrogenase; dhaK—PEP-dependent dihydroxyacetone kinase; mgsA—methylglyoxal synthase; yqhD—alcohol dehydrogenase; yahK—alcohol dehydrogenase; fucO—alcohol dehydrogenase; ldhA/lldH—lactate dehydrogenase; pct—propionate CoA-transferase; pduP, aldehyde dehydrogenase

, figureFileSmall=V/9p2lNbz7uL82/eEqB5tA==, figureFileBig=9jVJditOwk8Er9as/uKmlg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145441579538, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图2, caption=1,2-丙二醇的生物合成路径

图中基因所编码的酶:gldA/dhaD—甘油脱氢酶;dhaK—PEP依赖型二羟基丙酮激酶;mgsA—甲基乙二醛合酶;yqhD—醇脱氢酶;yahK—醇脱氢酶;fucO—醇脱氢酶;ldhA/lldH—乳酸脱氢酶;pct—丙酸辅酶A转移酶;pduP—醛脱氢酶

, figureFileSmall=V/9p2lNbz7uL82/eEqB5tA==, figureFileBig=9jVJditOwk8Er9as/uKmlg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145500299795, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Biosynthetic pathways of 1,3-PDO

The enzymes encoded by the genes: tpiA—triose-phosphate isomerase; gpd—glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; gpp—glycerol-3-phosphate phosphatase; dhaBCE—vitamin B12-dependent glycerol dehydratase; dhaT/yqhD—alcohol dehydrogenase; acc—acetyl-CoA carboxylase; mcr—malonyl-CoA reductase; prpE—3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA synthetase; pduP—aldehyde dehydrogenase; car—carboxylic acid reductase; mdh—methanol dehydrogenase; adh—alcohol dehydrogenase; DERA—deoxyribose-5-phosphate aldolase; aspC—aspartate transaminase; panD—aspartate decarboxylase; bauA—β-alanine-pyruvate aminotransferase; ydfG—3-hydroxy acid dehydrogenase; M_1456—3-hydroxypropionyl-coenzyme A synthetase; lysC—malate kinase; asd—malate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; ssr—malate semialdehyde reductase; lldD—lactate dehydrogenase; kdc—ketoacid decarboxylase; pdc—pyruvate decarboxylase; gdhA—glutamate dehydrogenase; serC—phosphoserine aminotransferase

, figureFileSmall=l2e2YqRzItw8qrAcQD8OAw==, figureFileBig=run11LAK34E38zELWBZ/kQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145559020052, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图3, caption=1,3-丙二醇的生物合成路径

图中基因所编码的酶:tpiA—丙糖磷酸异构酶;gpd—甘油-3-磷酸脱氢酶;gpp—甘油-3-磷酸磷酸酶;dhaBCE—维生素B12依赖的甘油脱水酶;dhaT/yqhD—醇脱氢酶;acc—乙酰辅酶A羧化酶;mcr—丙二酰辅酶A还原酶;prpE—3-羟基丙酰辅酶A合成酶;pduP—醛脱氢酶;car—羧酸还原酶;mdh—甲醇脱氢酶;adh—醇脱氢酶;DERA—脱氧核糖-5-磷酸醛缩酶;aspC—天冬氨酸转氨酶;panD—天冬氨酸脱羧酶;bauA—β-丙氨酸-丙酮酸氨基转移酶;ydfG—3-羟基酸脱氢酶;M_1456—3-羟基丙酰辅酶A合酶;lysC—苹果酸激酶;asd—苹果酸半醛脱氢酶;ssr—苹果酸半醛还原酶;lldD—乳酸脱氢酶;kdc—酮酸脱羧酶;pdc—丙酮酸脱羧酶;gdhA—谷氨酸脱氢酶;serC—磷酸丝氨酸氨基转移酶

, figureFileSmall=l2e2YqRzItw8qrAcQD8OAw==, figureFileBig=run11LAK34E38zELWBZ/kQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145613546005, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Biosynthetic pathways of 1,3-BDO

The enzymes encoded by the genes: adhE—alcohol dehydrogenase; DERA—deoxyribose-5-phosphate aldolase; yqhD—alcohol dehydrogenase; phaA—acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase; phaB—acetoacetyl-CoA reductase; bld—3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; car—carboxylic acid reductase

, figureFileSmall=DE3keukz8VaXEIOKlu3TGw==, figureFileBig=Po5nqi+I9SNJc8GFMXhOYg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145672266262, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图4, caption=1,3-丁二醇的生物合成路径

图中基因所编码的酶:adhE—醇脱氢酶;DERA—脱氧核糖-5-磷酸醛缩酶;yqhD—醇脱氢酶;phaA—乙酰辅酶A乙酰转移酶;phaB—乙酰乙酰辅酶A还原酶;bld—3-羟基丁酰辅酶A脱氢酶;car—羧酸还原酶

, figureFileSmall=DE3keukz8VaXEIOKlu3TGw==, figureFileBig=Po5nqi+I9SNJc8GFMXhOYg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145739375127, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Biosynthetic pathways of 1,4-BDO

The enzymes encoded by the genes: gdhA—glutamate dehydrogenase; gadB—glutamate decarboxylase; gabT—aminotransferase; sucD—succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; yqhD/4hbd/adh—alcohol dehydrogenase; cat2—4-hydroxybutyrate-CoA transferase; ald—aldehyde dehydrogenase; car—carboxylic acid reductase; xylBC—D-xylose dehydrogenase; xylD/yjhG/yagF—D-xylonate dehydratase; xylX/hvo/kdxD—2-keto-3-deoxy-D-xylonate dehydratase; sadh—alcohol dehydrogenase; kivD/mdlC—decarboxylase

, figureFileSmall=6g4bYNTrfrQ/6sw1FrZHMw==, figureFileBig=IBkblgOK0bbtdZSGHoCsgg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145802289688, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图5, caption=1,4-丁二醇的生物合成路径

图中基因所编码的酶:gdhA—谷氨酸脱氢酶;gadB—谷氨酸脱羧酶;gabT—转氨酶;sucD—琥珀酸半醛脱氢酶;yqhD/4hbd/adh—醇脱氢酶;cat2—4-羟基丁酸辅酶A转移酶;ald—醛脱氢酶;car—羧酸还原酶;xylBC—D-木糖脱氢酶;xylD/yjhG/yagF—D-木酮酸脱水酶;xylX/hvo/kdxD—2-酮-3-脱氧-D-木酮酸脱水酶;sadh—醇脱氢酶;kivD/mdlC—脱羧酶

, figureFileSmall=6g4bYNTrfrQ/6sw1FrZHMw==, figureFileBig=IBkblgOK0bbtdZSGHoCsgg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145861009945, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Biosynthetic pathways of 2,3-BDO

The enzymes encoded by the genes: budB—acetolactate synthase; budA—acetolactate decarboxylase; budC—2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase

, figureFileSmall=+wjD8TgkTRvWViLuQFt0TA==, figureFileBig=O57CsIW5Sw2lgDiDDtoUHw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145932313114, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图6, caption=2,3-丁二醇的生物合成路径

图中基因所编码的酶:budB—乙酰乳酸合酶;budA—乙酰乳酸脱羧酶;budC—2,3-丁二醇脱氢酶

, figureFileSmall=+wjD8TgkTRvWViLuQFt0TA==, figureFileBig=O57CsIW5Sw2lgDiDDtoUHw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877145986839067, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=Biosynthetic pathway of 1,2-BDO

The enzymes encoded by the genes: pyc—pyruvate carboxylase; aspC—aspartate transaminase; thrA—homoserine dehydrogenase; asd—aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; thrB—homoserine kinase; thrC—threonine synthase; ilvA—L-threonine dehydratase; L-ldh—L-lactate dehydrogenase; car—carboxylic acid reductase; yqhD—alcohol dehydrogenase

, figureFileSmall=Mv9QtIz7F7zmOynXvHwZGQ==, figureFileBig=k5LD0dXmS++26kjrdHsN1Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877146041365020, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图7, caption=1,2-丁二醇的生物合成路径

图中基因所编码的酶:pyc—丙酮酸羧化酶;aspC—天冬氨酸转氨酶;thrA—高丝氨酸脱氢酶;asd—天冬氨酸半醛脱氢酶;thrB—高丝氨酸激酶;thrC—苏氨酸合酶;ilvA—L-苏氨酸脱水酶;L-ldh—L-乳酸脱氢酶;car—羧酸还原酶;yqhD—醇脱氢酶

, figureFileSmall=Mv9QtIz7F7zmOynXvHwZGQ==, figureFileBig=k5LD0dXmS++26kjrdHsN1Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877146100085277, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=Biosynthetic pathways of 1,5-PDO

The enzymes encoded by the genes: davB—lysine monooxygenase; davA—5-aminovaleramidase; gabT—4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase; yahK/yqhD—alcohol dehydrogenase; car—carboxylic acid reductase; abfT—5-hydroxyvalerate-CoA transferase; bld—aldehyde dehydrogenase; cadA—lysine decarboxylase; patA—putrescine aminotransferase; patD—alcohol dehydrogenase

, figureFileSmall=HaU9v2HukMxiMehmbCEpyA==, figureFileBig=dQ5vxWL7xZYCHGeLutwXFw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877146158805534, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=图8, caption=1,5-戊二醇的生物合成路径

图中基因所编码的酶:davB—赖氨酸单加氧酶;davA—5-氨基己酰胺酶;gabT—4-氨基丁酸转氨酶;yahK/yqhD—醇脱氢酶;car—羧酸还原酶;abfT—5-羟基戊酸辅酶A转移酶;bld—醛脱氢酶;cadA—赖氨酸脱羧酶;patA—丁二胺转氨酶;patD—醇脱氢酶

, figureFileSmall=HaU9v2HukMxiMehmbCEpyA==, figureFileBig=dQ5vxWL7xZYCHGeLutwXFw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1164877146217525791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Typical pathways and metabolic engineering modification strategies for biosynthesis of diols

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
产物 合成路径 菌株 底物 基因改造策略 产量 /(g/L) 得率 /(g/g)

生产效率

/[g/(L·h)]

理论转化率 /(g/g) 参考文献
乙二醇(EG) Dahms路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)下调xylB表达

(2)过表达yqhD

108.2 0.36 2.25 0.41 [15]
Dahms路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)敲除arcAaldA

(2)过表达yjhH, xdh, xylC, fucOyjhG

72.0 0.40 1.38 [16]
R1P路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)过表达fucK, fucOfucA

(2)敲除aldxylB

40 0.35 0.58 0.41 [17]
X1P路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)过表达khk-C, aldoBfucO

(2)敲除xylBaldA

20 0.38 0.37 0.41 [19]
X1P路径 Saccharomyces cerevisiae F251 D-木糖

(1)过表达pfk1pfk2

(2)敲除xks1

4.05 0.12 0.06 [18]
丝氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达aao, sdc, serABCfucO

(2)敲除aldA

4.1 0.14 0.7 [20]
丝氨酸路径 Corynebacterium glutamicum 葡萄糖

(1)过表达sgt, mdlC, sdc, AOyqhD

(2)插入serACB

(3)敲除pabABCsdaA

3.5 0.09 [21]

1,2-丙二醇

(1,2-PDO)

丙酮醛途径 K. pneumoniae 甘油

(1)过表达mgsAyqhD

(2)敲除tpiA

9.3 0.20 0.06 0.56 [22]
丙酮醛途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达mgsA, gldA, fdh1fucO

(2)敲除zwf, tpiA, adhE, gloAldhA

5.13 0.48 [23]
乳酸途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)敲除adhE, dld, lldD, frdA, pflB, mgsA, aldAarcA 17.3 0.18 0.72 0.56 [24]

1,3-丙二醇

(1,3-PDO)

甘油途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 135 3.50 0.59 [25]
甘油途径 Corynebacterium glutamicum 葡萄糖

(1)敲除ald, pyk, adh, poxB, ldhA, ppczwf

(2)过表达hdpA-gldA, gpd1, gpp2, yqhD, 和pduCEDGH

(3)下调表达gapA

110.4 0.42 2.30 0.59 [26]
甘油途径 Vibrio natriegens 甘油

(1)敲除pta-ackA, arcA, adhE, aldB, ldh, pfl, sthA, glpR, aldAfrdABCD

(2)过表达pntABphaP

69.5 0.51 2.90 0.67 [27]
高丝氨酸途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)敲除thrB

(2)过表达yqhD, lysC, serC R42W/R77W, metLpdc

3.03 0.05 0.55 [28]
丙二酰辅酶A途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达mcrC, pduP, mcrN, yqhDprpE 7.98 0.15 0.22 0.54 [29]
β-丙氨酸途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)敲除lysC

(2)过表达ppc

(3)下调表达gltA

11.21 0.10 0.61 [30]

1,3-丁二醇

(1,3-BDO)

3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达phaABbld 15.75 0.19 0.16 0.53 [31]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 bldL273T, yqhD, phaABpntAB

(2)敲除ldh, pta, ackA, adhE

13.40 0.30 0.42 [3]
3-羟基丁酸还原路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达phaAB, yqhD, pntAB, carsfp

(2)敲除ldh, pta, ackA, adhE

0.40 0.02 [3]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 pk, glpX, thl, hbd, tesBcar

(2)敲除 zwf, edd, pfkApfkB

22.66 0.40 0.32 0.56 [32]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达phaAB, bldyqhD

(2)敲除adhE, poxB, ldhA, pta-ackA, atoB, tesByciA

23.10 0.26 0.64 [33]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达phaAB, bld, yjgBzwf

(2)敲除adhE, poxB, ldhA, yciA, pdhR, pgigntR

71.10 0.34 1.55 [34]
DERA-AKR 路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 AKR, DERAPDC

(2)敲除pta, yjgB, adhE, ldhA, pflB, adhP, yqhD, eutG, ilvB, and poxB;

2.40 0.06 0.55 [35]

1,4-丁二醇

(1,4-BDO)

琥珀酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 >125 0.40 >3.5 0.5 [12]
谷氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达gadB, gabT, yqhD, car, ppc, gltA R163L 1.41 0.07 0.03 0.58 [36]
非磷酸化路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖、木糖

(1)敲除yagE, xylAyjhH

(2)过表达Kvid V461I, xylBCDXyqhD

12

0.26

(木糖)

0.40 0.41 [37]

1,2-丁二醇

(1,2-BDO)

苏氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达pyc, thrABC, ilvA, L-ldh, car, yqhD

(2)敲除lldd, dld

0.15 0.48 [38]

2,3-丁二醇

(2,3-BDO)

丙酮酸路径 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 葡萄糖

(1)过表达BDH1

(2)下调PDC1, PDC6, 和AHD1

178 0.34 2.64 0.5 [39]
Corynebacterium glutamicum 葡萄糖

(1)过表达budABCacs

(2)敲除ldhA, adhE, frdApta

144.9 0.43 1.10 [40]

1,5-戊二醇

(1,5-PDO)

赖氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 lysCQ298G, asd,ddh, dapA,patA, patD, cadA, gabT, yahk, car, sfp, yqhD

(2)敲除gabD, gdhA

9.25 0.16 0.05 0.40 [5]
赖氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 lysC, dapA, davB, davA, gabT, yqhD, carsfp

(2)敲除iclR

0.97 0.05 0.38 [36]
赖氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达 lysCQ298G, asd,ddh, dapA, davB, davA, gabT, yqhD, abfT, bldL273TpntAB 0.12 0.006 0.3 [41]
), ArticleFig(id=1164877146313994784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993960195973526, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

生物合成二元醇的典型路径与代谢工程改造策略

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
产物 合成路径 菌株 底物 基因改造策略 产量 /(g/L) 得率 /(g/g)

生产效率

/[g/(L·h)]

理论转化率 /(g/g) 参考文献
乙二醇(EG) Dahms路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)下调xylB表达

(2)过表达yqhD

108.2 0.36 2.25 0.41 [15]
Dahms路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)敲除arcAaldA

(2)过表达yjhH, xdh, xylC, fucOyjhG

72.0 0.40 1.38 [16]
R1P路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)过表达fucK, fucOfucA

(2)敲除aldxylB

40 0.35 0.58 0.41 [17]
X1P路径 Escherichia coli D-木糖

(1)过表达khk-C, aldoBfucO

(2)敲除xylBaldA

20 0.38 0.37 0.41 [19]
X1P路径 Saccharomyces cerevisiae F251 D-木糖

(1)过表达pfk1pfk2

(2)敲除xks1

4.05 0.12 0.06 [18]
丝氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达aao, sdc, serABCfucO

(2)敲除aldA

4.1 0.14 0.7 [20]
丝氨酸路径 Corynebacterium glutamicum 葡萄糖

(1)过表达sgt, mdlC, sdc, AOyqhD

(2)插入serACB

(3)敲除pabABCsdaA

3.5 0.09 [21]

1,2-丙二醇

(1,2-PDO)

丙酮醛途径 K. pneumoniae 甘油

(1)过表达mgsAyqhD

(2)敲除tpiA

9.3 0.20 0.06 0.56 [22]
丙酮醛途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达mgsA, gldA, fdh1fucO

(2)敲除zwf, tpiA, adhE, gloAldhA

5.13 0.48 [23]
乳酸途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)敲除adhE, dld, lldD, frdA, pflB, mgsA, aldAarcA 17.3 0.18 0.72 0.56 [24]

1,3-丙二醇

(1,3-PDO)

甘油途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 135 3.50 0.59 [25]
甘油途径 Corynebacterium glutamicum 葡萄糖

(1)敲除ald, pyk, adh, poxB, ldhA, ppczwf

(2)过表达hdpA-gldA, gpd1, gpp2, yqhD, 和pduCEDGH

(3)下调表达gapA

110.4 0.42 2.30 0.59 [26]
甘油途径 Vibrio natriegens 甘油

(1)敲除pta-ackA, arcA, adhE, aldB, ldh, pfl, sthA, glpR, aldAfrdABCD

(2)过表达pntABphaP

69.5 0.51 2.90 0.67 [27]
高丝氨酸途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)敲除thrB

(2)过表达yqhD, lysC, serC R42W/R77W, metLpdc

3.03 0.05 0.55 [28]
丙二酰辅酶A途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达mcrC, pduP, mcrN, yqhDprpE 7.98 0.15 0.22 0.54 [29]
β-丙氨酸途径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)敲除lysC

(2)过表达ppc

(3)下调表达gltA

11.21 0.10 0.61 [30]

1,3-丁二醇

(1,3-BDO)

3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达phaABbld 15.75 0.19 0.16 0.53 [31]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 bldL273T, yqhD, phaABpntAB

(2)敲除ldh, pta, ackA, adhE

13.40 0.30 0.42 [3]
3-羟基丁酸还原路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达phaAB, yqhD, pntAB, carsfp

(2)敲除ldh, pta, ackA, adhE

0.40 0.02 [3]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 pk, glpX, thl, hbd, tesBcar

(2)敲除 zwf, edd, pfkApfkB

22.66 0.40 0.32 0.56 [32]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达phaAB, bldyqhD

(2)敲除adhE, poxB, ldhA, pta-ackA, atoB, tesByciA

23.10 0.26 0.64 [33]
3-羟基丁酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达phaAB, bld, yjgBzwf

(2)敲除adhE, poxB, ldhA, yciA, pdhR, pgigntR

71.10 0.34 1.55 [34]
DERA-AKR 路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 AKR, DERAPDC

(2)敲除pta, yjgB, adhE, ldhA, pflB, adhP, yqhD, eutG, ilvB, and poxB;

2.40 0.06 0.55 [35]

1,4-丁二醇

(1,4-BDO)

琥珀酰辅酶A路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 >125 0.40 >3.5 0.5 [12]
谷氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达gadB, gabT, yqhD, car, ppc, gltA R163L 1.41 0.07 0.03 0.58 [36]
非磷酸化路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖、木糖

(1)敲除yagE, xylAyjhH

(2)过表达Kvid V461I, xylBCDXyqhD

12

0.26

(木糖)

0.40 0.41 [37]

1,2-丁二醇

(1,2-BDO)

苏氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达pyc, thrABC, ilvA, L-ldh, car, yqhD

(2)敲除lldd, dld

0.15 0.48 [38]

2,3-丁二醇

(2,3-BDO)

丙酮酸路径 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 葡萄糖

(1)过表达BDH1

(2)下调PDC1, PDC6, 和AHD1

178 0.34 2.64 0.5 [39]
Corynebacterium glutamicum 葡萄糖

(1)过表达budABCacs

(2)敲除ldhA, adhE, frdApta

144.9 0.43 1.10 [40]

1,5-戊二醇

(1,5-PDO)

赖氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 lysCQ298G, asd,ddh, dapA,patA, patD, cadA, gabT, yahk, car, sfp, yqhD

(2)敲除gabD, gdhA

9.25 0.16 0.05 0.40 [5]
赖氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖

(1)过表达 lysC, dapA, davB, davA, gabT, yqhD, carsfp

(2)敲除iclR

0.97 0.05 0.38 [36]
赖氨酸路径 Escherichia coli 葡萄糖 (1)过表达 lysCQ298G, asd,ddh, dapA, davB, davA, gabT, yqhD, abfT, bldL273TpntAB 0.12 0.006 0.3 [41]
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微生物合成二元醇研究进展
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竺方欢 1 , 岑雪聪 1 , 陈振 1, 2
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(6): 1367-1385
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(6): 1367-1385
微生物合成二元醇研究进展
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竺方欢1 , 岑雪聪1 , 陈振1, 2
作者信息
  • 1 清华大学化学工程系,工业生物催化教育部重点实验室,北京 100084
  • 2 清华大学合成与系统生物学中心,北京 100084
  • 竺方欢(1996—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为二元醇的绿色生物制造。E-mail:

    岑雪聪(1996—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为二元醇的绿色生物制造。 E-mail:

    陈振(1983—),男,副教授,博士生导师。研究方向为材料、化学品及生物医药的绿色生物制造。E-mail:

Research progress of diols production by microbes
Fanghuan ZHU1 , Xuecong CEN1 , Zhen CHEN1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1 Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis (Ministry of Education),Department of Chemical Engineering,Tsinghua University,Beijing 100084,China
  • 2 Center for Synthetic and Systems Biology,Tsinghua University,Beijing 100084,China
出版时间: 2024-12-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-014
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二元醇是一类重要的大宗化学品,在高分子材料、化妆品、燃料、食品和制药行业有着广泛应用。开发可利用生物质及碳一原料等可再生原料生产二元醇的生物合成路线对于降低化石资源依赖、减少二氧化碳的排放具有重要意义,近年来受到了国内外广泛关注。虽然通过生物法生产1,3-丙二醇、1,3-丁二醇和1,4-丁二醇已实现商业化,但大多数其他二元醇的高效生物合成仍面临挑战,主要原因包括缺乏有效的天然生物合成途径、基因工程菌的产率低等。本综述全面探讨了微生物合成二元醇的最新研究进展,特别是在开发新代谢途径和代谢工程策略方面,以实现C2至C5二元醇的高效生物合成。例如通过对非天然合成途径的设计和构建以实现系列非天然二元醇的生物合成,以及利用非传统的碳源(如木质纤维素等)通过特定的代谢途径和优化策略合成二元醇,为生物合成领域开辟新的道路。此外,本文还讨论了这些生物合成过程向工业应用转化的主要挑战和未来的发展前景,包括廉价和可持续原料的获取、大规模放大过程的复杂性、满足下游特定需求的后提取工艺开发等。

二元醇  /  生物合成  /  代谢工程  /  可再生原料  /  工业应用

Production of chemicals using renewable bioresources and green biomanufacturing processes is highly important for sustainable bioeconomy. Diols are important bulk chemicals widely used in the production of polymers, cosmetics, fuels, food, and pharmaceutical industries due to their versatile functional properties. Currently, most of diols are produced mainly from fossil resources via energy-cost chemical approaches. The development of biosynthetic routes for the production of diols from renewable resources such as biomass and C1 has garnered significant attention due to its potential in reducing the utilization of fossil resources and carbon dioxide emissions. Although biological production of 1,3-propanediol, 1,3-butanediol and 1,4-butanediol has been commercialized, the biosynthesis of other major diols remains challenging due to the absence of efficient natural biosynthetic pathways and low efficiency of the recombinant microbes. Recent development of metabolic engineering and synthetic biology enables the production of non-natural chemicals via artificial metabolic pathways and novel biological parts, significantly expanding the boundary of biomanufacturing. This review comprehensively explores recent advances in the microbial synthesis of diols, emphasizing the development of new pathways and engineering strategies for the biosynthesis of C2 to C5 diols. Especially, we focus on the innovative approaches include constructing non-natural synthetic pathways to achieve the biosynthesis of non-natural diols, or using alternative carbon sources such as lignocellulose through specific metabolic pathways to synthesize diols. Furthermore, this review also discusses the primary challenges and future perspectives in transforming these biosynthetic processes toward industrial applications. Key challenges involve the accessibility of low-cost and sustainable raw materials, the complexities in scaling up these processes, the development of extraction techniques that cater to specific downstream requirements, and the economic assessment of these processes to ensure profitability and sustainability. These advancements are essential for the economic and environmental viability of producing diols from renewable resources, thereby facilitating the transition to more sustainable industrial practices globally.

diols  /  biosynthesis  /  metabolic engineering  /  renewable resources  /  industrial application
竺方欢, 岑雪聪, 陈振. 微生物合成二元醇研究进展. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (6) : 1367 -1385 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-014
Fanghuan ZHU, Xuecong CEN, Zhen CHEN. Research progress of diols production by microbes[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (6) : 1367 -1385 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-014
二元醇是一类广泛应用于工业中的高值化学品,在合成聚酯、聚氨酯、聚醚多元醇、增塑剂、化妆品、药物及多种产品中都发挥着关键作用1-2。它们的结构多样性和多功能性主要源于其不同的碳链长度、结构及羟基的位置。这些因素共同决定了二元醇的物理和化学特性,如立体空间结构、氢键形成能力、羟基的反应活性等,进而影响它们的应用范围。以乙二醇(EG)为例,因其低冰点和高沸点而成为制造防冻剂的首选,在汽车冷却系统中的应用尤为广泛。此外,无毒的二元醇,如1,2-丙二醇(1,2-PDO)、1,3-丙二醇(1,3-PDO)和1,3-丁二醇(1,3-BDO),在化妆品和食品工业中用作溶剂、保湿剂和防腐剂3-4。这些二元醇以其良好的安全性和保湿性,在日常消费品中扮演重要角色。在聚合物制造方面,多种1,n-二元醇[如EG、1,3-PDO、1,4-丁二醇(1,4-BDO)]作为关键单体,对合成聚酯和聚氨酯等材料具有重要意义,而1,5-戊二醇(1,5-PDO)因其较长的碳链在制造高性能改性塑料方面表现出独特的价值。因此,二元醇因其多功能性和独特的化学特性,不仅在化学合成领域不可替代,同时在日常生活中发挥着关键作用5。随着化工行业对二元醇的需求不断增长,C2~C5二元醇的年产量已经超过了5000万吨6
大多数二元醇的合成主要基于化石原料的化学转化过程,然而,这种生产方式不仅会导致CO2的大量排放,还受到化石原料价格波动的影响,从而直接影响二元醇及其下游产品的生产成本7-8。因此,随着全球对环保和可持续发展的关注日益增强,开发绿色、可持续的二元醇生产方法成为了化工行业的重大挑战。在这方面,绿色生物合成技术展现出了巨大的潜力。利用微生物将廉价可再生碳源转化为二元醇,不仅能减少对非可再生资源的依赖,还有助于减少环境污染,对于助力我国“双碳”目标的实现具有重要的意义。同时,生物合成方法在制备手性二元醇方面展现出比化学法更为显著的优势,例如合成用于手性药物和除草剂等领域的R-1,2-丙二醇9以及用于生产香精、杀虫剂、多种抗生素等的R-1,3-丁二醇10
近年来代谢工程和合成生物学的飞速发展为生物合成二元醇开辟了新天地。通过对微生物代谢途径的改造和优化,研究者们已经能够使微生物高效生产一些特定的二元醇。第一个大规模商业化的二元醇生物合成工艺是由杜邦公司在21世纪初开发的利用重组大肠杆菌合成1,3-PDO技术。与石油路线相比,该技术使原料成本下降37%,全生命周期二氧化碳排放减少63%,过程能耗减少30%11,展示了生物技术在大宗化学品绿色合成方面的巨大应用潜力,也因此获得了2003年美国总统绿色化学挑战奖。近年来,生物法合成1,4-BDO和1,3-BDO技术也已由美国Genomatica公司实现商业化12,在欧美市场引起巨大的反响,这些商业化案例不仅证明了生物法合成二元醇的技术和经济可行性,也为未来更多种类二元醇的绿色生物制造打开了广阔的空间。
虽然少数生物法合成二元醇的技术已成功实现商业化规模生产,但绝大多数其他二元醇的生物合成过程仍面临众多挑战。关键挑战之一是许多重要二元醇,如1,2-丁二醇(1,2-BDO)、1,5-PDO等,在自然界中缺乏对应的天然生物合成路径,因此如何设计和开发不存在于自然界的生物转化途径成为一大难题。此外,这些二元醇的生物合成还面临其他一些共性挑战,包括缺乏高效的生物催化元件、人工途径与底盘的适配差、过程的原子经济性不足及复杂的后期提取工艺等问题。本综述着重介绍近年来C2~C5二元醇生物合成研究的最新研究进展,特别是开发新的代谢途径和新的代谢工程策略来生产天然和非天然二元醇。此外,我们还讨论了这些生物合成工艺未来商业化的挑战,包括廉价和可持续原料的获取、大规模放大过程的复杂性、满足下游特定需求的后提取工艺开发以及过程经济性评估等。这些挑战对于推动生物合成领域的不断创新和发展以满足化工产业对安全、经济、环保和可持续发展的需求具有重要参考意义。
EG是一种重要的C2二元醇,广泛应用于合成聚酯纤维、树脂(例如聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯,PET)和作为溶剂与防冻剂13-14。传统上,EG主要通过化学方法从化石资源衍生的乙烯生产。近年来开发的生物基EG是通过生物-化学偶合的方法,即从生物质衍生的乙醇脱水制得乙烯,进而生产EG,但这种方法成本高且能耗大。因此,直接从糖转化为EG的绿色生物合成过程备受关注。目前,有三条主要的生物合成路径可用于从D-木糖生产EG:Dahms途径、木酮糖-1-磷酸(X1P)途径和核酮糖-1-磷酸(R1P)途径(图1表1)。这三条途径具有相同的理论得率,且都是利用醛缩酶将戊糖裂解为C3化合物和乙醛醇,最终通过醇脱氢酶将乙醛醇转化为EG15-19,但各个途径的效率及实现的难度有显著差异。
在这些途径中,Dahms途径是最早也最容易实现的途径,仅需在大肠杆菌中引入来源于C. crescentus的异源基因(xylBC)将D-木糖氧化为D-木糖酸,后者就可以通过大肠杆菌内源的途径转化为1分子EG和1分子丙酮酸。为提高EG产量,研究者采取了多种策略,包括挖掘高效醇脱氢酶、减少有毒中间体D-木糖酸和副产物乙醇酸积累,以及平衡天然和异源D-木糖代谢途径等。例如,Chae等15通过过表达NADPH依赖的醇脱氢酶基因yqhD,并调节xylB表达,成功构建的大肠杆菌能积累108.2 g/L的EG,是目前报道的EG最高产量,显示了该途径的巨大应用潜力。而Wang等16通过过表达醇脱氢酶基因fucO并敲除转录调控因子arcA和醛脱氢酶基因aldA,获得了72 g/L的EG。
与Dahms途径不同,X1P途径和R1P都是先将D-木糖异构成酮糖(D-木酮糖或D-核酮糖)再磷酸化成对应的D-酮糖-1-磷酸(X1P或R1P),进一步在不同的D-酮糖-1-磷酸醛缩酶作用下裂解为磷酸二羟丙酮(DHAP)和乙醛醇。由于需要经过磷酸化步骤,X1P和R1P途径的能量效率低于Dahms途径,但这两条途径具有更广的适用性,可将D-木酮糖或D-核酮糖转化成EG。Alkim等19通过过表达人源D-木酮糖激酶基因khk-C和大肠杆菌自身的X1P醛缩酶基因aldoBfucO基因,并敲除D-木酮糖-5激酶基因xylB和醛脱氢酶基因aldA,获得一株能够在好氧条件下积累20 g/L EG的大肠杆菌,EG得率达到0.38 g/g。Pereira等17通过在大肠杆菌中引入戊糖环化酶基因(dte)或异构酶基因(fucl/rhaA),并结合大肠杆菌自身的R1P醛缩酶(fucArhaD)实现了多种戊糖到EG的转化,其中以D-木糖为底物时EG的产量达到40 g/L,得率为0.35 g/g。
以上这三种途径主要涉及到将C5化合物(戊糖)分解成乙醛醇和C3化合物,但它们的理论得率相对较低(0.4 C-mol/C-mol),限制了它们的工业应用。为了提高EG的得率,如何将C3化合物转化为EG变得至关重要。Stephanopoulos团队20和本研究团队21提出了一种依赖丝氨酸的非天然途径。在该途径中,丝氨酸可以通过三个酶促步骤转化为EG。这种丝氨酸依赖途径通常适用于不同的碳源,并且具有更高的理论得率(0.6 C-mol/C-mol)。表达该途径的大肠杆菌可以利用葡萄糖生产4.1 g/L的EG。然而,由于缺乏有效的酶来将丝氨酸转化为乙醛醇,以及丝氨酸被许多重要的代谢途径所消耗,目前的EG产量仍较低。因此,进一步的蛋白质工程和代谢工程改造对于提高这一途径的效率至关重要。考虑到乙二醇价格相对低廉,必须通过进一步提升乙二醇产量以及降低原材料成本来强化其市场竞争力,因此,实现其商业化仍面临诸多挑战。
1,2-PDO广泛应用于建筑材料、化工和制药行业中,用于生产聚酯树脂、防冻剂、液体洗涤剂、生物燃料、化妆品、食品等42。目前,1,2-PDO主要通过化学合成法,即丙烯水合反应进行商业生产43。1,2-PDO存在R型和S型两种立体异构体。与外消旋的产品相比,纯立体异构体在手性药物有机合成中表现出更高的潜力。因此,通过生物合成法生产1,2-PDO的纯立体异构体受到广泛关注。多种微生物天然具备产生1,2-PDO的能力。然而,不同类型的微生物在所使用的底物、发酵条件和反应机制方面存在显著差异,并能产生不同类型的异构体。1,2-PDO的生物合成途径可以分为三种:脱氧己糖途径、丙酮醛途径和乳酸途径(图2)。尽管这些途径涉及不同的中间体和酶,但均仅在厌氧条件下有效。
天然的脱氧己糖途径存在于某些细菌中,如梭菌属(Clostridium44和克雷伯氏菌属(Klebsiella45,但这一途径仅能利用特定的糖类底物脱氧己糖(如岩藻糖和鼠李糖)。脱氧己糖首先被转化为相应的磷酸化形式,然后通过一系列代谢步骤最终转化为1,2-PDO。尽管这一代谢途径已被广泛研究,但由于L-岩藻糖和L-鼠李糖等底物成本较高,难以大规模应用于商业化生产。
丙酮醛途径(图2表1)是将DHAP通过mgsA编码的丙酮醛合酶转化为关键中间体丙酮醛,随后通过不同的醇脱氢酶进一步将其转化为乳醛或丙酮醇并最终还原为1,2-PDO。Sun等22K. pneumoniae中过表达mgsAyqhD基因,并且敲除编码丙糖磷酸异构酶的tpiA基因,重组菌株以甘油为底物最终可生产9.3 g/L的1,2-PDO。此外,通过阻断其他副产物生成并通过适应性进化改善细胞的厌氧生长,改造后的大肠杆菌以葡萄糖为底物可生产5.13 g/L的1,2-PDO,产率达到0.48 g/g23。由于丙酮醛途径可使用多种糖类底物,其底物灵活性高,有助于降低生产成本,但同时,这一途径也需要解决中间代谢物丙酮醛的细胞毒性、平衡细胞代谢和生长的挑战。
与丙酮醛途径相比,乳酸衍生途径(图2表1)避免了有毒中间体丙酮醛的产生,并能利用多种乳酸脱氢酶产生具有特定立体构型的1,2-PDO。通过阻断乙醇、乳酸、甲酸、乙酸和丙酮醛等副产物形成途径(ΔadhEΔlldDΔdldΔfrdAΔmgsAΔaldAΔpflB),激活TCA循环(ΔarcA),并过表达乳酸酰辅酶A转移酶基因pct、辅酶A依赖的醛脱氢酶基因pduP和乳醛还原酶基因yahK,重组大肠杆菌以葡萄糖为底物可产生17.3 g/L的R型1,2-PDO或9.3 g/L的S型1,2-PDO24。鉴于1,2-PDO相对较低的市场价格,为了实际应用的可行性,还需要通过系统的代谢工程进一步提高1,2-PDO的产量和生产效率。
1,3-PDO是一种重要的有机溶剂,广泛应用于化妆品、树脂和制药等工业领域,同时也是制备高性能材料的重要原材料或中间体。1,3-PDO为关键单体的高性能聚酯材料聚对苯二甲酸丙二醇酯(PTT)具有优良的柔软性、弹性和耐污性等特点,被称为“聚酯之王”,具有十分广阔的市场应用前景46-47
在自然界中,多种微生物具备将甘油转化为1,3-PDO的能力,包括 Klebsiella pneumoniaeClostridium butyricumClostridium pasteurianumEnterobacter agglomeransCitrobacter freundiiLactobacillus brevis4,其中K. pneumoniae、C. butyricumC. pasteurianum已被广泛应用于1,3-PDO的生产。这些微生物在厌氧或微氧条件下将甘油转化为1,3-PDO,这一过程包括简单的两步酶促反应,即甘油在甘油脱水酶的催化下脱水生成3-羟基丙醛(3-HPA),然后在1,3-丙二醇脱氢酶的催化下进一步还原为1,3-PDO(图3)。这一过程需要的还原力NADH通过甘油的氧化途径产生,因而伴随着多种副产物的积累,如乳酸、琥珀酸、乙酸、乙醇、2,3-丁二醇或丁酸等,这些副产物不仅会降低1,3-PDO的产量,还会增加纯化难度48。虽然敲除相关基因可以减少某些特定副产物的生成,但这一过程往往伴随着其他副产物积累的增加,因而无法显著提高1,3-PDO的产量49-50。此外,研究者也通过对非天然的1,3-PDO生产底盘进行了系统的工程改造,使其能够高效地利用甘油生产1,3-PDO。例如,通过将异源甘油脱水酶基因dhaBCE和醇脱氢酶基因yqhD引入生长迅速的需钠弧菌Vibrio natriegens中,并对其代谢网络进行重新编程27,包括阻断副产物合成途径、平衡甘油氧化和还原途径、调控氧化还原力平衡、改造转录调控因子等,最终改造后的菌株能够在好氧条件下生产69.5 g/L的1,3-PDO,生产效率达到2.90 g/(L·h),且无副产物积累。
除甘油外,研究者也探索了不同的底物用于生物合成1,3-PDO(图3表1)。目前最成功的案例之一是杜邦公司在21世纪初开发的重组1,3-PDO生物合成线路。他们以大肠杆菌为底盘细胞,成功从葡萄糖生产1,3-PDO,最终产量达到135 g/L,生产效率达到3.5g/(L·h),并于2006年实现商业化生产25。此外,本团队Li等26通过优化谷氨酸棒杆菌中特有的甘油合成模块并整合外源的1,3-PDO合成模块,构建了可以高产1,3-PDO的重组谷氨酸棒杆菌。通过减少有毒的3-HPA和其他副产物的积累、替换gapA的起始密码子为GTG、减弱下游的糖酵解途径、弱化磷酸戊糖循环途径(Δzwf)和C4回补途径(Δppc)等策略来对细胞代谢进行重编程,最终获得的重组菌株以葡萄糖为底物可生产110.4 g/L的1,3-PDO,以葡萄糖和木糖作为共底物可生产98.2 g/L的1,3-PDO26,这一技术目前已经在国内实现了商业化。
将天然的1,3-PDO合成途径表达到异源宿主时,通常需要添加维生素B12作为甘油脱水酶所需的辅因子,这显著增加了生产成本。为解决这个问题,研究者提出了几种不依赖甘油且无需维生素B12的替代途径,包括高丝氨酸衍生途径、苹果酸衍生途径、3-羟基丙酸衍生途径(图3)。在高丝氨酸衍生途径中,高丝氨酸首先在转氨酶或脱氢酶的催化下被转化为2-酮-4-羟基丁酸。然后通过α-酮酸脱羧酶将2-酮-4-羟基丁酸进一步转化为3-HPA,最后通过醇脱氢酶还原为1,3-PDO2851-52。尽管工程改造后的大肠杆菌已能够在流加葡萄糖的发酵条件下生产3.03 g/L的1,3-PDO28,但前两个反应步骤仍需要寻找高效和特异的酶来进一步提高产量。在苹果酸衍生途径中,苹果酸经由苹果酸激酶、苹果酸半醛脱氢酶和醛脱氢酶催化生成2,4-二羟基丁酸。2,4-二羟基丁酸通过氧化生成2-酮-4-羟基丁酸,并进一步通过α-酮酸脱羧酶和醇脱氢酶转化为1,3-PDO。尽管重组的大肠杆菌最终能产出微量的1,3-PDO,但由于前五个步骤缺乏高效催化的酶,限制了进一步的产量提高53-54。与其他途径相比,3-羟基丙酸衍生途径具有更高的效率,通过利用天然的3-羟基丙酰辅酶A合酶、醛脱氢酶和醇脱氢可以有效地将3-羟基丙酸转化为1,3-PDO。Li等29通过在大肠杆菌中进一步整合丙二酰辅酶A衍生的3-羟基丙酸合成途径,首次实现了以单一菌株转化葡萄糖、甘油、木糖和乙酸等多底物生产1,3-PDO,展示了该途径的巨大潜力。类似地,将β-丙氨酸衍生的3-羟基丁酸合成途径与3-羟基丙酸还原途径相结合可生产11.21 g/L的1,3-PDO30
综上所述,尽管目前生物法1,3-PDO已经实现了商业化,但进一步降低其生产成本仍然是推动其大规模商业化应用的关键。通过采用更加廉价的原料、减少昂贵营养成分的添加(如维生素B12、酵母粉等)、降低发酵(如采用无需灭菌的连续过程)和后提取过程的能耗、实现副产物的综合利用都是需要考虑的因素。目前这些方面已经开展了一些尝试,如Zeng团队55将发酵过程的副产物乙酸和丁酸进行酯化不但降低了分离成本,还获得了更加高值的乙酸乙酯和丁酸乙酯。为了获得高的原子利用效率,通过设计人工途径将乙醇和甲醇作为共底物生产1,3-PDO,该过程1,3-PDO的理论得率可以达到1.0 C-mol/C-mol56
1,3-BDO是一种具有重要工业价值的C4二元醇,它不仅在化妆品行业作为保湿剂被广泛应用,还是塑化剂、树脂和合成橡胶等行业的关键原料。1,3-BDO存在两种立体异构体,其中(R)-1,3-BDO作为合成抗生素、香料和杀虫剂等产品的中间体具有更高的应用价值,而化学法合成的1,3-BDO都是外消旋体3
在生物合成领域,Kataoka等31首次报道了一种基于3-羟基丁酰辅酶A的1,3-BDO生物合成路径(图4表1)。该路径涉及多个关键酶的共表达,包括乙酰辅酶A转移酶(PhaA)、乙酰乙酰辅酶A还原酶(PhaB)、3-羟基丁酰辅酶A脱氢酶(Bld)和醇脱氢酶(Adh)。通过精细调控发酵条件,如优化pH值(5.5)和氧传递系数(82.3 h-1),优化后的大肠杆菌菌株能够积累15.75 g/L的(R)- 1,3-BDO,得率达到0.19 g/g葡萄糖。Liu等3通过增强醛脱氢酶的活性(引入L273T突变)、提升NADPH供应(过表达pntAB基因)、减少副产物(敲除ldhAptaackAadhE基因)及优化发酵条件(改善通气等),显著提高了(R)-1,3-BDO的得率(0.3 g/g)。他们还创新性地通过利用羧酸还原酶(CAR)和醇脱氢酶,将副产物3-HB有效地转化为1,3-BDO,进一步提高了1,3-BDO的得率。Wang等32结合3-HB还原途径和非氧化糖酵解途径(non-oxidative glycolysis, NOG),进一步将1,3-BDO得率提升至0.4 g/g,产量达到22.66 g/L。Islam等34通过ED途径再生NADPH并精细调整培养条件(包括碳氮比、通气量、诱导条件、温度和氨基酸等),1,3-BDO产量可以达到71.1 g/L。Genomatica公司亦研发了一种以葡萄糖为原料生产1,3-丁二醇的工艺,并自2017年起开始向市场销售。
除了上述途径,Kim等35提出了一种基于脱氧核糖-5-磷酸醛缩酶的简化途径(DERA),可以将2个乙醛分子缩合成3-羟基丁醛,从而生产1,3-BDO(图4表1)。虽然这条途径更短,但由于乙醛的高毒性和DERA低活性和低特异性的局限,改造的工程菌株最高仅能积累2.4 g/L的1,3-BDO。
1,4-BDO是另外一种大宗的化工原料,广泛用于合成聚酯、氨纶和四氢呋喃等重要材料和化工产品57。此外,1,4-BDO还是可降解塑料聚对苯二甲酸-己二酸丁二醇酯(PBAT)、聚丁二酸丁二醇酯(PBS)的关键合成单体58。然而,传统的生产路线依赖于不可持续的化石资源(如电石等)和能源密集型化学工艺。以生物基琥珀酸为原料制得的1,4-BDO,生物碳含量可达到80%以上,但仍然依赖酯化、加氢等化学工艺。因此,开发利用可持续原料清洁生产1,4-BDO的绿色生物制造技术受到产业界的广泛关注。
Genomatica公司在大肠杆菌中建立非天然的1,4-BDO合成途径,并实现其商业化生产(图5表1)。研究团队首先通过利用内部的SimPheny Biopathway Predictor软件,筛选出超过10 000条从中心代谢物合成1,4-BDO的潜在途径。经过基于最大理论得率、代谢途径长度、非天然反应步骤数和热力学可行性等因素的迭代筛选,最终确定了合成1,4-BDO的高效路径。他们选择的合成途径起始于TCA循环中的琥珀酰辅酶A,通过来源于Porphyromonas gingivalis的琥珀酸半醛脱氢酶(SucD)和4-HB脱氢酶(4HBd)将其还原为4-HB。4-HB进一步在辅酶A转移酶(Cat2),辅酶A还原酶(Ald)和醇脱氢酶(Adh)的催化下生成1,4-BDO59。为了构建满足工业生产需求的工业菌株,研究团队对代谢途径和底盘细胞进行了一系列系统的改造,包括:①挖掘并改造途径关键酶Cat2和Ald,提高其活性和特异性;②降低副产物的生成,敲除了底盘细胞中的副产物合成相关的基因(包括adhEpflldhmdh),同时优化了内酯酶、乙酸激酶/磷酸转乙酰酶(ackA-pta)、PEP羧化酶(ppc)、α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶亚基(sucAB-lpdA)编码基因的表达水平;③增强厌氧环境下TCA循环的效率,用Klebsiella pneumonialpdAD345K 替代大肠杆菌内源lpdA基因,同时改造柠檬酸合酶(gltAR163L ),并使转录调控因子arcA失活;④减少碳损失并平衡菌株生长,包括敲除磷酸戊糖循环途径的基因zwf和TCA循环中的基因sdhABCD,并过表达pntAB 1260。通过这些全方位系统改造和发酵优化,最终的工程化菌株以葡萄糖为底物可产125 g/L 1,4-BDO,生产效率超过3.5 g/(L·h),得率达到0.4 g/g。Genomatica公司先后已授权多家公司生产生物基1,4-BDO,包括德国BASF公司、意大利Novamont公司以及Qore公司等,产能超10万吨/年。
除了以葡萄糖为底物,研究人员还探索了多种将木质纤维素衍生糖转化为1,4-BDO的途径(图5表1)。Tai等37提出了一种以D-木糖、L-阿拉伯糖和D-半乳糖酸为底物合成1,4-BDO的路径。以D-木糖为例,通过引入Caulobacter crescentusxylBCDX的基因簇,D-木糖首先转化为D-木糖酸,再经历两步脱水反应形成α-酮戊二酸半醛(L-阿拉伯糖和D-半乳糖酸也可通过类似步骤实现转化)。α-酮戊二酸半醛进一步通过脱羧生成丁二醛,在醇脱氢酶催化下还原为1,4-BDO。通过删除xylAyjhHyagE基因阻断戊糖磷酸途径和Dahms途径,优化后的大肠杆菌能够在补料发酵中以D-木糖、L-阿拉伯糖和D-半乳糖酸为底物分别生成12 g/L、15.6 g/L和16.5 g/L的1,4-BDO。这一途径包含更少的酶促反应步骤,且不参与TCA循环,使得代谢调控更为简单,但该途径不能产生足够的还原力,因而还需要通过添加其他的底物来提供还原力。此外,Liu等61和Wang等62也利用基因回路构建和蛋白质工程等方法开发了多条利用木糖生产1,4-BDO的人工生物合成路径,但由于缺少高效且特异性的酶,目前产量仍然较低。在利用多底物生产1,4-BDO的过程中,副产物积累、路径酶的特异性和高效性提升等问题仍然是亟待解决的关键挑战。
2,3-BDO是唯一能够由多种微生物天然合成的C4二元醇4。因其含有两个手性中心,所以存在三种立体异构体:(2R,3R)-BDO、(2R,3S)- BDO和(2S,3S)-BDO。2,3-BDO可直接作为燃料添加剂和防冻剂使用,或用于生产1,3-丁二烯和甲基乙基酮等大宗化学品63-64。光学纯的(2S,3S)-BDO和(2R,3R)-BDO是重要的药物中间体。2,3-BDO的生物合成路径主要包括3个步骤(图6表1)。首先2 mol的丙酮酸通过乙酰乳酸合酶(BudB)合成1 mol的乙酰乳酸,接着由乙酰乳酸脱羧酶(BudA)将其脱羧为乙偶姻。乙偶姻可以进一步由2,3-BDO脱氢酶还原为2,3-BDO,目前已经鉴定并利用了多种立体特异性的2,3-BDO脱氢酶来构建所需的光学纯2,3-丁二醇65-66
鉴于许多天然的2,3-BDO生产菌株具有条件致病性,或者生产2,3-BDO是多种异构体的混合物,近年来的研究主要聚焦在构建非致病性的2,3-BDO高产菌株,从而利用多样化的廉价原料来生产光学纯的2,3-BDO3967-70。酿酒酵母和谷氨酸棒杆菌是被公认为安全(GRAS)的工业微生物并在大规模发酵中具有优良的鲁棒性,使其成为从可再生廉价原料生产2,3-BDO的优选宿主3967-68。阻断乙醇和甘油的生物合成路径及重新平衡细胞的氧化还原状态是提高酿酒酵母生产2,3-BDO能力的关键因素。通过降低丙酮酸脱羧酶(PDC)和醇脱氢酶(ADH)的活性,并过表达NADH氧化酶基因noxE,Lee等39将酿酒酵母的2,3-BDO产量提高到了178 g/L,生产效率达到2.64 g/(L·h),这是迄今为止报道的最高产量。近期,通过优化丁二醇脱氢酶基因bdhA的表达,过表达转氢酶基因udhA来增强NADH供应,并通过引入atpG突变体增加葡萄糖消耗,改造过后的谷氨酸棒杆菌能够生产144.9 g/L的(2R,3R)-BDO,得率达到0.43 g/g葡萄糖40
1,2-BDO是一种在聚酯多元醇、增塑剂、化妆品以及制药领域广泛应用的重要化学品。目前1,2-BDO的生产完全依赖于化学路线,主要利用不可再生化石资源如环氧丁烷和环氧丙烷进行水合反应71。自然界中尚未发现其天然的生物合成途径。最近,Qin等38在大肠杆菌中首次构建了以葡萄糖为底物合成1,2-BDO的非天然合成途径(图7表1)。该途径在增强L-苏氨酸合成的基础上,通过引入L-苏氨酸脱水酶基因ilvAPlasmodium falciparum来源的乳酸脱氢酶基因突变体ldh N184D,将L-苏氨酸转化为2-羟基丁酸,随后通过羧酸还原酶和醇脱氢酶催化的两步还原反应,实现了2-羟基丁酸到1,2-BDO的转化。最终获得的重组菌株以葡萄糖为唯一碳源可以合成0.15 g/L的1,2-BDO,这为利用可再生资源生产1,2-BDO提供了新的可能性。
1,5-PDO是最重要的C5二元醇之一,它在生产聚酯、聚氨酯、增塑剂和纤维等材料方面有着广泛的应用。鉴于其化学生产所需的主要原料戊二酸/戊二酸二甲酯的来源十分有限,开发可利用廉价原料生产1,5-PDO的生物技术显得尤为关键。目前,Pyran公司使用玉米芯、甘蔗渣等生物质原料通过化学转化的方式实现了吨级1,5-PDO的生产,向生物基1,5-PDO的商业化迈出了重要一步。但目前针对直接利用微生物从可再生原料实现合成1,5-PDO的研究还比较匮乏。由于自然界中并不存在天然的1,5-PDO生物合成途径,研究人员探索了多种基于赖氨酸衍生的非天然生物合成路径以实现从葡萄糖到1,5-PDO的高效转化53641图8表1)。
其中一种可能的途径是将赖氨酸通过赖氨酸- 2-单加氧酶(DavB)、5-氨基戊酰胺酰胺酶(DavA)、转氨酶(GabT)和醇脱氢酶(YqhD)被转化成5-羟基戊酸(5-HV)。5-HV可通过基于羧酸还原酶或5-羟基戊酰辅酶A的途径转化为1,5-PDO。例如,Wang等36通过在大肠杆菌中进一步引入CAR和YqhD实现了0.97 g/L的1,5-PDO积累。Cen等41通过引入辅酶A转移酶(AbfT)、醛脱氢酶(Bld*)和YqhD建立了基于5-羟基戊酰辅酶A的5-HV转化途径,最终获得了0.12 g/L的1,5-PDO。此外,在最新研究中,Cen等5提出了一种更高效的基于戊二胺的1,5-PDO生物合成途径。在此途径中,赖氨酸首先脱羧转化为戊二胺,然后通过转氨酶(PatA)和脱氢酶(PatD)转化成5-氨基戊酸(5-AVA),并最终生成1,5-PDO。通过结合途径优化和代谢工程,在补料发酵中积累了9.25 g/L的1,5-PDO,得率达到0.28 mol/mol。
总体来看,这些创新性的研究为1,5-PDO的生物合成开辟了新的途径,为开发具有工业应用价值的生物技术路线提供了坚实的基础。然而,目前1,5-PDO的产量、得率和生产效率仍然较低,未来仍需要结合蛋白质工程、代谢工程和过程优化策略来进一步提高途径和细胞的生产效率。
近年来,在可持续化学工业需求的推动下,二元醇的生物合成技术取得了显著进展。这一进步主要得益于代谢工程和合成生物学的发展,不仅使得生产天然二元醇成为可能,而且还开辟了生产非天然二元醇的新路径,打破了传统生物技术的局限。虽然目前某些生物基二元醇已实现了商业化生产,但其他工业中广泛应用的长链和支链二元醇的生物合成以及规模化生产仍面临多重挑战。
目前,通过人工途径合成非天然二元醇的工作仍处于概念验证阶段,通过自然筛选的天然酶通常难以高效催化所需的新反应,导致途径效率低以及有毒中间体的积累,限制了目标产物的高效合成41。因此,挖掘新酶并通过蛋白质工程提高其活性是构建非天然途径的重中之重,近年来人工智能辅助的蛋白质工程的发展可加速功能性酶的筛选和优化72。此外,结合模块化工程、途径组合优化以及基于生物传感器的高通量筛选技术也是提高人工途径催化效率的有效策略73-74。除了途径层面,提高底盘细胞与异源途径的适配性对于提高细胞的生产性能也至关重要,这一方面除了结合系统代谢工程(如基因组代谢网络模型和组学工具等)等经典的优化策略以外,通过发展全基因组尺度的基因干扰和多靶点的基因组编辑技术可以为新靶点的发现以及多靶点的协同优化提供更强大的工具并加速高效菌种的构建75
如何实现工程化细胞发酵以及后提取过程的工业放大也是实现二元醇大规模应用的一个重要挑战。由于不同体积发酵罐中的传质和传热效果的改变以及局部剪切力、温度、pH、溶氧水平、渗透压等条件的变化,细胞工厂在放大过程中常出现性能衰退、细胞裂解、杂菌以及噬菌体侵染等现象,极大影响发酵过程的放大。通过构建人工代谢途径与细胞生长、存活以及底物利用相耦合的人工基因回路是提高细胞鲁棒性的有效策略76。此外,在菌株开发过程中利用模拟工业发酵环境的尺度缩减模型(scale-down)进行发酵测试,以尽早发现工程菌株可能存在的问题也十分关键。近年来,开发耐受噬菌体的工业菌株也取得重要进展,如删除底盘细胞的特定基因以阻断噬菌体的侵染过程、引入抗噬菌体的免疫机制等77。而开发利用极端微生物的新型工业底盘(如嗜热菌、嗜盐菌等)是解决工业发酵过程染菌问题的有效策略。此外,基于微生物共生体的新型生物生产工艺的发展也受到了广泛关注。微生物共生体具有广泛的底物利用范围和高耐受性,能够实现无需杀菌和连续发酵过程,从而降低生产成本,已尝试将其应用于1,3-丙二醇的发酵过程78
由于原料成本在二元醇总生产成本中占有较大比例(约40%~50%),因此开发能够利用多样化碳资源的菌株对于工业应用非常重要。当前,大多数商业化的二元醇生产原料都是基于葡萄糖,而利用其他丰富的原料(如木质纤维素、粗甘油、甲醇和其他非粮原料)生产二元醇的菌株仍在开发中3779。此外,利用电子作为还原剂的电发酵也为生物合成二元醇提供了一种新策略,对于生产高度还原的二元醇可避免从底物生成NAD(P)H,从而提高了二元醇的理论得率80
总的来说,二元醇生物合成领域的未来发展依赖于新的代谢途径设计和优化、系统与合成生物学工具的应用、对多样化原料和新型底盘的开发,以及细胞工厂的稳定性提高。同时考虑到二元醇的应用场景,需要进一步开发与之相对应的分离提取工艺,以满足下游需求并降低生产成本。以用于聚酯行业的二元醇为例,其分离过程不但需要考虑如何达到高的纯度,对某些微量杂质的控制也极大影响后续高分子材料的聚合性能。而用于化妆品行业的二元醇则需要重点关注产品的气味、颜色以及储存稳定性等。应对这些不同的应用需求也需要从生物基二元醇的菌种代谢、发酵以及后提取过程进行系统的分析与设计。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2100900)
  • 国家自然科学基金(22078172)
  • 国家自然科学基金(21938004)
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2024年第5卷第6期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2024-014
  • 接收时间:2024-02-04
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-12-31
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  • 收稿日期:2024-02-04
  • 修回日期:2024-05-08
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国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2100900)
国家自然科学基金(22078172)
国家自然科学基金(21938004)
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    1 清华大学化学工程系,工业生物催化教育部重点实验室,北京 100084
    2 清华大学合成与系统生物学中心,北京 100084
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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