Article(id=1148993298729067087, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993296258626224, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-104, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1701619200000, receivedDateStr=2023-12-04, revisedDate=1709136000000, revisedDateStr=2024-02-29, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751870949679, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1725033600000, pubDateStr=2024-08-31, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751870949679, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751870949679, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751870949679, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148993296258626224, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='4', pageStart='695', pageEnd='907', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751870949091, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057276828, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774811473342492, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993296258626224, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774811473342493, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993296258626224, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=851, endPage=866, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999754072650448, articleId=1148993298729067087, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=The construction approaches and biomaterials for vascularized organoids, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The adequate perfusion of blood and exchange of metabolites are crucial for maintaining organoid homeostasis and supporting cell survival, growth, and functionality. Therefore, vascularization of organoids is an essential step towards improving their functionality and long-term survival. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the field of organoid vascularization, highlighting various construction approaches and biomaterials used to promote blood vessel formation within organoids. There are various approaches for constructing vascularized organoids, with co-differentiation and co-culture being widely utilized. Co-differentiation enables simultaneous development of both organ-specific and vascular cells from stem cells, while co-culture involves growing stem or progenitor cells together with vascular cells to promote the formation of vascular networks through self-assembly. Transplantation strategies, such as introducing microvascular fragments into organoids or engrafting organoids into specific organs, can also promote the formation of a natural and efficient vascular system within the organoid. Moreover, bioengineering strategies offer promising alternatives for organoid vascularization. Techniques like microarray fabrication and electrospinning enable the creation of micro-surface and biomimetic structures that support vascular network formation. Meanwhile, 3D bioprinting allows for the incorporation of endothelial cells and supporting biomaterials in a spatially controlled manner, facilitating the development of vascular networks within organoids. Microfluidic systems provide precise control over fluid, nutrient, and signaling factors within microscale channels, allowing for the manipulation of vascular networks in a controlled and dynamic environment. The construction of vascularized organoids often involves the utilization of biocompatible materials to incorporate pro-angiogenic factors and to create suitable microenvironments for different cell types. Hence, this review also encompasses the application cases of both natural and synthetic biomaterials in the development of vascularized organoids. Hydrogels are widely utilized in the construction of both organoids and vascularized organoids. They can be categorized into natural hydrogels, such as Matrigel, decellularized matrix, collagen, etc., and synthetic hydrogels like polyethylene glycol. Natural hydrogels are biocompatible and biologically active but with limited mechanical strength, while synthetic hydrogels offer long-term stability and tunable mechanical properties albeit with the potential lack of biocompatibility. Combining the natural and synthetic hydrogels can facilitate the creation of stable and tunable microenvironments for vascularization. Despite significant advancements, challenges in organoid vascularization continue to exist. The complex structure of organ-specific blood vessels and the underlying mechanisms of angiogenesis are still not fully understood. Additionally, accurately replicating of the in vivo microenvironment, the technical complexities of bioengineering methods, and the instability of organoid cultures hamper the generation of functional vascularized organoids. Ongoing research focusing on deciphering the key mechanisms of vascularization, combined with advancements in biotechnology, offers promising prospects for significantly enhancing the structural and functional maturity of vascularized organoids. These advancements are expected to pave the way for the widespread utilization of organoid technology in both basic and clinical fields of medicine.

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类器官血管化是完善类器官结构、功能及支持其体外长期存活的关键问题。近年来,随着类器官培养及生物工程技术的发展,类器官血管化有了长足的进步。本文综述了血管化类器官领域的最新进展,总结了目前用于血管化的构建策略与方法,包括干细胞共分化、多细胞共培养、微血管片段,移植后体内再血管化等生物技术,以及微制造、静电纺丝、三维生物打印、微流控技术等工程技术手段在血管化类器官方面的应用。血管化类器官的构建通常会辅以生物材料来负载血管化相关因子或提供不同类型细胞生长的微环境,本文对构建血管化类器官中应用的天然及合成生物材料也做了相应讨论。虽然类器官血管化目前还存在一定的局限性,但随着对血管化关键机制的解析及生物工程技术的进步,多种构建方法及生物材料的联合应用,将极大促进结构及功能完善的血管化类器官构建,并实质性地推动类器官技术在基础及临床医学领域的应用。

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张京钟(1973—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为干细胞/类脑器官治疗神经系统重大疾病,类器官芯片互联为微生理系统及其应用开发等。E-mail:
余爽(1977—),女,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为干细胞/类器官培养及相关的细胞替代疗法在皮肤功能性重建中的应用,干细胞/外泌体技术在神经精神疾病中的应用及其机制探索等。E-mail:
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李石开(1997—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为干细胞结合生物材料在皮肤功能性重建中的应用。E-mail:

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李石开(1997—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为干细胞结合生物材料在皮肤功能性重建中的应用。E-mail:

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李石开(1997—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为干细胞结合生物材料在皮肤功能性重建中的应用。E-mail:

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血管化类器官的构建方法及生物材料
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李石开 1, 2 , 曾东鳌 1, 2 , 杜方舟 2 , 张京钟 1, 2 , 余爽 1, 2
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(4): 851-866
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(4): 851-866
血管化类器官的构建方法及生物材料
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李石开1, 2 , 曾东鳌1, 2, 杜方舟2, 张京钟1, 2 , 余爽1, 2
作者信息
  • 1 中国科学技术大学,生命科学与医学部,生物医学工程学院(苏州),安徽 合肥 230026
  • 2 中国科学院苏州生物医学工程技术研究所,江苏 苏州 215163
  • 李石开(1997—),男,博士研究生。研究方向为干细胞结合生物材料在皮肤功能性重建中的应用。E-mail:

通讯作者:

张京钟(1973—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为干细胞/类脑器官治疗神经系统重大疾病,类器官芯片互联为微生理系统及其应用开发等。E-mail:
余爽(1977—),女,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为干细胞/类器官培养及相关的细胞替代疗法在皮肤功能性重建中的应用,干细胞/外泌体技术在神经精神疾病中的应用及其机制探索等。E-mail:
The construction approaches and biomaterials for vascularized organoids
Shikai LI1, 2 , Dong′ao ZENG1, 2, Fangzhou DU2, Jingzhong ZHANG1, 2 , Shuang YU1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou),Division of Life Science and Medicine,University of Science and Technology of China,Hefei 230026,Anhui,China
  • 2 Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Suzhou 215163,Jiangsu,China
出版时间: 2024-08-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-104
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类器官血管化是完善类器官结构、功能及支持其体外长期存活的关键问题。近年来,随着类器官培养及生物工程技术的发展,类器官血管化有了长足的进步。本文综述了血管化类器官领域的最新进展,总结了目前用于血管化的构建策略与方法,包括干细胞共分化、多细胞共培养、微血管片段,移植后体内再血管化等生物技术,以及微制造、静电纺丝、三维生物打印、微流控技术等工程技术手段在血管化类器官方面的应用。血管化类器官的构建通常会辅以生物材料来负载血管化相关因子或提供不同类型细胞生长的微环境,本文对构建血管化类器官中应用的天然及合成生物材料也做了相应讨论。虽然类器官血管化目前还存在一定的局限性,但随着对血管化关键机制的解析及生物工程技术的进步,多种构建方法及生物材料的联合应用,将极大促进结构及功能完善的血管化类器官构建,并实质性地推动类器官技术在基础及临床医学领域的应用。

干细胞  /  类器官  /  血管化  /  生物工程学方法  /  生物材料

The adequate perfusion of blood and exchange of metabolites are crucial for maintaining organoid homeostasis and supporting cell survival, growth, and functionality. Therefore, vascularization of organoids is an essential step towards improving their functionality and long-term survival. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the field of organoid vascularization, highlighting various construction approaches and biomaterials used to promote blood vessel formation within organoids. There are various approaches for constructing vascularized organoids, with co-differentiation and co-culture being widely utilized. Co-differentiation enables simultaneous development of both organ-specific and vascular cells from stem cells, while co-culture involves growing stem or progenitor cells together with vascular cells to promote the formation of vascular networks through self-assembly. Transplantation strategies, such as introducing microvascular fragments into organoids or engrafting organoids into specific organs, can also promote the formation of a natural and efficient vascular system within the organoid. Moreover, bioengineering strategies offer promising alternatives for organoid vascularization. Techniques like microarray fabrication and electrospinning enable the creation of micro-surface and biomimetic structures that support vascular network formation. Meanwhile, 3D bioprinting allows for the incorporation of endothelial cells and supporting biomaterials in a spatially controlled manner, facilitating the development of vascular networks within organoids. Microfluidic systems provide precise control over fluid, nutrient, and signaling factors within microscale channels, allowing for the manipulation of vascular networks in a controlled and dynamic environment. The construction of vascularized organoids often involves the utilization of biocompatible materials to incorporate pro-angiogenic factors and to create suitable microenvironments for different cell types. Hence, this review also encompasses the application cases of both natural and synthetic biomaterials in the development of vascularized organoids. Hydrogels are widely utilized in the construction of both organoids and vascularized organoids. They can be categorized into natural hydrogels, such as Matrigel, decellularized matrix, collagen, etc., and synthetic hydrogels like polyethylene glycol. Natural hydrogels are biocompatible and biologically active but with limited mechanical strength, while synthetic hydrogels offer long-term stability and tunable mechanical properties albeit with the potential lack of biocompatibility. Combining the natural and synthetic hydrogels can facilitate the creation of stable and tunable microenvironments for vascularization. Despite significant advancements, challenges in organoid vascularization continue to exist. The complex structure of organ-specific blood vessels and the underlying mechanisms of angiogenesis are still not fully understood. Additionally, accurately replicating of the in vivo microenvironment, the technical complexities of bioengineering methods, and the instability of organoid cultures hamper the generation of functional vascularized organoids. Ongoing research focusing on deciphering the key mechanisms of vascularization, combined with advancements in biotechnology, offers promising prospects for significantly enhancing the structural and functional maturity of vascularized organoids. These advancements are expected to pave the way for the widespread utilization of organoid technology in both basic and clinical fields of medicine.

stem cells  /  organoids  /  vascularization  /  bioengineering methods  /  biomaterials
李石开, 曾东鳌, 杜方舟, 张京钟, 余爽. 血管化类器官的构建方法及生物材料. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (4) : 851 -866 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-104
Shikai LI, Dong′ao ZENG, Fangzhou DU, Jingzhong ZHANG, Shuang YU. The construction approaches and biomaterials for vascularized organoids[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (4) : 851 -866 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-104
组织工程和生物工程领域在过去十年中取得了显著的进步,研究者们不断地尝试在体外构建工程实体器官模型,希望以此为钥匙来解开人类生长、发育和再生的终极秘密1。然而,人体器官不仅具有复杂多样的空间三维形态,而且其细胞种类繁多,并具有特定的空间区域排布2。随着21世纪初干细胞研究和组织工程技术的快速发展,类器官技术应运而生。类器官是指在体外环境中对干细胞(如胚胎干细胞或成体干细胞)培养并诱导其增殖和分化后,通过自组织形成类似器官的复杂结构体。其具有类似特定器官的细胞类型和组织排布,能够模拟器官的关键功能,弥补了传统二维细胞模型和动物模型的一些不足3-4。这一颠覆性的技术出现为疾病研究、药物开发和再生医学提供了新的视角和工具,已经成为发展前景最为广阔的体外器官模型之一5
类器官的血管化一直是限制其技术发展的瓶颈6-7。人体器官中具有丰富的血管网络,这些血管不仅为器官中的细胞提供营养物质和氧气,带走代谢废物,还为器官的形成和再生提供必不可少的生化信号分子8。同样,类器官也需要血管化来保证其结构和功能的完善以及支持体外的长期存活9。氧气、营养物质和代谢废物在三维组织中心的扩散一般不超过200 μm10-11,相较于体外二维细胞模型,多数类器官模型都大于这一尺寸,且类器官空间结构复杂,不同部分的细胞组成和物质运输效率存在较大的差异,未形成血管化的类器官内部氧气和营养物质的运输效率较低,也缺少血管相关细胞分泌的细胞因子,这些因素都显示了类器官血管化的必要性和难度。
血管化是一个复杂的生物学过程,涉及新血管的形成和发展,主要包括血管萌生(vasculogenesis)和血管生成(angiogenesis)过程12-13。血管萌生过程是血管系统最初形成的过程,主要发生在胚胎发育早期。这一过程始于内皮祖细胞(endothelial progenitor,EPC)的分化,这些细胞随后聚集形成血管管道14。血管生成过程是从现有血管中形成新血管的过程,它通常发生在组织生长、修复过程中。这一过程主要依赖于内皮细胞(endothelial cell,EC)的增殖和迁移,形成新的血管结构15。在血管化的过程中,生长因子[如血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)、成纤维细胞生长因子(FGF)、色素上皮因子(PDGF)和转化生长因子β(TGF-β)等]调控血管形成相关细胞(如EPC、EC、血管周细胞和平滑肌细胞等)的生物学行为16-18。血管化的生物学机制为科学家们在类器官中实现血管化提供了多种思路,近年来,类器官的血管化取得了显著进展。本综述列举了干细胞共分化、多细胞共培养、使用微血管片段和体内再血管化等生物学方法以及脱细胞化、微制造、静电纺丝、三维生物打印和微流控等生物工程学技术在构建血管化类器官中的应用,以及多种生物材料在构建血管化类器官中的应用,并总结了类器官血管化的核心挑战和可能的解决策略。
目前,仅有部分种类的类器官血管化有成功的报道,诱导类器官血管形成的决定性因素还有待研究,不同种类的类器官血管化的条件也不尽相同。工程技术的飞速发展为构建血管化类器官提供了巨大机遇,这里我们将已有的类器官血管化基本策略总结如下(图1):
类器官的传统培养主要依靠成体干细胞或多能干细胞在特定的三维微环境下自组织发育而来,其本身大多不具备血管化的结构19。理论上,多能干细胞本身具备多种干性,具备分化成多种细胞的能力,与体内血管的发育相似,即使在没有EC参与的情况下,其形成的类器官也应该会发生血管生成。然而,由于体外无法提供组织发育过程中的特定微环境及信号分子,因此多能干细胞通常并不能形成组织特异性的微血管结构。但通过调控类器官形成的微环境,实现多种细胞类型的协调分化,已有报道实现了在类器官中多种细胞类型的共分化及血管化20
Holloway等21在常规小肠类器官培养方法的基础上,向培养体系中加入表皮生长因子(EGF)、VEGF、FGF和骨形态发生蛋白-4(BMP-4)等细胞因子,诱导小肠类器官(HIO)中内源性EC的分化,从而形成血管化的小肠类器官(vHIO)。Lewis-Israeli等22在诱导多能干细胞(iPSC)诱导分化成心脏类器官的过程中使用化学抑制剂以及生长因子调节Wnt通路,最终获得含有1.63%±0.21%的EC的心脏类器官。在培养过程中增加BMP-4与Activin A处理会获得更多的EC,且这些细胞空间排布上与心肌细胞混合在一起,提示着血管化的发生。Qin团队23建立了一种包含特定生长因子和细胞外基质的3D培养体系,通过诱导人诱导多能干细胞(hiPSC)向滋养层细胞和血管EC进行多向分化,形成具有血管样结构的胎盘类器官。所产生的胎盘类器官包含多种类型的滋养层细胞以及内源性血管EC等,可以模拟人早期胎盘的发育特征。
将人脐静脉内皮细胞(HUVEC)与构成类器官的其他细胞共同培养是多种类器官血管化的常用手段之一。如Wang和Wu团队24通过人胚胎干细胞(hESC)诱导分化,并与HUVEC共培养,建立了一种获得血管化的脑类器官的方法,证实了HUVEC血管网络能够加速脑类器官的成熟发育,使其更早达到成熟状态。而进行体内移植之后,脑类器官血管网络中的EC可以整合到宿主小鼠的血管中而形成新的有血液流动的功能性血管网络。
然而,由于血管的成分和其复杂的管网结构,单一EC与干细胞共培养生成类器官的血管化还存在局限性,为了获得血管化程度更高的类器官,Wörsdörfer等25将中胚层祖细胞掺入类器官中并利用PDGF或VEGF处理,使中胚层祖细胞分化为平滑肌细胞或EC,在类器官内部形成具有层次结构的血管,这些血管具有EC-细胞连接、基底膜、腔小窝和微泡,同时血管可以伴随着类器官的生长而扩展。此外,Luo团队26分别构建血管类器官和脑类器官,然后将两种类器官在特定的时间点融合共培养以获得血管化的脑类器官。相比于未融合血管类器官的脑类器官,其具有较多的血管网络结构,并表现出更多的神经祖细胞数量,更重要的是血管化的脑类器官具有功能性血脑屏障结构。
近年来研究表明,成纤维细胞参与了促血管生成27,其释放的基质蛋白是内皮细胞形成管腔样结构的必要成分28。因此,类器官血管化中经常共同引入内皮细胞及成纤维细胞。如Stevens等29将心肌细胞、EC和成纤维细胞共培养来获得血管化心脏补片。血管化的心脏补片可主动收缩,相比于仅包含心肌细胞的补片具有更好的力学和节律性能。Ma等30将生物墨水与EC和成纤维细胞结合,构建了模拟血管化皮肤的多细胞支架,在体内及体外都展现了很强的诱导血管生成能力。
除了EC外,其他类型的细胞,如平滑肌细胞、巨噬细胞、周细胞和其他免疫细胞也可以与EC协同影响血管网络的形成和功能31。体外血管化类器官的努力主要集中在将EC作为形成血管段的前体,依靠EC在类器官内自组装成少量的毛细血管样结构。然而,这些结构缺乏天然微血管的结构和细胞复杂性,与天然血管网络仍然有较大差距。微血管片段(microvessel fragment,MVF)来源于动脉、静脉和毛细血管,保留了完整的天然结构(管腔)和细胞组成,并且在3D环境中很容易再现血管生成和组织血管化32。MVF可从啮齿动物或人类的脂肪或脑组织中完整分离,它们介导血管生成并参与血管周细胞相互作用33。当移植到体内时,微血管会形成由小动脉、毛细血管和小静脉组成的分级血管网络。
Cai团队34通过MVF制备血管化的脂肪类器官,并将其移植到纤维化皮肤下以恢复皮下脂肪并逆转局限性硬皮病。结果表明,加入MVF的脂肪类器官含有成熟的脂肪细胞和完善的血管网络,移植后可减少胶原沉积和真皮厚度,减轻真皮纤维化。Ampofo团队35通过将胰岛细胞与微血管片段融合来生成血管化的胰岛类器官。与新鲜分离的胰岛、培养的胰岛和非血管化的胰岛类器官相比,这些分泌胰岛素的类器官表现出更高的血管生成活性。在体内,血管化的胰岛类器官在移植后通过其微血管与周围血管的相互连接而迅速进行血液灌注,需要较少数量的胰岛移植物恢复糖尿病小鼠的血糖至正常水平。
在这种策略中,类器官通常被移植到体内血管丰富的组织中,如肾、肺或脑36。类器官可以直接移植到免疫缺陷动物体内,宿主血管出芽生长并迁移进入类器官,从而促进类器官血管化。例如,Mansour等37先利用常规诱导方式,将人类胚胎干细胞诱导分化为人脑类器官,人脑类器官植入前不含有EPC或相关细胞,但植入脑内后可以长期存活和血管化。
在采用干细胞共分化或共培养技术构建血管化类器官时,其血管网络的形成和完善仍大多需要将此类类器官移植到体内,利用体内天然存在的血管网络和复杂的微环境帮助类器官提高血管化程度,而类器官内部已有的血管生成可以更好地促进其移植到体内后的血管化。比如,Wimmer等38将血管类器官移植到小鼠的肾包膜下,这些血管类器官在体外已经自组装成毛细血管网络,移植到体内后血管类器官可以进一步形成稳定的树状血管网络,包括动脉、小动脉和小静脉。作者分析认为肾脏本身大量存在的血管可能极大地帮助树状血管网络的生成,因此移植后类器官所在位置的天然血管数量很有可能影响类器官血管化的程度。此外,如肠系膜39、附睾脂肪垫40和胰腺41等部位也可以移植类器官促进其进一步血管化。
组织工程技术的飞速发展为构建血管化类器官提供了有力的工具,不断涌现的新技术帮助科学家们构建尺寸更大、结构可控、通量更高的血管化类器官,实现新的突破。
组织和器官脱去细胞后剩余的支架被定义为脱细胞外基质(decellularize extracellular matrix,dECM)。其组成成分含有胶原蛋白、层粘连蛋白和生长因子;结构上,dECM可以保留原生组织和器官的微观和宏观结构42。因此,dECM可以提供物理结构和生化信号使细胞得以存活、增殖和分化。利用dECM促进血管化也是利用了这一特性。
dECM的制备需考虑从ECM中去除足够量的细胞碎片,并保留关键的ECM蛋白和维持结构特性43。目前主要使用灌注法去除残留的宿主细胞,Kim等44使用Triton X-100处理肾脏得到肾脏dECM,利用肾脏 dECM 构建的肾脏类器官移植后,可以加速从宿主小鼠肾脏募集EC。Triton X-100灌注ECM可以保持生长因子和ECM的结构完整性,但不能充分去除细胞。而使用十二烷基硫酸钠(SDS)的纯化方法已被证明能够充分去除细胞碎片,同时保持 ECM 的蛋白质45。因此,使用Triton X-100和SDS的混合物也许可以达到细胞清除和ECM维持的最佳水平。例如,Kitano等46用SDS、去离子水和Triton X-100连续灌注洗涤剂去除一段空肠的细胞,以制备大鼠肠dECM。然后将人源化多能性干细胞衍生的肠上皮细胞和HUVEC与大鼠肠dECM共培养。体外培养28天后,人源化多能性干细胞衍生的祖细胞分化为极化的肠上皮单层,植入的HUVEC重建肠类器官的血流灌注,在离体灌注实验中,营养物质如葡萄糖和中链脂肪酸可实现从肠腔到脉管系统的转移。
微阵列制造技术的出现为解决目前血管化类器官难以批量生成的限制提供了解决办法47。微阵列制造形成的具有微表面形态的3D支架已被证实可以改善营养物质的传递和交换,并能够以较低的成本实现规模控制的阵列化生产48。例如,微孔制造已被用于大量和可复制的血管化类器官的生产。Yang等49在孔直径为500 μm的微孔阵列中培养人胎儿神经干细胞(hfNSC)或hiPSC衍生的神经前体细胞(NPC),同时结合EC促进神经球的血管化,通过调节EC及血管化可以调节 NPC的行为、表型和功能,从而调节其治疗和再生潜力。Radisic团队50通过生物工程设计,成功地在96孔板中构建了三维微工程平台,将胰腺肿瘤患者细胞来源的胰腺类器官、人成纤维细胞和EC共同放入微平台中进行培养构建胰腺肿瘤类器官。在三维灌注血管网络中,与无成纤维细胞的对照相比,含有成纤维细胞的类器官胶原沉积增加6倍,组织硬度相应增加,成功重现胰腺肿瘤微环境。Taniguchi团队51开发了微孔阵列培养平台,将肝内胚层细胞、间充质干细胞和iPSC衍生的EC在微孔中共培养,实现了大规模(108)生产临床级均一且血管化的肝芽。其移植到免疫缺陷小鼠体内48 h后形成了功能血管,为肝类器官的临床和药物应用奠定了基础。
静电纺丝作为一种传统的技术广泛应用于生物医学工程领域,原理是利用高压静电作用将聚合物溶液制备成连续纤维。采用静电纺丝技术制得的纤维直径可达纳米级,其直径范围一般在3 nm~5 μm52。大量纤丝沉积在接收物体表面形成一层纤维膜,这种纤维膜的表面形貌可以指导细胞的行为,如迁移和分化53。Stevens团队54使用静电纺丝书写网格支架形成特定的图案阵列,可以引导多能干细胞自组织成胚状体。网格几何形状通过曲率控制的组织生长指导新兴管腔的位置和大小。静电纺丝支架提供了一种高通量方法来生成、培养和分析大量类器官,大大减少了传统类器官培养方法中的时间投入和体力劳动。此外,添加额外成分或特殊结构设计的静电纺丝支架也许可以引导血管细胞排列和迁移的能力,从而增强类器官的血管化。如Wang等55成功将重组人静脉内皮生长因子(rhVEGF)、重组人骨形态发生蛋白2(rhBMP-2)和生物活性磷酸钙(Ca-P)纳米粒子掺入静电纺丝纳米纤维支架,实现了rhVEGF的快速释放和rhBMP-2的稳定释放。迁移实验和基质胶成管实验表明,HUVEC的迁移和管网形成能力增强,同时,负载的人骨髓间充质干细胞的成骨分化和矿化能力加强。
微流控芯片(microfluidic chip)通常又称生物芯片(biochip),是依托于微尺度下流体精确处理的跨学科技术56。类器官微流控芯片可以把类器官培养过程中的实验操作过程和功能集成在一块小小的硅基、玻璃、塑料或金属等固相材质上,形成一种包括多种微纳米管道和多个微纳升体积的反应腔体的微型芯片,以可控流体贯穿整个系统,用以实现常规类器官的各种功能57
微流控芯片中类器官的血管化主要是通过模拟体内细胞微环境来实现。例如,肾类器官已经成功在微流控芯片中血管化。Morizane团队58在毫流体芯片上流动培养hiPSC分化而来的肾类器官,与静态对照组相比,流动条件下培养的肾类器官具有更多的血管化和更成熟的形态。此外,Vulto团队59报道了一个在体外生长的微血管床上移植肝脏或其他类器官的芯片平台。该平台由大量微量滴定板和图案化的微流控芯片组成。每个芯片都可以通过诱导血管生成在两个主要侧向血管之间形成微血管床。移植肝微组织后,微血管床会进行吻合,从而形成稳定和可灌注的血管网络。Kolesky等60开发了一种厚的3D血管化组织,通过微流控芯片灌注可维持6周以上。通过使用多种墨水,他们将间充质干细胞和成纤维细胞整合到三维组织中,并在灌注芯片上嵌入血管通道,血管通道内衬EC。通过向细胞灌注含有相关生长因子的分化培养基可以进一步将骨髓间充质干细胞分化为成骨组织。Salmon等61通过微流控芯片实现类器官与血管细胞的共发育与互作。微流控芯片中的人类多能干细胞衍生的周细胞和EC可以自组装成血管网络,血管网络与大脑类器官发生相互作用,并在芯片上形成血管化神经类器官。
自Thomas Boland62在21世纪初首次提出细胞及器官打印的概念,三维生物打印逐渐成为学者研究的热门方向,这是一项革命性的制造技术,它已经在医疗、生物学研究、组织工程和药物研发等领域产生了深远的影响63。该技术利用特定的生物打印材料,通过逐层堆叠的方法创建具有生物相容性的三维结构,这为血管化类器官的构建提供了新的可能性64
Ma等65使用了一种基于紫外光诱导光聚合的DLP三维生物打印方法,将肝脏祖细胞(HPC)、HUVEC和人脂肪组织衍生的干细胞(hASC)按照顺序打印的方式共同打印在一个类似于六边形结构和生理尺寸的肝小叶阵列结构中。结果表明,三维打印体中的HPC自发地聚集重组。肝脏标志物表达分析显示,在血管化构建体中,HPC功能增强且发育得更加成熟,表明血管化是维持生物打印球体和类器官功能并长期存活的关键属性之一。Ma等30设计了基于硅酸锶颗粒的生物墨水,以挤出式打印的方法得到一层墨水层,然后用压电移液管将EC及成纤维细胞悬浮液喷涂在墨水层上。通过循环打印和喷涂进行“细胞写入”,得到了模拟血管化皮肤的多细胞支架。利用硅酸锶颗粒的促血管生成作用及支架中的血管成分,可有效促进皮肤血管化及急、慢性皮肤愈合。挤出式生物打印技术是目前应用最广泛的技术,Yap等66将小鼠HPC与小鼠肝窦EC(LSEC)以1∶1的比例结合,挤出式打印后制备了具有肝脏特异性血管的肝胆类器官。与不含有LSEC的HPC类器官相比,HPC/LSEC类器官显示出更高的细胞存活率和肝功能。
此外,已经开发出牺牲模板式生物墨水用于在类器官生成过程中构建内部管腔结构。例如,Tseng等67开发了一种葡萄糖敏感和自我修复的水凝胶作为牺牲材料。此材料主要由可逆交联的聚(乙二醇)二丙烯酸酯和二硫苏糖醇组成,其与血管EC混合后作为内腔的牺牲性水凝胶,含有神经干细胞的非牺牲性水凝胶(如纤维蛋白、壳聚糖)作为外腔,通过三维打印形成支架后根据葡萄糖敏感性去除牺牲性水凝胶形成内部管腔结构。14天后,EC迁移到非牺牲水凝胶中并形成毛细血管状结构,而神经干细胞在类器官生成过程中形成神经球样结构,从而生成了“血管化神经组织”的形态。
如前所述,构建血管化类器官的组织工程技术通常会辅以生物材料来负载相关细胞因子或提供细胞培养的外环境68。生物材料通常是指用于医学目的而与生物系统相互作用的材料,种类繁多。其中,水凝胶材料具有生物相容性、可控性、包装和输送能力等优点,是最常用于构建血管化类器官的材料69-70,本文将着重介绍近年来水凝胶材料在类器官血管化方面的研究进展。目前已有的报道将这些水凝胶材料分为天然和合成水凝胶材料,如图2所示。其中天然水凝胶的成分主要为Matrigel88-89、dECM90-91、胶原92、纤维蛋白93、丝素94、透明质酸(HA)95-96、海藻酸97和纤维素98等;合成水凝胶的成分主要是甲基丙烯酸化明胶(GelMA)99、甲基丙烯酸化HA (HAMA)84和聚乙二醇(PEG)100等。
Matrigel主要取自Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm(EHS)小鼠肉瘤,是一种溶解的基底膜提取物,含有层粘连蛋白、胶原、硫酸肝素蛋白多糖和各种与基质结合的生长因子101;已被广泛用于培养各种类型的器官组织8890102。与Matrigel类似,dECM也是从各种组织中提取的天然提取物;组织特异性的dECM通过提供其固有的成分和结构来调节血管相关细胞的形态和行为,如先前所述44-45
生物活性材料也经常与Matrigel或dECM结合使用,以提高其促进血管化的性能4386。虽然Matrigel/dECM广泛应用于血管化类器官的构建过程中,然而,由于其成分不明确、批次间的可变性和动物来源的性质导致了血管化类器官方案中实验的不确定性和结果的可变性。
随着类器官培养技术的发展,具有明确生化成分和机械特性的天然组织中的蛋白质被用于构建血管化类器官。胶原蛋白是人体器官中含量最丰富的ECM蛋白,Hoying团队32成功使用胶原蛋白水凝胶作为培养基质构建血管化脂肪类器官。从蚕茧中提取的丝素蛋白具有较好的生物相容性,也被用于培养血管化类器官,Duan团队103使用物理交联的丝素蛋白水凝胶作为嵌入式3D打印的支撑材料,使用低浓度胶原和乳腺癌细胞进行打印最终得到了血管化肿瘤类器官。纤维蛋白是由肝细胞合成和分泌的一种糖蛋白,Rajasekar等9通过在纤维蛋白与10% Matrigel的水凝胶混合物中共培养EC和结肠类器官来构建血管化结肠类器官。
多糖多与其他生物材料联用,在构建血管化类器官方面也显示出巨大的潜力。藻酸盐是从藻类中提取的天然多糖,经常与其他生物材料结合用于类器官的构建。Genderen团队76描述了一种双次交联的微流控生物打印方法,以生成具有多层交错水凝胶微纤维的支架。通过将GelMA与藻酸盐共混并使用这种生物打印策略获得微纤维支架,然后对微纤维支架进行二次光交联以实现进一步固化。封装在生物打印的超细纤维内部的EC在培养后可形成管腔状结构,而这种内皮化的血管支架可以作为其他类器官血管化的基础。纤维素是由葡萄糖组成的大分子多糖,是植物细胞壁的主要成分。Qin团队79使用流聚焦微流控装置来制备GelMA/纤维素核壳微凝胶,通过简单地调节流速即可控制GelMA/纤维素微凝胶的大小,并成功地将其用于肝细胞与血管EC的共培养。
由于交联机制、分子量和生物降解性的原因,所有这些天然聚合物都表现出相对较差的力学性能和不稳定性,这可能会导致它们在类器官血管化的长期培养过程中失去作用。
为了解决天然水凝胶材料的局限性,合成水凝胶材料已成为培养血管化类器官的理想替代品。开发合成水凝胶材料一般有两种策略:改性天然材料,如甲基丙烯酰化明胶(GelMA)和甲基丙烯酰化HA(HAMA);合成高分子材料,如PEG。这些合成水凝胶具有良好的生物相容性、可调机械性能和降解时间44
GelMA是一种基于明胶改性的光固化材料,保留了明胶的Arg-Gly-Asp(RGD)序列和温度敏感性,具有良好的生物相容性、优异的成型性能和可调的理化特性,已被广泛应用于细胞培养、三维生物打印和药物递送等领域637075。最近,研究者们也在探索将GelMA用于血管化类器官的研究。Guo团队81使用GelMA、胰腺ECM和血浆构成的复合生物墨水三维打印构建胰岛类器官,结果表明该复合生物墨水具有显著促进血管生成的潜力,移植到体内后类器官血管化程度增加。HA是ECM的主要成分之一,其衍生物也常用于培养类器官73。然而,其本身并不支持细胞的黏附104,因此经常与其余材料结合使用以增强细胞附着力。Wang等84使用胰腺细胞外基质 (pECM)和HAMA作为特定的生物墨水制备血管化胰岛类器官。HAMA/pECM水凝胶可通过Rac1/ROCK/MLCK信号通路维持胰岛细胞黏附和形态,有助于改善胰岛功能和活性。此外,HAMA/pECM水凝胶的3D打印结构有利于血管网络的形成,体内可以促进新血管的附着和生长,并增加新血管的密度。
据报道,PEG是类器官培养中最常用的合成聚合物105。Murphy团队86将神经前体细胞、血管和小胶质前体细胞结合在PEG水凝胶上,以模拟发育时机,从而产生具有3D神经元、神经胶质组织、血管网络和具有分支形态的小胶质细胞的多成分神经构建体。由于其生物惰性,PEG水凝胶无法提供支持细胞黏附和组织形成的理想环境。不过,PEG可通过丙烯酸酯、硫醇和N-hydroxyl succinimide酯等活性末端基团进行功能化,以结合ECM的关键生物功能,如特定细胞黏附、蛋白降解和信号分子结合。这些修饰可通过调节微环境的生物活性和硬度,提高细胞存活率并决定细胞命运106-108。利用合成水凝胶来控制细胞命运和微环境从而构建血管化类器官的策略具有重要的研究意义。
每种生物材料都有其优势和局限性。天然材料与人体组织的ECM非常相似,具有良好的生物相容性和生物活性,可促进细胞增殖和迁移109。不过,大多数天然材料为动物来源,小部分来自转基因细菌,有限的产量和潜在的杂质可能会在临床治疗中引起患者的免疫反应110。此外,天然材料的成分复杂多变,其物理或化学性质不稳定且不可控。相比之下,合成材料可加工性强、易于改性,可在明确和可控的条件下制备111。然而,合成材料制备的水凝胶缺乏天然细胞外基质中的生物活性物质,这不可避免地会影响结合细胞的生物功能。迄今为止,还没有一种合成材料能完全取代天然材料。更重要的是,由于体内血管形成过程的复杂性和动态性,单一类型的水凝胶往往不能满足血管化类器官工程的所有要求,因此,通过物理共混和化学共聚或改性,来得到具有更好理化性能的新型复合水凝胶是发展的必然趋势。水凝胶的混合可以发生在天然-天然、合成-合成和天然-合成水凝胶之间,这在很大程度上扩大了用于类器官血管化的水凝胶的种类。研究者们越来越倾向于使用天然-合成聚合物水凝胶来构建血管化类器官,主要是为了利用两者的优点,同时减轻各自的缺点。
类器官的血管化一直都是再生医学领域研究的热点与难点,虽然已有长足的进步,但到目前为止,实现类器官功能性血管化还存在如下瓶颈:
(1)参与血管化的细胞种类复杂,并具有器官特异性。目前,最常用于类器官血管化的细胞是内皮细胞。内皮细胞不仅维持机体内血管内膜完整性,同时完成管腔内外液的代谢交换,并且能合成和分泌多种生物活性物质112。研究表明,不同器官内血管内皮细胞受局部微环境调控,具有不同的亚细胞结构、促血管生成能力、内分泌或血管调节能力及不同的代谢状态113-115。例如在脑中,内皮细胞之间紧密连接,保证血脑屏障的完整性;而在肾脏中,内皮细胞形成可允许大分子通过的半透膜,保证肾小球的过滤功能116。在肝、脾和骨髓等组织中,内皮细胞的间隙较大,有利于大分子物质甚至血细胞出入血管117。近年来随着谱系示踪和单细胞测序技术的发展,内皮细胞从转录水平上也被证实是一类高度异质性的群体。不同器官中血管内皮细胞不仅基因表达差异显著,其对疾病状态的敏感性也显著不同。即使在同一器官中,内皮细胞也可区分为不同的功能性亚群118
另外,血管管网的组成部分并不仅仅是内皮细胞。就直径最小的毛细血管而言,其组成包括内皮细胞、具有收缩功能的周细胞及基底膜。依据管径不同,动脉内皮细胞外由若干层平滑肌细胞包裹。内皮细胞与血管周围细胞之间存在密切的功能互作,共同维持血管体系稳态。而这些血管周围细胞与内皮细胞类似,其组成与功能也具有显著的器官特异性。如血脑屏障中星形胶质细胞、小胶质细胞和内皮细胞等共同维持屏障功能的稳定性,而在骨髓中,造血干细胞共同调节局部血管功能119-120。在器官层面,不同种类的器官在血管密度和代谢强度方面也存在显著差异。代谢活跃的器官和组织通常具有较高的血管密度,以确保足够的氧气和养分供应,如肝脏、肾脏和心脏等。而骨骼、肌腱和结缔组织等的血管密度较低。因此,血管结构的复杂性、内皮细胞及管周细胞的高度异质性等是实现不同类器官功能性血管化时需要考虑的难点问题。
(2)血管生成机制复杂,体外难以模拟在体血管生长发育的微环境。新生血管的生长和成熟是一个相当复杂和协调的过程,该过程包括基底膜被蛋白溶解、细胞外基质的蛋白水解、内皮细胞迁移和增殖、细胞外基质的产生、血管管腔形成和血管管网成熟修剪等关键步骤121。一系列生化因子,如VEGF、血管生成素(angiopoietin)、PDGF、TGF-β和FGF等参与调控这一过程16-18。此外,血流剪应力和压力等物理因素也调控血管生成122。近年来研究表明,内皮细胞代谢在血管生成中起着非常重要的作用。糖酵解和氧化磷酸化是内皮细胞的两个主要能量产生途径,与体内很多细胞不同,在血管生成过程中,内皮细胞约85%的三磷酸腺苷通过糖酵解途径获得123。糖酵解的增加使内皮细胞获得新生血管所需的能量,促进血管出芽过程。同时,内皮代谢物还调节信号转导途径和基因表达,以及跨膜运输等内皮功能124
因此,在类器官血管化研究中,模拟体内血管生长和发育的微环境是一项极具挑战性的任务。除了考虑复杂的血管化需求,还需考虑类器官或多种细胞类型的共培养需求。目前已有的报道大部分是采用天然水凝胶作为培养基质,因其使用方便且具有良好的生物相容性69-70。然而,其理化性能往往难以精确调控。虽然合成材料与天然材料混合或改性制备的水凝胶能够克服某些局限性,但是其成分配比与组合方式的优化仍然需要深入研究,通过调整水凝胶的刚度、孔隙度和生物活性成分等来提供血管生成所需的生化信号、代谢和免疫微环境等。同时,结合工程学技术提供可调控的生物及物理刺激因素,以更好地在类器官中构建功能化的血管体系。
(3)在模拟多级管网结构的复杂性及稳定性上尚存挑战。在类器官血管化的研究中,模拟复杂的多级管网结构是一个显著的技术挑战。通过微流控或三维生物打印等工程技术构建血管化类器官已经有了很多突破性的进展,成功构建了各种区域特异性分布三维结构5967。但这些工程学技术的精度、速率及生物墨水/基材上的不足使得在大规模构建小尺度血管管网体系方面仍存在局限性。在现有报道的设计和培养方案中,血管结构的尺寸和密度与体内的天然血管网络仍然有较大差距。此外,天然血管网络的复杂性不仅体现在其分支结构上,还体现在不同类型的血管(如动脉、静脉和毛细血管)之间的精细协调。因此,未来的研究可能需要更好地仿生不同器官中特异性的血管网络体系,以实现功能性血管化。另一方面,类器官中血管网络的稳定性和功能性方面仍然存在问题,这包括血管的机械稳定性、对流体动力学的响应以及与其他细胞的相互作用等122。类器官血管化的研究目前主要集中在实验室中,不同实验室使用的技术方案和血管化类器官的培养结果并不相同,在重复性和稳定性方面仍需改善。
(4)类器官培养技术的稳定性和均一性等影响血管化的效率。即使采用同样的血管化方法,类器官的大小和构建体系的差异亦会造成血管化程度不一致,随着类器官体系的复杂程度增加、细胞异质性增强和培养时间的延长,血管化程度的可重复性会进一步下降。因此, 现有类器官技术在构建和研究血管化方面存在局限性。通过改进三维培养系统,目前成功构建了来源于乳腺、肺等的微器官体系,其具有更完善的生理结构、更高的稳定性、更长的培养时间以及展现更复杂的生理和病理过程的潜能125-126。类器官培养技术的不断进步,才可能为构建多种稳定的类器官血管化体系奠定基础。
类器官血管化是类器官培养技术中的一个关键步骤。血管化的类器官可以保证类器官得到充足的氧气和营养供应并运输代谢废物,维持细胞的活力和功能;血管化可以增加类器官与真实器官的相似性,有助于完善类器官的功能和模拟真实微环境,对于体外研究器官发育、疾病机制和药物筛选等方面非常重要。此外,血管化的类器官可以提高临床移植的可能性,相比于未血管化的类器官,它们可以更快地与接受者的血液循环系统整合。
如何更准确地找出体内外的环境差异,并将差异量化到类器官血管化构建体系中,是构建类器官体系并进行功能性血管化的关键因素,也是一项极具挑战性的工作。人体血管网络的构筑、细胞组成及分子机制在不同器官间存在显著的异质性,而无论是从亚细胞角度还是整体机体水平,目前对其了解非常有限。获得人体不同器官的血液灌注数据,了解其动脉、静脉和毛细血管网络的组成占比和位置分布,是构建血管化类器官的基础。经典的成像技术,如组织学切片结合光镜及电镜成像、磁共振和CT扫描等提供了很多的人体血管分布信息,而新近发展的组织透明化技术及光片显微镜、双光子技术等有助于从更大尺度、更接近生理条件下了解血管管网的组成部分127
从分子水平上,单细胞测序和组学分析等技术的进步让我们进一步了解了器官间血管体系的异质性、细胞间互作、细胞与局部微环境之间的复杂互作关系128。随着基因组学、蛋白组学和代谢组学等技术手段的发展、组学数据的不断累积,将更深入理解器官间血管网络调控的细胞组成和分子机制,进而指导体外血管化类器官的构建。从构筑、细胞及分子水平上阐述机体血管体系是一项庞杂繁复的工作,而人体微器官如胰岛、毛囊从结构和功能上都相对简单,在较小的尺度上研究这些微器官中的血管体系将为构建理想的血管化类器官提供启示。
在目前血管化类器官的基本策略中,共分化和共培养的自组装血管化方法通常只能构建直径在15~50 μm之间的微血管网络,不能形成成熟的脉管网络系统68。微血管片段和体内再血管化具有较好的促血管化作用,但微血管片段的获取难度较大,且涉及伦理和供体来源的问题,限制了其广泛应用。体内再血管化的过程存在组织兼容性和伦理问题,同时因宿主种属和品系等个体差异会带来血管化程度的差异性。组织工程技术的飞速发展为血管化类器官提供新的方案,是目前非常有前景的血管化手段,通过使用生物材料、细胞打印技术和微流控技术等,可以更精确地构建类器官的血管网络。然而,这些构建的血管化类器官与真实器官的血管网络还存在一定差距,特别是在血管的复杂性和功能性方面。进一步解析和确定体内血管化形成的关键因素和步骤,利用生物材料、生物工程技术和干细胞生物学的不断进步和跨学科合作,综合采用多层次的血管化构建策略,将最终完成不同类器官的功能性血管化体系构建。而类器官的血管化与功能化将极大地扩展类器官技术在基础科研及临床实践中的应用。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFA1101100)
  • 国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1104800)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82271522)
  • 姑苏重大创新团队项目(ZXT2019007)
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2024年第5卷第4期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-104
  • 接收时间:2023-12-04
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-08-31
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  • 收稿日期:2023-12-04
  • 修回日期:2024-02-29
基金
国家重点研发计划(2021YFA1101100)
国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1104800)
国家自然科学基金(82271522)
姑苏重大创新团队项目(ZXT2019007)
作者信息
    1 中国科学技术大学,生命科学与医学部,生物医学工程学院(苏州),安徽 合肥 230026
    2 中国科学院苏州生物医学工程技术研究所,江苏 苏州 215163

通讯作者:

张京钟(1973—),男,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为干细胞/类脑器官治疗神经系统重大疾病,类器官芯片互联为微生理系统及其应用开发等。E-mail:
余爽(1977—),女,研究员,博士生导师。研究方向为干细胞/类器官培养及相关的细胞替代疗法在皮肤功能性重建中的应用,干细胞/外泌体技术在神经精神疾病中的应用及其机制探索等。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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