Article(id=1148994040504312626, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-110, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1703520000000, receivedDateStr=2023-12-26, revisedDate=1710604800000, revisedDateStr=2024-03-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751871126533, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1719676800000, pubDateStr=2024-06-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751871126533, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751871126533, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751871126533, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148994036700078859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='3', pageStart='397', pageEnd='693', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751871125626, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057298298, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774901566992417, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148994036700078859, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=658, endPage=671, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999705674575911, articleId=1148994040504312626, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 editing system in the study of microbial natural products, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Microorganisms have consistently been a crucial source for researchers to explore and develop new natural products. Currently, research methods involving gene editing tools for the discovery, biosynthesis, and metabolic engineering of natural products have garnered broad attention in this field. However, traditional methods for gene editing usually rely on the recombination ability of the host or introduced proteins. It’s difficult to establish a general platform for all bacteria mainly because of their complicated genetic background. This genetic diversity often causes laborious experimental operations with low efficiency. The CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system, with its unique and flexible targeting advantages, overcomes common limitations such as sequence homology or site constraint in other gene editing methods and thus is more likely to function in diverse bacteria species. This simplifies experimental procedures, enhances work efficiency, and promotes the development of natural product research. This article introduces the applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for the discovery, biosynthesis, and metabolic engineering of natural products in microorganisms. It covers the development of the CRISPR/Cas9 system, cloning and genetic editing of natural product biosynthetic gene clusters, structural derivatization and metabolic engineering of natural products, and the activation of silenced natural product biosynthetic gene clusters. These aspects highlight the advantages of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in the research of natural products with microorganisms. Finally, solutions are proposed for addressing challenges that the CRISPR/Cas9 system currently faces in overcoming low recombination efficiency and host adaptability issues. Especially the CRISPR/Cas12a system which has broadened applications of the CRISRP/Cas9 system by preferring different PAM sites. In addition to functions that CRISPR/Cas9 system has realized, its potent multiple targeting ability further enhances the efficiency of target editing. It is believed that with the development of synthetic biology and information technology, an increasing number of genetic manipulation tools and methods related to the CRISPR/Cas9 system will be developed, continually driving progress in the research of natural products.

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微生物作为天然产物的巨大宝库,一直以来都是研究人员挖掘和开发新的活性化合物的重要来源。目前,利用基因编辑工具发现、生物合成和代谢调控天然产物的研究方法受到该领域研究者的广泛关注。CRISPR/Cas9遗传编辑系统以其独特的灵活靶向优势克服了其他遗传编辑方法常见的对序列同源或位点限制,简化了实验步骤,提高了实验效率,促进了天然产物研究领域的发展。本文主要介绍CRISPR/Cas9系统在微生物天然产物发现、生物合成和工程改造方面的应用,分别从CRISPR/Cas9系统的发展、天然产物生物合成基因簇的克隆和遗传编辑、天然产物结构衍生化和代谢调节、沉默天然产物基因簇的激活这几个方面阐述CRISPR/Cas9系统在微生物天然产物研究领域的优势。最后,针对CRISPR/Cas9系统无法克服的重组效率和宿主适应性问题提供了可行的解决思路。相信随着合成生物学和信息技术的发展,越来越多的与CRISPR/Cas9系统相关的遗传操作工具和方法会被开发,将不断推动天然产物领域的发展进步。

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唐啸宇(1984—),男,博士,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物天然产物化学生物学。E-mail:
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惠真 (1989—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为微生物天然产物基因挖掘和生物合成。E-mail:

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CRISPR/Cas-assisted biosynthetic gene cluster editing strategies

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
策略 生物合成基因簇 功能 生物合成基因簇来源/宿主 参考 文献
基因簇 克隆 CATCH Bacillaene 基因簇线性化 Bacillus subtilis str. 168 [29]
Jadomycin Streptomyces venezuelae ISP52030
Chlortetracycline S. aureofaciens ATCC 10762
Pentaminomycins A-H S. cacaoi CA-170360 [30]
BH-18257 A-C
ICE & λ packaging system Tu3010 S. thiolactonus NRRL 15439 [31]
Sisomicin Micromonospora inyonensis DSM 46123
CAPTURE 43 uncharacterized BGCs StreptomycesBacillus [32]
CAT-FISHING Marinolactam A Micromonospora sp. 181 [33]
基因簇 遗传编辑 ICE Tetronate RK-682 遗传突变 Streptomyces sp. Strain 88-682 [34]
Holomycin S. clavuligerus TK24
pCRISPomyces Undecylprodigiosin, Actinorhodin S. lividans 66 [35]
Phosphinothricin tripeptide S. viridochromogenes DSM 40736
Macrolactam, Lanthipeptide S. albus J1074
CRISPR/Cas9 Actinorhodin, Undecylprodigiosin S. coelicolor M14 [36]
CRISPR/Cas9-LigD Actinorhodin S. coelicolor A3(2) [37]
CRISPRi
CRISPR/ Cas9-CodA(sm) Actinorhodin S. coelicolor M145 [38]
CRISPR/Cas9 Violacein E. coli HME68 [39]
Thalassospiramides Pseudomonas putida EM383
CBE/ABE Undecylprodigiosin, Actinorhodin S. coelicolor M145 [40]
Avermectin S. avermitilis MA4680
产物 衍生化 CRISPR/Cas9 & Gibson Assembly Rapamycin 组装模块编辑 S. avermitilis SUKA [41]
CRISPR/Cas9 Enduracidin Streptomyces fungicidicus ATCC 21013 [42]
产物代谢调节 CRISPR/Cas9 & TAR Actinorhodin 启动子工程 S. albus J1074 [43]
MSGE

Pristinamyicn Ⅱ,

Chloramphenicol, YM-216391

多拷贝

S. pristinaespiralis HCCB10218

S. coelicolor M145

[44]
CRISPR/Cas9 Amorphadiene 启动子工程,遗传突变,多拷贝 Bacillus subtilis [45]
CCTL Actinorhodin 启动子工程 Streptomyces sp. 4F [46]
基因簇 激活 CRISPR/Cas9

Alteramide A,

Macrolactam 2,

FR-900098

启动子工程 S. roseosporus NRRL15998 [47]
mCRISTAR

Tetarimycin,

Lazarimide,

AB1210

S. albus [48]
mpCRISTAR Acinorhodin S. cerevisiae BY4727 [49]
miCASTAR Atolypene Amycolatopsis tolypomycina NRRL B-24205 [50]
CRISPR/Cas9-LigD Amicetin 遗传突变 Streptomyces WAC6237 [51]
Thiolactomycin, 5-chloro-3-formylindole Streptomyces WAC5374
Phenanthroviridin aglycone Streptomyces WAC8241
CRISPRi/CRISPRa Jadomycinb 转录调控 Streptomyces venezuelae [52]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892343444320363, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148994040504312626, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

CRISPR/Cas相关的生物合成基因簇编辑策略

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
策略 生物合成基因簇 功能 生物合成基因簇来源/宿主 参考 文献
基因簇 克隆 CATCH Bacillaene 基因簇线性化 Bacillus subtilis str. 168 [29]
Jadomycin Streptomyces venezuelae ISP52030
Chlortetracycline S. aureofaciens ATCC 10762
Pentaminomycins A-H S. cacaoi CA-170360 [30]
BH-18257 A-C
ICE & λ packaging system Tu3010 S. thiolactonus NRRL 15439 [31]
Sisomicin Micromonospora inyonensis DSM 46123
CAPTURE 43 uncharacterized BGCs StreptomycesBacillus [32]
CAT-FISHING Marinolactam A Micromonospora sp. 181 [33]
基因簇 遗传编辑 ICE Tetronate RK-682 遗传突变 Streptomyces sp. Strain 88-682 [34]
Holomycin S. clavuligerus TK24
pCRISPomyces Undecylprodigiosin, Actinorhodin S. lividans 66 [35]
Phosphinothricin tripeptide S. viridochromogenes DSM 40736
Macrolactam, Lanthipeptide S. albus J1074
CRISPR/Cas9 Actinorhodin, Undecylprodigiosin S. coelicolor M14 [36]
CRISPR/Cas9-LigD Actinorhodin S. coelicolor A3(2) [37]
CRISPRi
CRISPR/ Cas9-CodA(sm) Actinorhodin S. coelicolor M145 [38]
CRISPR/Cas9 Violacein E. coli HME68 [39]
Thalassospiramides Pseudomonas putida EM383
CBE/ABE Undecylprodigiosin, Actinorhodin S. coelicolor M145 [40]
Avermectin S. avermitilis MA4680
产物 衍生化 CRISPR/Cas9 & Gibson Assembly Rapamycin 组装模块编辑 S. avermitilis SUKA [41]
CRISPR/Cas9 Enduracidin Streptomyces fungicidicus ATCC 21013 [42]
产物代谢调节 CRISPR/Cas9 & TAR Actinorhodin 启动子工程 S. albus J1074 [43]
MSGE

Pristinamyicn Ⅱ,

Chloramphenicol, YM-216391

多拷贝

S. pristinaespiralis HCCB10218

S. coelicolor M145

[44]
CRISPR/Cas9 Amorphadiene 启动子工程,遗传突变,多拷贝 Bacillus subtilis [45]
CCTL Actinorhodin 启动子工程 Streptomyces sp. 4F [46]
基因簇 激活 CRISPR/Cas9

Alteramide A,

Macrolactam 2,

FR-900098

启动子工程 S. roseosporus NRRL15998 [47]
mCRISTAR

Tetarimycin,

Lazarimide,

AB1210

S. albus [48]
mpCRISTAR Acinorhodin S. cerevisiae BY4727 [49]
miCASTAR Atolypene Amycolatopsis tolypomycina NRRL B-24205 [50]
CRISPR/Cas9-LigD Amicetin 遗传突变 Streptomyces WAC6237 [51]
Thiolactomycin, 5-chloro-3-formylindole Streptomyces WAC5374
Phenanthroviridin aglycone Streptomyces WAC8241
CRISPRi/CRISPRa Jadomycinb 转录调控 Streptomyces venezuelae [52]
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CRISPR/Cas9编辑系统在微生物天然产物研究中的应用
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惠真 1, 2 , 唐啸宇 2
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(3): 658-671
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(3): 658-671
CRISPR/Cas9编辑系统在微生物天然产物研究中的应用
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惠真1, 2 , 唐啸宇2
作者信息
  • 1 香港科技大学理学院化学系,清水湾校区,香港 999077
  • 2 深圳湾实验室,化学生物学研究所,广东 深圳 518132
  • 惠真 (1989—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为微生物天然产物基因挖掘和生物合成。E-mail:

通讯作者:

唐啸宇(1984—),男,博士,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物天然产物化学生物学。E-mail:
Applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 editing system in the study of microbial natural products
Zhen HUI1, 2 , Xiaoyu TANG2
Affiliations
  • 1 Department of Chemistry,School of Science,The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology,Clearwater Bay Campus,Hong Kong 999077,China
  • 2 Institute of Chemical Biology,Shenzhen Bay Laboratory,Shenzhen 518132,Guangdong,China
出版时间: 2024-06-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-110
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微生物作为天然产物的巨大宝库,一直以来都是研究人员挖掘和开发新的活性化合物的重要来源。目前,利用基因编辑工具发现、生物合成和代谢调控天然产物的研究方法受到该领域研究者的广泛关注。CRISPR/Cas9遗传编辑系统以其独特的灵活靶向优势克服了其他遗传编辑方法常见的对序列同源或位点限制,简化了实验步骤,提高了实验效率,促进了天然产物研究领域的发展。本文主要介绍CRISPR/Cas9系统在微生物天然产物发现、生物合成和工程改造方面的应用,分别从CRISPR/Cas9系统的发展、天然产物生物合成基因簇的克隆和遗传编辑、天然产物结构衍生化和代谢调节、沉默天然产物基因簇的激活这几个方面阐述CRISPR/Cas9系统在微生物天然产物研究领域的优势。最后,针对CRISPR/Cas9系统无法克服的重组效率和宿主适应性问题提供了可行的解决思路。相信随着合成生物学和信息技术的发展,越来越多的与CRISPR/Cas9系统相关的遗传操作工具和方法会被开发,将不断推动天然产物领域的发展进步。

CRISPR/Cas9  /  天然产物  /  微生物  /  合成生物学  /  异源表达  /  结构衍生化  /  启动子工程  /  代谢工程

Microorganisms have consistently been a crucial source for researchers to explore and develop new natural products. Currently, research methods involving gene editing tools for the discovery, biosynthesis, and metabolic engineering of natural products have garnered broad attention in this field. However, traditional methods for gene editing usually rely on the recombination ability of the host or introduced proteins. It’s difficult to establish a general platform for all bacteria mainly because of their complicated genetic background. This genetic diversity often causes laborious experimental operations with low efficiency. The CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system, with its unique and flexible targeting advantages, overcomes common limitations such as sequence homology or site constraint in other gene editing methods and thus is more likely to function in diverse bacteria species. This simplifies experimental procedures, enhances work efficiency, and promotes the development of natural product research. This article introduces the applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for the discovery, biosynthesis, and metabolic engineering of natural products in microorganisms. It covers the development of the CRISPR/Cas9 system, cloning and genetic editing of natural product biosynthetic gene clusters, structural derivatization and metabolic engineering of natural products, and the activation of silenced natural product biosynthetic gene clusters. These aspects highlight the advantages of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in the research of natural products with microorganisms. Finally, solutions are proposed for addressing challenges that the CRISPR/Cas9 system currently faces in overcoming low recombination efficiency and host adaptability issues. Especially the CRISPR/Cas12a system which has broadened applications of the CRISRP/Cas9 system by preferring different PAM sites. In addition to functions that CRISPR/Cas9 system has realized, its potent multiple targeting ability further enhances the efficiency of target editing. It is believed that with the development of synthetic biology and information technology, an increasing number of genetic manipulation tools and methods related to the CRISPR/Cas9 system will be developed, continually driving progress in the research of natural products.

CRISPR/Cas9  /  natural products  /  microorganisms  /  synthetic biology  /  heterologous expression  /  structure derivative  /  promoter engineering  /  metabolism engineering
惠真, 唐啸宇. CRISPR/Cas9编辑系统在微生物天然产物研究中的应用. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (3) : 658 -671 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-110
Zhen HUI, Xiaoyu TANG. Applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 editing system in the study of microbial natural products[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (3) : 658 -671 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-110
微生物是地球上最丰富多样的物种,它们是开发新型抗生素、抗癌剂和农药等生物活性化合物的重要来源1-3。微生物染色体上编码着大量的用于合成天然产物的遗传单元,它们被称为生物合成基因簇(biosynthetic gene cluster)。随着测序技术的快速发展,人们已经通过大规模测序在公共数据库中积累了大量的微生物基因组和宏基因组数据。而越来越多天然产物生物合成基因簇的解析和生物信息学分析工具的开发,使得人们发现了大量未知的生物合成基因簇“暗物质”4-5。如何将这些“一维”的基因信息转化成为“三维”的化学结构,已经成为天然产物基因组挖掘领域的一个重要研究问题。
来自细菌和古菌适应性免疫的CRISPR(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)和Cas蛋白(CRISPR-associated proteins)系统,借助CRISPR相关的RNA引导核酸酶Cas切割双链DNA,在微生物天然产物的研究中发挥了卓越功能。其中,来自酿脓链球菌(Streptococcus pyogenes)的Ⅱ型CRISPR/Cas9系统已被广泛应用于基因组的编辑。Cas9蛋白在20个核苷酸组成的guide RNA(gRNA)的引导下,利用HNH和RuvC核酸酶结构域切割靶向位点6。这一特征启发研究人员开发了多种针对天然产物(natural product)生物合成基因簇的研究策略,例如基因编辑激活沉默生物合成基因簇、发现新的生物合成基因簇、生物合成基因簇的异源表达。本文主要介绍借助CRISPR/Cas9系统研究天然产物生物合成基因簇的策略,关注CRISPR/Cas9系统给天然产物领域研究带来的便利及其可能的应用。
CRISPR是大多数细菌和古菌基因组中的特殊基因单元,同与之相关的Cas蛋白一起防御外源遗传物质的侵入,是微生物的一种“适应性免疫”能力。当外源遗传物质(如质粒和噬菌体)侵入细胞时,CRISPR系统首先将外源的且具有特殊结构特征的DNA序列整合到CRISPR loci中。然后,这些位于CRISPR loci的外源的DNA序列经过转录加工形成成熟的gRNA,进而引导Cas蛋白在特定位置剪切外源双链DNA。更重要的是,这种适应性免疫能力可以经载体构建并引入到不同的细胞中,使不同宿主获得特异性的免疫能力7-9
随后,在众多研究团队的努力下,研究者揭示并阐明了该系统的最小基本单元组成、靶点特异性决定因素以及加工剪切过程[图1(a)]。简而言之,由CRISPR loci转录得到的pre-crRNA,在部分互补的tracrRNA(trans-encoded small RNA)、宿主RNaseⅢ以及Cas9蛋白的帮助下完成gRNA的成熟。然后,Cas9蛋白和gRNA组成的复合物对外源DNA进行匹配,Cas9在特异性识别PAM(protospacer-adjacent motif)位点后解开DNA双链,进行gRNA互补配对。最后,在正确配对情况下,Cas9蛋白通过其HNH和RuvC核酸内切酶结构域在非互补链的PAM位点上游3 bp处切割DNA双链10-11。CRISPR/Cas9系统高效且特异性的双链切割能力促使研究人员开发了多种灵活多样的基因编辑工具,通过质粒表达CRISPR/Cas9系统实现体内双链剪切,或通过Cas9蛋白和gRNA实现体外靶向位点切割。其中以借助CRISPR/Cas9系统的靶向切割实现同源重组菌株的高效筛选被广泛使用12-15
CRISPRi系统(CRISPR inference, CRISPRi)是建立在dCas9(catalytically dead Cas9)的基础之上的基因表达调控工具。通过人工突变Cas9的两个保守核酸酶结构域(D10A of RuvC,H840A of HNH)实现其内切酶催化活性的丧失,但dCas9仍保留了靶向DNA的结合能力。因此,可以通过gRNA将dCas9蛋白定向引入到启动子或编码序列区域以实现靶向基因转录干扰16。随后,根据原核RNA聚合酶(RNA polymerase, RNAP)的ω亚基可用于转录激活这一特征,通过融合dCas9和RNAP的ω亚基开发了靶向转录激活系统CRISPRa(CRISPR-mediated activation)。通过gRNA指引,将dCas9-ω亚基复合体结合到目标启动子区域上游,从而实现转录表达的持续激活17-18
尽管通过CRISPR/Cas9系统引入的双链断裂可以显著提高依赖同源重组修复(homology-directed repair, HDR)的基因编辑成功率,但是在DNA双链断裂的过程中细胞会通过非同源末端连接(error-prone nonhomologous end joining,NHEJ)的方式带来不必要的随机插入和缺失19。“碱基编辑”(base editing, BE)技术是依赖CRISPR/Cas9系统靶向特性实现基因编辑的革新,通过CRISPR/dCas9和胞嘧啶脱氨基酶的共同作用,完成靶向位点胞嘧啶到尿嘧啶的转化,并最终实现胞嘧啶到胸腺嘧啶(或鸟嘌呤到腺嘌呤)的转化(CBE)20。接着,采用类似的设计思路研究人员开发了另一种可编辑的“碱基编辑”方法。该方法开发的灵感来自E. coli工程化的TadA脱氨酶对腺嘌呤的脱氨作用而产生的次黄嘌呤,随后产生的次黄嘌呤在复制过程中被聚合酶视为鸟嘌呤,从而实现从腺嘌呤到鸟嘌呤的转化(ABE)21。至此,上述CRISPR/Cas9的独特优势,包括靶向剪切、转录调控和单碱基编辑,已成功地应用于许多天然产物的研究中,如天然产物生物合成基因簇的克隆、基因组编辑和激活等。
作为天然产物生物合成基因簇传统的遗传操作平台,异源表达在识别和发现新的天然产物方面具有重要优势。随着高通量测序技术的广泛应用,越来越多的基因组数据得以公开,异源表达为在原始宿主难以获取或难以培养的情况下获得新的天然产物提供了途径。此外,天然产物合成所需的必需遗传单元和其特殊结构单元的生物合成途径都可以通过异源表达得以阐明。而大片段的生物合成基因簇的克隆是实现异源表达的常见难题。目前,研究人员开发了多种方法来实现大的基因组片段的克隆。
传统克隆技术多依赖宿主的同源重组能力或借助外源蛋白促进重组发生,其中广泛使用的克隆技术包括细菌人工染色体技术、TAR(transformation-associated recombination)克隆和LLHR(linear-plus-linear homologous recombination)克隆。多功能的大肠杆菌-链霉菌细菌人工染色体穿梭质粒(E. coliStreptomyces shuttle bacterial artificial chromosomal, BAC)pSBAC被开发用于生物合成基因簇的克隆。该系统通过限制性内切酶消化连接,位置特异性重组,以及attP-int系统实现了pSBAC和目的生物合成基因簇在链霉菌染色体特异性attB位点的整合22-23。TAR克隆是一种高效的同源重组技术,凭借酵母细胞高效的同源重组特性,通过末端同源序列,实现了来自环境的DNA和细菌基因组中的生物合成基因簇的直接克隆24-25。LLHR是一种在大肠杆菌胞内实现的强大克隆技术。该技术借助了来自Rac噬菌体的RecE蛋白和RecT蛋白,以及λ噬菌体的Red Gam蛋白,分别利用Red Gam蛋白对RecBCD复合体的抑制、RecE对双链DNA的消化、RecT促进的同源单链DNA互补,最终实现对生物合成基因簇的直接克隆26-28
然而,这些传统的克隆技术严重依赖于对生物合成基因簇序列两端的恰当切割,以获得同源末端序列供连接重组使用。CRISPR/Cas9系统的靶向切割能力完美解决了该限制,通过gRNA引导的靶向剪切,可显著提高传统方法的克隆效率。根据该设计思路,许多团队通过结合CRISPR/Cas9系统开发了多种克隆技术,实现了生物合成基因簇的灵活高效克隆(表1)。
Richard F. Lockey团队和Natalay Kouprina团队分别利用CRISPR/Cas9系统辅助了Gibson组装和TAR克隆。前者通过Cas9和gRNA的体外反应实现质粒的靶向切割,随后和一个末端同切割后质粒同源的目的序列退火连接,最终实现Gibson组装53。后者则利用体内对目的基因组的靶向切割,借助酵母的高效同源重组能力,从而实现了靶向基因序列的高效TAR克隆54图1(b)]。这些研究为利用CRISPR/Cas9系统实现任意目的基因序列的大片段克隆提供了可能。清华大学的朱听团队29开发了CATCH(Cas9-assisted targeting of chromosome segments)系统靶向大的生物合成基因簇[图1(c)]。借助靶向DNA序列末端同源的线性化质粒,通过gRNA实现Cas9蛋白对靶向DNA序列特异性切割从而暴露出和线性化质粒末端同源的序列,最终实现Gibson组装。该团队同时测试了来自不同菌株的不同长度片段,高阳性率证实了该捕获技术可实现50 kb到150 kb序列的克隆。此外,Olga Genilloud团队30借助CATCH技术从Streptomyces cacaoi CA-170360菌株中成功地克隆了cpp基因簇,并验证了该串联基因簇是两个环肽的生物合成来源。
中国科学院上海生命科学研究院的覃重军团队55开发了CasHRA(Cas9-facilitated homologous recombination assembly)系统并实现了TAR克隆在多重DNA片段组装上的应用。通过将3个大的环状DNA、gRNA和线性化质粒同时引入携带Cas9表达质粒的酵母细胞,一步反应即实现了3个插入片段的TAR克隆组装。该团队借助该系统同时完成了1.03 Mb MGE-syn 1.0基因组的组装,展现了大片段DNA克隆和重组的另一种策略。
与Gibson组装、TAR克隆和RecE/T重组相比,体外包装避免了特异性载体构建,故其是一种更方便的天然产物生物合成基因簇克隆方法56。武汉大学孙宇辉团队31开发了一种体外噬菌体包装(λ packaging)系统。该团队借助CRISPR/Cas9系统特异性地从去磷酸化的基因组DNA中释放天然产物生物合成基因簇,完成生物合成基因簇和线性化的质粒连接,接着将得到的重组质粒进一步包装进入噬菌体颗粒再用于大肠杆菌转染,最终实现异源表达。该团队凭借该技术成功将来自Streptomyces thiolactonus NRRL 15439的stu(Tu3010)基因簇和来自Micromonospora inyoensis DSM 46123的sis(sisomicin)基因簇捕获。该体外包装过程不仅可以激活潜在通路,还有助于合成通路的编辑和研究。
基因组编辑常常被用来探究天然产物生物合成路径的结构、组成和功能。此外,一些克隆捕获的天然产物生物合成基因簇也需要加入额外的遗传修饰以后才能成功异源表达。目前,借助大肠杆菌的λ Red重组系统实现的菌内遗传编辑已经被学界和工业界广泛使用。该重组系统包含3个蛋白——Gam、Bet和Exo,其中Gam蛋白抑制宿主的RecBCD外切酶Ⅴ,Exo蛋白从5′→3′方向消化dsDNA从而暴露3′ssDNA片段,最后ssDNA片段会在Bet蛋白的帮助下实现同源互补。联合Flp-FRT重组系统,单步实现的Red重组即可完成目的基因的失活和抗性选择标志物的清除。通过在大肠杆菌内的两轮重组,I-SceI内切酶的裂解作用可进一步优化λ Red介导的重组,实现高效无痕的DNA编辑57-58。此外,I-SceI作为一个homing内切酶已经在链霉菌中实现了无痕迹的基因置换59。另外,SSR(site-specific recombination)系统已经被广泛用于细菌的遗传工程且展现出了强大的功能。在放线菌中,借助Cre/loxP系统已经实现了大的基因组片段删除。同时,Cre整合酶还实现了外源DNA在链霉菌染色体上的整合60
与上面这些较为复杂的基因组编辑手段相比,现在广泛使用的CRISPR/Cas9系统可通过靶向编辑技术直接完成上述复杂重组过程。此外,该系统可实现多位点同时编辑,Cas9蛋白的靶向剪切又能帮助阳性克隆的筛选(表1)。武汉大学孙宇辉团队34开发了高效体外ICE(In vitro CRISPR/Cas9-mediated editing)编辑系统,通过额外的T4 DNA连接酶修复体外Cas9/sgRNA反应带来的黏性末端,进而实现了精准无缝的靶向编辑。随后,该团队借助ICE系统分别成功地敲除了来自tetronate RK-682和 dithiolopyrrolone holomycin生物合成基因簇的rkDhomE基因。美国伊利诺伊大学香槟分校(UIUC)赵惠民团队35使用温敏型质粒表达来自酿脓链球菌的CRISPR/Cas9系统,并在链霉菌属中实现了多个基因组的靶向编辑。该团队构建的pCRISPomyces质粒可通过Golden Gate组装和等温组装(或传统的消化连接)插入spacer和修复模板,满足快速灵活的基因组编辑。而后通过多重靶向能力成功实现了Streptomyces lividans内31 kb red基因簇的删除。此外,他们还证实该系统适用于多种链霉菌菌株的基因编辑。类似的CRISPR/Cas9介导的基因编辑也被多个团队报道,其中丹麦技术大学Sang Yup Lee团队还证实了在没有引入修复模板时,NHEJ修复通路会在靶向位点周围引入不同大小的缺失突变36-3761图2(a)]。
为实现更快捷的双交联同源重组,在获得含有目的突变克隆的同时去除载体质粒,武汉大学孙宇辉团队38通过引入额外的5FC(5-fluorocytosine)反向筛选基因codA(sm),构建了CRISPR/Cas9-CodA(sm)系统。该突变的胞嘧啶脱氨基酶(CodA)可将5FC转换为致死性的毒素5-FU(5-fluorouracil)。通过对来自链霉菌基因组的actI-ORF2的敲除证实了codAsm)基因带来的反向筛选极大地增加了质粒的清除率和基因敲除率。随后,加州大学圣地亚哥分校的Bradley S. Moore团队39开发并借助violacein生物合成基因簇vio验证了CRISPR/Cas9介导的快速点突变能力,他们发现当选择后随链(lagging-strand)和更长的单链DNA为修复模板时同源重组率更高。为了在实现更高突变率的同时省去修复模板,武汉大学孙宇辉团队40将CBE和ABE分别与CRISPR/nCas9(high fidelity nickCas9)系统相连,前者完成了对来自S. coelicolorS. avermitilis的生物合成基因簇的多重位点同时突变,后者通过突变actVB的起始密码子证实了该系统在突变腺嘌呤到鸟嘌呤方面的应用[图2(b)]。此外,中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所王猛团队62借助反义RNA干扰技术同时抑制Streptomyces lividans 66的尿嘧啶DNA糖苷酶的表达,进一步提高了CBE效率。
CRISPR/Cas9在基因编辑方面展现出强大的可拓展的能力,因此很多研究人员开始借助该系统来产生新颖天然产物衍生物、调控天然产物产量和激活沉默的天然产物生物合成基因簇(表1)。天然产物药物的衍生化是优化先导化合物的主要和关键步骤。将生物合成基因簇作为天然产物的遗传单元进行修改,为研究天然产物药物衍生物提供了一个易于操作的平台。日本AIST研究所的Kazuo Shin-ya团队41通过体外Cas9反应和Gibson组装在rapamycin生物合成基因簇上成功地实现了不同AT结构域(acyltransferase domain)的替换并对应获得了多个不同的rapamycin衍生物[图3(a)]。此外,该团队进一步通过模块删除插入、结构域的编辑和交换也获得了对应的rapamycin衍生物。该研究表明CRISPR/Cas9可帮助实现模块化天然产物生物合成基因簇的编辑,并实现目的天然产物的衍生化。基于蛋白结构活性位点的突变策略,针对合成脂肽类抗生素enduracidin的生物合成基因簇,Jason Micklefield团队42通过替换存在于A结构域(adenylation domain)中的高度保守的类黄素氧还蛋白单元实现了A结构域底物选择性靶向突变,从而合成了多个新的脂肽类抗生素。
原核生物的生物合成基因簇通常组织为一个多顺反子操纵子,其表达水平主要由一组共同的调控元件所控制。根据原核生物这一转录翻译特征可知,同一操纵子下的编码序列会同时转录并受相同的调控单元控制,但各个编码序列的翻译会受到其自身核糖体结合位点(ribosome binding site)的调控63。启动子工程作为一类可靠的调节方法,可实现不同强度的基因表达调控。许多研究已经利用该技术实现了天然产物的多样化和产量优化64。然而天然产物的生物合成是一个非常复杂的过程,通常需要多基因协作完成。所以仅仅通过强的组成型启动子来调节整个生物合成基因簇或限速酶的表达,尚不能实现最佳的产物产量。因此,Hahk-Soo Kang团队43设计并优化了一个生物合成的诱导调节系统,该团队将该系统拆分成3个独立的功能模块,经过一系列筛选和综合评估,获得了包含CMT模块(cumate,CymR/cmtO)和A26RS的最优组合,并用于优化act生物合成基因簇的表达。在CRISPR/Cas9系统的帮助下,将组成型RS(promoter/RBS)替换为CMT模块,同时通过更强的RS优化了抑制子表达模块SF14 RS。该系统对三株S. albus菌株的异源表达能力的调节完全超过了阳性对照,表明这种可诱导调节系统和模块化设计方法在生物合成基因簇的启动子工程中具有潜在的应用价值[图3(b)]。除了启动子工程外,中国科学院芦银华和姜卫红团队44借助噬菌体整合酶系统,通过CRISPR/Cas9系统在宿主染色体上引入多个attB(attachment site)位点,从而实现生物合成基因簇的多拷贝整合,最终实现次级代谢产物pristinamycin Ⅱ在S. pristinaespirali中的高产量表达。Will J. Quax团队45借助精准高效的CRISPR/Cas9系统,通过多拷贝核心基因,遗传突变弱化旁路通路,利用启动子工程调节三羧酸循环和MEP (2C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate)通路,最终在枯草芽孢杆菌内实现了萜类前体Amorphadiene的最高产量。
中国科学院马延和团队65开发了一种不依赖修复模板的靶向碱基编辑的策略(base editor-targeted and template-free expression regulation, BETTER),用于代谢系统编辑。该团队采用CBE系统实现了RBS、5′-UTR和启动子序列的修改,通过一系列体外条件诱导实现了调节区域的有效碱基序列组合。该系统展示了对代谢水平编辑的高效策略,同时可在特定条件下用于生物合成基因簇产量的优化。
大量生物信息分析已经显示,一些微生物染色体携带有大量天然产物生物合成基因簇,但大多数生物合成基因簇在实验室培养条件下表达水平很低甚至不表达。研究人员通常采用多种方法克服这一难题。针对原核生物,通常采用两种方式激活沉默的生物合成基因簇:第一种是为多效性策略,包括利用共培养微生物来诱导交叉反应,同时也可以通过筛选得到利福平(rifampicin)耐受的RNA聚合酶β-亚基H437R突变株,从而增加RNA聚合酶对生物合成通路启动子的亲和力而实现激活;第二种为通路特异性策略,包括通路特异性激活蛋白基因的过表达和抑制基因的去除,以及通过组成型或诱导型启动子控制宿主调节单元的表达66
由于CRISPR/Cas9系统带来的特异性的靶向编辑和高效的同源重组,很多借助CRISPR/Cas9系统的策略被开发用于沉默生物合成基因簇的激活(表1)。赵惠民团队47通过CRISPR/Cas9介导的敲入技术简单地在沉默生物合成基因簇的第一个基因上游引入单向或双向启动子,进而激活了该沉默生物合成基因簇。经过kasO*p和双向启动子P8-kasO*p的敲入,位于S. roseosporus的24号基因簇被成功激活并合成了2个polycyclic tetramate macrolactam类的化合物,同时10号基因簇被激活合成了化合物FR-900098。此外,该团队又在不同的链霉菌的不同生物合成基因簇上验证了该策略,成功获得了新的天然产物。洛克菲勒大学的Sean F. Brady团队48开发了包含多重CRISPR/Cas9编辑和TAR克隆的启动子工程系统(multiplexed CRISPR/Cas9- and TAR-mediated promoter engineering method,mCRISTAR)。该系统包含两个质粒——pCRCT:Tam(包含了CRISPR/Cas9系统)和pTARa:Tam[包含Tam(tetarimycin)基因簇的大肠杆菌:酵母:链霉菌穿梭质粒],最后同携带Tam特异性启动子的基因一同转入酵母细胞完成启动子替换。在单筛选标志物存在的情况下,该系统通过一次反应同时完成了4个启动子的替换。此外,经过2轮mCRISTAR反应步骤,该团队成功实现了8个启动子的替换,证实了该系统的灵活和可拓展性。韩国建国大学的Hahk-Soo Kang团队49进一步优化了mCRISTAR系统,通过多个质粒分别表达gRNA提高了反应效率。利用优化后的mpCRISTAR(multiple plasmied-based CRISPR/Cas9- and TAR-mediated promoter engineering method)系统,该团队凭借4个质粒单次反应成功完成了acinorhodin生物合成基因簇8个启动子的同时替换。随后,在mCRISTAR系统的基础上,Sean F. Brady团队50又开发了可拓展的生物合成基因簇激活方法,miCASTAR(multiplexed CRISPR TAR)。该方法将CRISPR/Cas9系统拆分得到的基因簇和PCR扩增得到的合成启动子一起转入酵母细胞完成TAR克隆。凭借该方法,该团队成功激活了atolypene生物合成基因簇并得到两个新的细菌环状二倍半萜天然产物。
考虑到实验室培养条件下沉默生物合成基因簇的低水平表达或者不表达,这些潜在的表达产物常常被组成型表达的生物合成基因簇所掩盖。加拿大麦克马斯特大学Gerard D. Wright团队51采用CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑技术破坏常见的抗生素抗性生物合成基因簇,从而为发现低水平表达的基因簇产物带来可能。他们设计了pCRISPRomyces-2和pCRISPR-Cas9-LigD系统,借助同源重组或非同源末端修复的方式突变基因,选择性地破坏放线菌中最常见的steptothricin和steptomycin抗生素基因簇。通过抗菌活性筛选,他们从steptothricin失活的链霉菌WAC6237中发现了罕见的抗生素amicetin家族化合物,从链霉菌WAC8241中发现了thiolactomycin和5-chloro-3-formylindole,从链霉菌WAC8241中发现了phenanthroviridin aglycone。James Chappell团队52针对Streptomyces开发了CRISPRi和CRISPRa系统,通过转录抑制和转录激活均在Streptomyces venezuelae中成功激活了沉默的jadomycinb生物合成基因簇。
大量的研究已经证实,CRISPR/Cas9系统具有强大的遗传编辑能力以及高度的特异性,可以通过基因编辑和重构基因序列实现天然产物生物合成基因簇的调控。然而,非特异性重组和非同源末端修复往往会带来许多副产物,尤其当靶向序列高度同源时,细胞内反应效率取决了宿主的同源重组能力。实际应用中,研究人员可以通过选择非同源的gRNA、更长的同源修复模板,或将生物合成基因簇转移到更适宜遗传编辑的宿主内来克服以上不足。众所周知,广泛成熟应用的来自酿脓链球菌的CRISPR/Cas9系统识别靶向序列时需要提前满足合适的PAM位点(5′-NGG-3′)。该条件限制了它在富含AT序列上的应用。此外,早期研究报告显示,基于SpCas9的编辑质粒无法在几种工业链霉菌中使用。CRISPR/Cpf1系统又称CRISPR/Cas12a系统,和CRISRP/Cas9系统类似,但CRISPR/Cpf1系统使用更小的Cpf1内切酶在富含T的PAM位点下游裂解gRNA靶向位置并得到黏性末端,同时Cpf1内切酶自身足以实现前体CRISPR RNA的成熟加工,该系统还可以对多个靶点同时编辑67-69。中国科学院芦银华团队70借助CRISPR/Cpf1系统在链霉菌中同样实现了同源重组突变、非同源末端突变和CRISPRi实验,进而证实了CRISPR/Cpf1系统是一种可替代CRISPR/Cas9的强大基因编辑工具,尤其是当CRISPR/Cas9系统无法很好地发挥作用时。Jochen Schmid团队71也开发了基于CRISPR/dCas12a的转录激活和转录抑制系统,并在Paenibacillus polymyxaEscherichia coli上得以验证。同CRISPR/Cas9系统,多个借助CRISPR/Cas12a系统的基因簇克隆技术相继被开发。赵惠民团队32联合Cas12a的靶向剪切、DNA聚合酶体外连接和Cre-lox重组系统体内环化,开发了CAPTURE(Cas12a-assisted precise targeted cloning using in vivo Cre-lox recombination)策略,凭借该策略成功地从放线菌和芽孢杆菌中克隆了43个基因簇,并得到了7个成功异源表达基因簇。华东理工大学谭高翼团队33同样借助CRISPR/Cas12a的高效靶向剪切能力,结合细菌人工染色体文库构建,开发了CAT-FISHING技术,成功地从多个放线菌基因组DNA样本中克隆得到多个生物合成基因簇,并通过异源表达获得一个新的大环内酰胺类化合物Marinolactam A。由于不同长度的gRNA序列将指导Cpf1切割得到不同长度的黏性末端46,上海师范大学王金团队72根据这一特征,先后利用不同长度的gRNA序列开发了C-Brick DNA组装标准元件,借助4个标准接口序列实现表达模块的灵活替换和CCTL(Cpf1-assisted Cutting and Taq DNA ligase-mediated Ligation)方法,联合Taq DNA连接酶实现了act基因簇启动子的高效替换。
随着测序技术和生物信息分析技术的发展,越来越多的原核生物基因数据及其潜在的天然产物生物合成基因簇分析,使得天然产物的研究方法逐步从传统的发酵分离走向靶向挖掘73。应对该过程中最具挑战的大片段生物合成基因簇克隆和异源表达,传统方法往往需要根据不同的原核生物选择对应的遗传操作系统,此过程繁复且效率不高,常常耗费研究人员大量时间和精力。基于CRISPR/Cas9系统开发的多种针对大片段生物合成基因簇的克隆方法很大程度上克服了上述传统方法不足,同时本文中介绍的克隆方法可适用于绝大多数原核生物。
众所周知,天然产物是抗生素和其他多种药物的重要来源,这些活性化合物的生物合成、结构衍生化对于药物研发不可或缺。同生物合成基因簇克隆一样,传统研究方法也需要根据宿主选择对应的遗传编辑方法,需要构建多个质粒,经历多轮实验筛选。CRISPR/Cas9系统独特的靶向编辑优势很大程度上简化了上述烦琐步骤,同时提高了阳性率。此外,天然产物生物合成通路的代谢研究对于高效合成活性天然产物具有重要意义,基于该系统的研究策略同样简化了研究思路,提高了代谢通路优化的效率。
综上所述,CRISPR/Cas9系统为天然产物领域研究带来了极大的便利和强大的支撑。作为迅速发展和广泛应用的遗传编辑技术,尽管该系统针对少量菌种无法使用,但是通过对该系统的进化研究和与其他重组系统的组合,相信这一问题将会得到解决,同时也将会涌现出更多更高效的遗传编辑系统,为天然产物领域研究提供强大技术支持。
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(82173719)
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2024年第5卷第3期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-110
  • 接收时间:2023-12-26
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-06-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-12-26
  • 修回日期:2024-03-17
基金
国家自然科学基金面上项目(82173719)
作者信息
    1 香港科技大学理学院化学系,清水湾校区,香港 999077
    2 深圳湾实验室,化学生物学研究所,广东 深圳 518132

通讯作者:

唐啸宇(1984—),男,博士,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为微生物天然产物化学生物学。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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