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The early development of the human embryo includes three important stages: ①the pre-implantation stage from the zygote to the late blastocyst; ②the peri-implantation stage from late blastocyst to pre-gastrulation embryo; and ③the most mysterious post-gastrulation stage from gastrulation to early organogenesis. The latter two stages are collectively referred to as the early post-implantation developmental stage. During pregnancy, infertility (implantation failure or miscarriage) and birth defects of the fetus are largely due to abnormalities in human early postimplantation development. Human early postimplantation embryo, due to its small size and location in the mother’s uterus, is difficult to observe and study. Therefore, the embryonic development process at this stage has been in a black box state for a long time. In recent years, with the emergence of single-cell omics technology and extended in vitro culture system of human blastocysts, as well as the rapid development in the fields of embryonic and extraembryonic stem cells, organoids and embryoids, the mystery of the human early postimplantation development is gradually being lifted. In order to help understand the mysteries of early human embryonic development, this review primarily introduces the lineage diversification, key developmental events and known developmental principles during early human embryogenesis; summarizes recent progress in the research on human embryonic and extraembryonic stem cells (including totipotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells, trophoblast stem cells, primitive endoderm stem cells and extraembryonic mesoderm cells); presents the effects of cell communication, lineage interaction, signal gradient, adhesion molecules, biomechanics, and extracellular matrix on cell sorting, migration rearrangement and self-organization in embryoids and organoids; reviews the current research status of human early post-implantation embryogenesis, stem cell-based embryo models and organoids; and finally proposes the prospects and possible solutions to the problems and challenges existing in the research of human early post-implantation development using stem cell-derived embryo models or organoids.

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人胚胎早期发育包括三个重要阶段:①从受精卵到晚期囊胚的着床前阶段;②从晚期囊胚到原肠运动前的围着床阶段;③从原肠运动到早期器官发生的原肠后阶段。后两个阶段统称为着床后早期发育阶段。妊娠过程中,不育(胚胎着床失败或流产)和胎儿出生缺陷,很大程度上是胚胎的着床后早期发育出现异常所致。人着床后早期胚胎,由于位于母体子宫,且尺寸较小,不易对其观察和研究,因此,这一阶段的胚胎发育过程长期处于“黑匣子”状态。近年来,随着单细胞组学技术和胚胎体外延长培养系统的建立,以及胚胎和胚外干细胞、类器官和类胚胎领域的快速发展,使得人胚胎着床后早期发育的神秘面纱被慢慢揭开。本文从人胚胎早期发育、胚胎和胚外干细胞、类胚胎和类器官研究的视角,结合细胞通信、谱系互作、信号梯度、黏附分子、生物力学和细胞外基质等因素对细胞分选、迁移重排和自我组织的影响,概述了人胚胎早期发育过程中的发育原理,当前胚胎和胚外干细胞的研究进展以及用其模拟人胚胎早期发育的研究现状、存在问题和发展方向,以期能够帮助理解人胚胎早期发育的奥秘。

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李天晴(1975—),男,博士,教授,“国家高层次人才”特聘教授和科技部重点研发计划首席科学家。研究方向为干细胞与组织工程,从事灵长类干细胞和胚胎发育研究。E-mail:
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艾宗勇(1984—),男,博士,副教授。研究方向为干细胞与胚胎发育。E-mail:

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艾宗勇(1984—),男,博士,副教授。研究方向为干细胞与胚胎发育。E-mail:

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(Some of the modules of the figure were created with BioRender. D—Day)

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(部分图形模块用BioRender制作。D—天)

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(Adapted from Fu et al.[115] and Zernicka-Goetz[116] with permission)

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(在Fu等115和Zernicka-Goetz116的基础上进行改编)

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人胚胎早期发育与干细胞
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艾宗勇 1, 2 , 张成庭 1, 2 , 牛宝华 1, 2 , 尹宇 1, 2 , 杨洁 1 , 李天晴 1, 2
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(4): 700-718
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(4): 700-718
人胚胎早期发育与干细胞
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艾宗勇1, 2 , 张成庭1, 2, 牛宝华1, 2, 尹宇1, 2, 杨洁1, 李天晴1, 2
作者信息
  • 1 昆明理工大学灵长类转化医学研究院,省部共建非人灵长类生物医学国家重点实验室,云南 昆明 650500
  • 2 云南中科灵长类生物医学重点实验室,云南 昆明 650500
  • 艾宗勇(1984—),男,博士,副教授。研究方向为干细胞与胚胎发育。E-mail:

通讯作者:

李天晴(1975—),男,博士,教授,“国家高层次人才”特聘教授和科技部重点研发计划首席科学家。研究方向为干细胞与组织工程,从事灵长类干细胞和胚胎发育研究。E-mail:
Early human embryo development and stem cells
Zongyong AI1, 2 , Chengting ZHANG1, 2, Baohua NIU1, 2, Yu YIN1, 2, Jie YANG1, Tianqing LI1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1 State Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research,Institute of Primate Translational Medicine,Kunming University of Science and Technology,Kunming 650500,Yunnan,China
  • 2 Yunnan Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research,Kunming 650500,Yunnan,China
出版时间: 2024-08-31 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-094
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人胚胎早期发育包括三个重要阶段:①从受精卵到晚期囊胚的着床前阶段;②从晚期囊胚到原肠运动前的围着床阶段;③从原肠运动到早期器官发生的原肠后阶段。后两个阶段统称为着床后早期发育阶段。妊娠过程中,不育(胚胎着床失败或流产)和胎儿出生缺陷,很大程度上是胚胎的着床后早期发育出现异常所致。人着床后早期胚胎,由于位于母体子宫,且尺寸较小,不易对其观察和研究,因此,这一阶段的胚胎发育过程长期处于“黑匣子”状态。近年来,随着单细胞组学技术和胚胎体外延长培养系统的建立,以及胚胎和胚外干细胞、类器官和类胚胎领域的快速发展,使得人胚胎着床后早期发育的神秘面纱被慢慢揭开。本文从人胚胎早期发育、胚胎和胚外干细胞、类胚胎和类器官研究的视角,结合细胞通信、谱系互作、信号梯度、黏附分子、生物力学和细胞外基质等因素对细胞分选、迁移重排和自我组织的影响,概述了人胚胎早期发育过程中的发育原理,当前胚胎和胚外干细胞的研究进展以及用其模拟人胚胎早期发育的研究现状、存在问题和发展方向,以期能够帮助理解人胚胎早期发育的奥秘。

人胚胎发育  /  着床  /  干细胞  /  类胚胎  /  类器官  /  自我组织  /  原肠运动  /  器官发生

The early development of the human embryo includes three important stages: ①the pre-implantation stage from the zygote to the late blastocyst; ②the peri-implantation stage from late blastocyst to pre-gastrulation embryo; and ③the most mysterious post-gastrulation stage from gastrulation to early organogenesis. The latter two stages are collectively referred to as the early post-implantation developmental stage. During pregnancy, infertility (implantation failure or miscarriage) and birth defects of the fetus are largely due to abnormalities in human early postimplantation development. Human early postimplantation embryo, due to its small size and location in the mother’s uterus, is difficult to observe and study. Therefore, the embryonic development process at this stage has been in a black box state for a long time. In recent years, with the emergence of single-cell omics technology and extended in vitro culture system of human blastocysts, as well as the rapid development in the fields of embryonic and extraembryonic stem cells, organoids and embryoids, the mystery of the human early postimplantation development is gradually being lifted. In order to help understand the mysteries of early human embryonic development, this review primarily introduces the lineage diversification, key developmental events and known developmental principles during early human embryogenesis; summarizes recent progress in the research on human embryonic and extraembryonic stem cells (including totipotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells, trophoblast stem cells, primitive endoderm stem cells and extraembryonic mesoderm cells); presents the effects of cell communication, lineage interaction, signal gradient, adhesion molecules, biomechanics, and extracellular matrix on cell sorting, migration rearrangement and self-organization in embryoids and organoids; reviews the current research status of human early post-implantation embryogenesis, stem cell-based embryo models and organoids; and finally proposes the prospects and possible solutions to the problems and challenges existing in the research of human early post-implantation development using stem cell-derived embryo models or organoids.

human embryonic development  /  implantation  /  stem cells  /  embryoids  /  organoids  /  self-organization  /  gastrulation  /  organogenesis
艾宗勇, 张成庭, 牛宝华, 尹宇, 杨洁, 李天晴. 人胚胎早期发育与干细胞. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (4) : 700 -718 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-094
Zongyong AI, Chengting ZHANG, Baohua NIU, Yu YIN, Jie YANG, Tianqing LI. Early human embryo development and stem cells[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (4) : 700 -718 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-094
通过精卵结合,胚胎以受精卵的形式开启生命的旅程。单个受精卵经过三轮卵裂后形成8细胞胚胎(含8个卵裂球),此时所有卵裂球都有部分区域暴露在外侧(靠近透明带)并发生极化,形成向外的顶端区域(apical pole)和向内的基底区域(basal pole)。随后,胚胎继续发生卵裂并产生两种细胞亚群——顶端区域的不对称分裂会产生具有不同收缩性的卵裂球,当表面收缩性的差异超过阈值时,卵裂球就会出现内部和外部的区分,收缩性差的卵裂球位于胚胎内部且没有极化,收缩性强的卵裂球位于胚胎外部且发生极化1。自此,胚胎发育进入桑椹胚阶段。桑椹胚中,排列在不同位置的卵裂球处于不同的微环境并具有不同的细胞属性,最终导致不同的细胞谱系命运。外面的细胞发生极化(顶端区域表达非典型蛋白激酶C,aPKC),Hippo信号通路失活(YAP核定位),表达GATA3和CDX2等转录因子,具有更高的细胞黏附能力、细胞弹性或收缩性;相反,内部的细胞没有发生极化,Hippo信号通路激活,高表达转录因子OCT4,具有更低的细胞黏附能力、细胞弹性或收缩性1-5。与此同时,在外围细胞的顶端区域,会形成一种丝状肌动蛋白环并扩展到细胞连接处与黏着连接和紧密连接进行耦合,最后像拉链配对一样使胚胎进行密封,进而形成一个稳定的渗透性上皮屏障并使胚胎与外部隔绝,该屏障允许细胞间渗透性积水从而扩展出胚胎的第一个腔,即囊胚腔(图16。囊胚腔的尺寸和外围细胞的分裂方式,受到液腔压力的控制7。囊胚腔扩张初期,液腔压力逐渐升高,进而促进囊胚腔内壁细胞的皮质张力和组织硬度增加,导致纽蛋白(vinculin)机械传感和功能性紧密连接的成熟。进入成熟期后,囊胚腔内壁细胞的皮质张力达到临界值,当细胞发生有丝分裂,细胞形态变圆,不能继续维持细胞间的紧密连接,细胞交界处断裂,导致囊胚腔发生漏液进而内陷,有丝分裂完成后,细胞交界处的紧密连接重新建立并使囊胚腔再次密封。这种液腔压力通过囊胚腔间隙性内陷和再次密封控制囊胚腔尺寸的理论称为液压门控振荡理论(hydraulically gated oscillations)7。随着囊胚腔的出现和扩展,胚胎发生第一次谱系分离——排列在外面的极性卵裂球发育为滋养外胚层(trophectoderm, TE),而排列在内部的非极性卵裂球发育为内细胞团(inner cell mass,ICM)。在此过程中,囊胚腔里的流体力也参与细胞命运决定——感受到的流体力越大,卵裂球倾向于发育为ICM;感受到的流体力越小,卵裂球倾向于分化成TE8。TE和ICM的出现以及囊胚腔的形成,标志着桑椹胚正式转化为囊胚(图1)。囊胚形成以后,ICM继续往下发育,到晚期囊胚,ICM在Wnt和成纤维细胞生长因子(fibroblast growth factor, FGF)等信号通路的调控下9,经历了胚胎发育过程中的第二次谱系分离,进一步产生两种新的细胞类型:与极性(polar)滋养层相邻的ICM细胞产生上胚层(epiblast, EPI),表达多能性转录因子OCT4和NANOG;其余的ICM细胞产生原始内胚层(primitive endoderm, PrE),表达内胚层转录因子GATA6和SOX17(图1)。在非鼠类(non-murine species)中也称PrE为下胚层(hypoblast)10。传统观点认为,人的ICM直接特化产生EPI和PrE,但最近的一项研究发现,人PrE细胞可能来源于EPI,即ICM先特化为EPI,然后一部分EPI细胞进一步特化为PrE细胞11。在EPI和PrE特化的起始阶段,两种类型的细胞以“salt-and-pepper”的方式混合在一起;随后,PrE往极性滋养层的反方向迁移并镶嵌在EPI细胞上,完成胚胎发育的第二次细胞谱系分离(图1)。有研究报道,决定EPI和PrE分离的关键因素,并非细胞黏附、表面张力和亲和力等静态力学特征的差异,而是PrE细胞中Ezrin-Radixin-Moesin的磷酸化水平更高,导致PrE的细胞膜表面更为粗糙,造成细胞膜表面的力学波动更大,进而驱动PrE和EPI分离12
综上,囊胚的形成和着床前细胞谱系的命运决定,受到了基因表达、信号通路、黏附分子、骨架蛋白、细胞极性、收缩力、流体压力和生物力学等多重因素的共同调控。
随着第二次细胞谱系分离的完成,晚期囊胚通过靠近EPI的极性滋养层与子宫内膜接触并发生着床。在着床过程中,子宫内膜和极性滋养层的互作至关重要。子宫内膜必须转变为蜕膜才能容纳胚胎着床13,在着床过程中,蜕膜细胞的衰老和迁移为胚胎提供了一个动态的着床环境,使胚胎能够正常黏附、扩展和浸润到子宫内膜14。此外,蜕膜细胞分泌的Wnt抑制剂DKK115-16,可能是促使胚胎TE分化为浸润合胞体并植入子宫内膜的母体信号17。随后,子宫内膜细胞分泌的Notch信号15-16,可能进一步诱发绒毛外滋养层细胞的特化和迁移18。此外,EPI在极性滋养层细胞成熟和胚胎着床过程中也发挥至关重要的作用,如果缺乏EPI,滋养层细胞不能正常黏附并植入子宫内膜19
胚胎着床后,囊胚三谱系——TE、EPI、PrE分别发育为胎盘、羊膜和胎儿、卵黄囊。
随着着床,TE进一步发育为细胞滋养层(cytotrophoblast,CTB),在与子宫内膜的互作过程中,部分CTB分化产生两种细胞类型:合胞体滋养层(syncytiotrophoblast,STB)和绒毛外滋养层(extravillous trophoblast,EVT)。STB由CTB融合而来,衬于绒毛的外表面,主要负责妊娠相关的激素分泌,母胎间营养物质和代谢废物的交换。CTB在蜕膜发送信号的引导下,增殖并迁移穿透STB,形成细胞滋养层细胞柱(cytotrophoblast cell column,CCC)。CCC作为EVT的前体,其远端的细胞会分离出来并与蜕膜的胞外基质相互作用,进一步分化产生具有浸润能力的EVT。EVT有两种主要类型:一种为间质滋养层细胞(interstitial extravillous trophoblast,iEVT),iEVT主要负责侵润子宫内膜并协同CCC把胚胎锚定于母体子宫内;另一种EVT侵入母体子宫螺旋动脉并取代母体血管内皮细胞,将子宫螺旋动脉重构为低阻抗、高通量的子宫-胎盘螺旋动脉血管,这部分细胞被称为血管内滋养层细胞(endovascular extravillous trophoblast,enEVT)20-23。胎盘组织中,除了STB和EVT外,还储存着大量的CTB和CCC作为“干细胞池”,为STB和EVT的分化提供干细胞来源。在整个妊娠过程中,CTB、CCC、STB和EVT这几种滋养层细胞在数量上保持动态平衡,并协同实现胎盘组织的正常功能。
EPI先后发生细胞极化、形成玫瑰花环样结构,经历腔的发生并最终发育为不对称的羊膜囊结构,进而发生胚胎发育过程中的第三次谱系分离:紧挨着滋养层的细胞下调多能基因的表达并发育为鳞状羊膜上皮,最终特化为羊膜组织;另一端的细胞则呈柱状排列并维持多能基因的表达,最终发育为胎儿24-27。近年来发现,骨形态发生蛋白(bone morphogenetic protein, BMP)是诱导羊膜细胞特化的关键信号28-29,但BMP信号的细胞或组织来源,至今尚不明确。细胞外基质(extracellular matrix)的广泛使用,改写了羊膜腔形成机制的理论学说:最新研究发现,是细胞外基质,而非之前认为的细胞死亡或凋亡,驱动上胚层细胞的自我组织和腔化30-31。在三维(three-dimensional,3D)条件下,生长在细胞外基质中的人多能干细胞(human pluripotent stem cell,hPSC)能够再现胚胎EPI细胞的上皮化和成腔过程,进一步证实细胞外基质驱动羊膜腔形成的发现32。与此同时,3D hPSC模型还进一步揭示,肌动蛋白聚合促进腔的形成,而肌球蛋白收缩和Rho相关蛋白激酶(ROCK)的活化抑制腔的产生32。此外,羊膜发生还与培养表面的硬度和细胞密度相关:软基质表面和低细胞密度促进羊膜腔的形成和羊膜细胞的特化;相反,硬质表面和高细胞密度维持细胞多能性并抑制羊膜发生33-34,但详细的分子机制尚未阐明。
在EPI发育的同时,PrE进一步发育成内脏内胚层(visceral endoderm,VE)和顶叶内胚层(parietal endoderm,PE)。PE沿滋养外胚层内壁迁移,与VE共同发育形成初级卵黄囊35-36。随着发育,初级卵黄囊快速崩解退化,并被次级卵黄囊所代替37。次级卵黄囊的发育起源,可能是VE,也可能是崩解后残余的初级卵黄囊,但其形成机制尚不明确37。单细胞测序数据和免疫荧光染色结果表明,体外延长培养的人胚胎包含前端内脏内胚层(anterior visceral endoderm,AVE)2629。但不同于小鼠38-39,在人胚胎发育过程中,AVE如何和何时特化尚不明确。在体外培养到第7天的胚胎中,大部分PrE细胞(约76%)都表达BMP抑制剂CER1;到第9天,表达CER1的PrE细胞(约28%)显著减少并只局限于前端区域40。这似乎表明,人早期胚胎中大部分PrE细胞具有AVE的特性,随着发育,部分细胞逐渐丢失AVE特性并过渡到内脏内胚层或卵黄囊内胚层(visceral endoderm/yolk sac endoderm,VE/YE)身份。
羊膜囊背侧(dorsal)的鳞状上皮细胞特化为羊膜,腹侧(ventral)的柱状上皮细胞维持EPI的多能性身份,腹侧的柱状多能细胞和内脏内胚层一起,构成不同于啮齿类杯状卵圆桶结构的双层胚盘结构(bilaminar embryonic disc)41。在双层胚盘结构的形成过程中,伴随着胚外中胚层(extraembryonic mesoderm,ExM)和原始生殖细胞(primordial germ cell,PGC)的特化(图1)。
ExM细胞呈星形或纺锤状,能产生丰富的细胞外基质,是绒毛膜、羊膜、卵黄囊、血岛、体蒂和尿囊的重要组成部分,同时还对胚外体腔的扩展发挥着结构支撑功能3742。最新研究显示,ExM还能发育为胎盘绒毛内的间质细胞、Hofbauer细胞、红细胞和内皮细胞43。啮齿类ExM特化自T(Brachyury)阳性的后端EPI或原条细胞42。不同于啮齿类,包括人在内的灵长类ExM在原肠前就已开始产生,人ExM大约出现在胚胎发育的第11~12天2937。当前,人ExM的发育起源尚无明确定论,根据其基因表达模式、细胞位置、迁移动态以及基底膜屏障,现在的主流观点认为胚外中胚层起源于EPI和/或PrE3744。ExM分布于整个胚外体腔,与羊膜上皮和卵黄囊内胚层直接接触(图1),不仅产生丰富的细胞外基质,还分泌BMP信号配体和Wnt抑制剂DKK12937,因此,在胚胎和胚外谱系发育过程中,ExM可能起到重要的信号调控作用。
PGC是精子和卵子的前体细胞,其产生和特化对于生命的诞生、进化和繁衍起着决定性作用。小鼠和猪的PGC都起源于原肠起始阶段的后端上胚层(posterior epiblast)45-47。不同的是,一项之前的研究使用体内胚胎揭示食蟹猴PGC起源于原肠前的新生羊膜——食蟹猴新生羊膜细胞分泌BMP4和Wnt-3a,诱导靠近后端一侧的部分新生羊膜细胞特化为PGC并向下迁移至后端卵黄囊附近48,但该研究没有使用示踪技术,也没有详细比较羊膜细胞和PGC的转录和表观特征,因此不能排除食蟹猴PGC起源于后端上胚层的可能性47-48。当前,有关人PGC的起源知识还十分匮乏。通过分析人16~19天(Carnegie stage 7)体内胚胎的单细胞转录组数据,在原条细胞亚群中发现了少量的PGC49,似乎暗示PGC与原条细胞比较接近。流产胚胎的组织学数据显示,在受精后24天的人胚胎中,PGC位于卵黄囊内胚层的后端,但其起源和迁移路径并不清楚50。一项最近的研究通过人多能干细胞体外分化产生PGC,显示PGC起源于一种激发态的祖细胞,这些祖细胞同时具有后端上胚层细胞和羊膜细胞的特征51。另外,最近开发的羊膜囊胚体和着床后胚胎模型的不同部位(包括羊膜上皮和上胚层)都有零星PGC的分布。因此,人PGC的发育起源是羊膜上皮还是后端上胚层细胞,依然不清楚28-29
英国著名发育生物学家路易斯·沃伯特52曾说过:“人一生中最重要的时刻不是出生、结婚和死亡,而是原肠运动”。人原肠运动是着床后早期胚胎最关键的发育事件之一,它为胚胎体轴形成、三胚层特化和早期器官发生奠定基础,是妊娠过程中的一个标志性发育事件。胚胎体外培养的“14天伦理限制”就是基于原肠起始阶段的原条产生53。双层胚盘形成后,基于AVE的位置,胚胎被分为前端(靠近AVE)和后端(远离AVE)(图1)。之前的研究表明,人羊膜细胞会分泌BMP和Wnt信号,因此猜测羊膜可能是驱动人原肠运动的信号中心28-294854。在BMP-Wnt-NODAL信号轴的作用下,小鼠胚胎后端EPI的部分细胞上调T的表达,同时伴随上皮间质转换(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT)的发生,进而形成原条41。而前端的EPI细胞,由于受到AVE分泌的Wnt、BMP和Nodal信号抑制剂的调节,因此继续维持上皮状态,并伴随SOX2的上调和NANOG的下调,实现EPI前后轴的基因表达模式和细胞形态的对称打破,标志着前后轴的特化41。最终,前轴EPI发育为头部的神经外胚层,后轴EPI经原条特化为中内胚层(图1)。人原肠运动始于胚胎受精后的第14天左右,由于人胚胎体外研究受到“14天伦理限制”,因此无法用人胚胎研究原肠后的发育事件。现有对原肠运动的理解主要来自于模式动物的研究55、少量的解剖和组织学样本56-59以及单细胞测序数据4960。原肠胚形成期间,最重要的两个发育事件为体轴形成和三胚层特化61,为胚胎正常发育和器官发生奠定基础。整个过程涉及到不同类型细胞和多种信号通路的交互作用,以及不同类型细胞的自我组织和位置重排。然而,原肠期胚胎如何在不同信号通路和不同细胞间的时空互作下精确实现自我组织,正确完成体轴形成和三胚层特化,并进一步实现器官(如神经管、原始心管和肠管等)发生(图1),当前所知甚少。
人胚胎的形态特征和组学数据,为研究胚胎发育提供了参考标准。但对于深入研究胚胎谱系的发育动态和分子机制,解析胚胎异常发育的疾病机理,为不育和胎儿出生缺陷提供药物筛选平台和探寻诊疗策略,使用捐赠的人胚胎进行研究面临资源稀缺、伦理关切、个体差异和技术限制等诸多挑战。而能够在体外进行稳定培养和大量扩增的干细胞,可以有效克服胚胎研究所面临的局限性。干细胞的优势体现在以下几方面:①干细胞具有发育潜能,能够在合适条件下分化为特定的功能细胞,可以用于制备类胚胎和类器官;②干细胞能够在体外维持自我更新,在合适培养条件下,干细胞能够进行无限或大量扩增,可以大规模生产;③干细胞易于进行基因编辑,能够用于研究不同基因和信号通路的功能,以及不同谱系细胞的发育起源、特化动态和细胞间互作;④干细胞的均质性较好,遗传背景一致,相比动物模型没有物种差异。
根据其来源,干细胞可以分为胚胎干细胞(embryonic stem cell, ESC)、胚外干细胞(extra-embryonic stem cell)、成体干细胞(adult stem cell)、诱导多能干细胞(induced pluripotent stem cell, iPSC)和转分化获得的其他类型干细胞。根据其分化潜能,干细胞可以分为全能干细胞(totipotent stem cell)、多能干细胞(pluripotent stem cell, PSC)、专能干细胞(multipotent stem cell)和单能干细胞(unipotent stem cell)。对应人原肠前胚胎发育的不同细胞谱系,可以简单将干细胞分为全能干细胞、胚胎和胚外干细胞(图2)。本文主要基于人原肠前胚胎对应的不同细胞谱系,因此只重点阐述人的全能干细胞、胚胎干细胞和胚外干细胞。
受精卵和8细胞期胚胎前的卵裂球具有发育的全能性,称为全能干细胞。理论上,全能干细胞能够发育产生所有的胚胎和胚外组织,包括胎儿、卵黄囊和胎盘。之前,两个研究小组通过培养体系的筛选和优化,分别建立了人的扩展多能干细胞(extended pluripotent stem cells或expanded potential stem cell, EPSC)62-63。体外分化和嵌合实验表明,EPSC具有同时分化为胚胎和胚外组织的潜能,展示了发育全能性(图2)。但EPSC是否属于全能干细胞尚存争议。近年来,随着单细胞测序技术和人胚胎体外延长培养技术的发展,人们对人早期胚胎有了更为深入的了解。相比人着床前胚胎,EPSC维持高水平的全基因组甲基化,转录组分析也显示EPSC与人着床后晚期EPI更为接近64-67。因此,当前建立的EPSC,可能并不对应卵裂球阶段的全能干细胞,而是与下文提到的Primed ESC比较接近。最新研究在体外培养的Naïve ESC中,发现少量细胞具有8细胞期胚胎卵裂球的转录和表观特征,并且具有产生胚胎和胚外组织的发育潜能,这些细胞被称为8C样细胞(8-cell embryo-like cell, 8CLC)68-71图2)。此外,通过在Primed ESC中瞬时(15 min)过表达DUX4,能够让17%左右的细胞获得8C样细胞的转录特征72。有趣的是,通过和胚胎单细胞转录组数据进行比较分析,发现在Primed ESC中瞬时过表达DUX4获得的8C样细胞72与8细胞期胚胎卵裂球最为接近;而其他方式获得的8C样细胞68-71与8细胞期胚胎卵裂球差异巨大,表现出很高的异质性,且表达更低的EGA(embryonic genome activation)基因和更高的Naïve多能性基因73。当前获得的8C样细胞,一个最大的局限是不能在体外进行稳定培养;此外,这些8C样细胞的表观状态,还有待和8细胞期胚胎卵裂球进行全面的比较分析。特别是来自Naïve ESC的8C样细胞,是否像Naïve ESC一样存在过度去甲基化、印记基因异常和染色体不稳定,需要进一步确定。
1998年,Thomson实验室第一次成功分离和建立人ESC74;2007年,Yamanaka和Thomson实验室分别建立了人的iPSC75-76。ESC和iPSC在细胞形态、分子特征和发育潜能上高度相似,二者统称为PSC。由于需要和胚外干细胞相对应,本文后续不再提及iPSC。人ESC对应胚胎中的多能性EPI(图2),不同于小鼠,人EPI维持多能状态的时间跨度比较长,可以从晚期囊胚(第6至第7天)一直持续到原肠胚阶段(第20天左右,Carnegie stage 7)414960。因此可以想象,多能性并非一个静态的概念,而是一个动态变化的发育过程。当前,人ESC主要包括三种类型(图2):始发态(Primed)ESC,原始态(Naïve)ESC,活化态(Formative)ESC。
始发态(Primed)ESC包括传统体系培养的ESC和其他新开发体系培养的ESC。传统体系包括bFGF/KSR、E8、mTeSR等,这些培养体系都是在1998年Thomson实验室建立的培养系统基础上衍生而来74,共同点都是通过激活FGF信号和Activin-A/NODAL信号来维持Primed ESC的多能状态;其他新开发体系包括NHSM77、AIC78、3i/L79以及前文提到的EPS培养体系62-63,尽管这些体系的成分和维持多能性的机制不同,但生长在这些体系下的ESC与Primed ESC具有相似的细胞特征。Primed ESC在转录和表观水平上接近人着床后晚期EPI80-81,在发育上处于一种往三胚层方向特化的“待命状态”。
2009年,Jennifer Nichols和Austin Smith首次提出Naïve和Primed的概念,认为哺乳动物胚胎中存在两种多能状态:代表着床前EPI的Naïve状态和代表着床后EPI的Primed状态80。2014年,Austin Smith实验室和Rudolf Jaenisch实验室分别开发了t2iLGö82和5iLFA83体系,首次在生理氧条件下成功建立人的Naïve ESC。随后几年,t2iLGö和5iLFA体系获得进一步优化84-85,与此同时,其他几个实验室也开发了新的Naïve ESC的培养系统,如AIC-N29、HENSM86和4CL68。值得注意的是,AIC-N支持在常氧下建立和扩增人的Naïve ESC。Naïve ESC在转录和表观水平上接近人着床前(晚期囊胚)EPI,对应EPI发育的起始阶段,因此,是研究EPI多能性转换的理想模型。Naïve ESC在获能后能够分化为三胚层对应的细胞谱系87。而且,相比Primed ESC,Naïve ESC更容易分化为滋养外胚层细胞64-65。当前建立的人Naïve ESC,存在全基因组过度去甲基化、印记基因丢失和染色体异常的普遍问题。有趣的是,当把培养体系中MEK/ERK抑制剂去除或降低使用浓度,会减轻或减缓Naïve ESC的染色体和表观异常8688,但与此同时,会损害Naïve ESC的多能性。因此,寻找MEK/ERK抑制剂的替代物,让其既能维持Naïve多能性,又不造成染色体畸变和表观异常,将是Naïve ESC培养体系优化的重要突破点。
Austin Smith团队分别在2014年89和2017年81提出和论述Formative多能性的概念。多能性是一个连续动态的变化过程:Naïve对应晚期囊胚EPI,代表多能性的起始阶段;Primed对应着床后晚期EPI,代表多能性的末期阶段;Formative对应一种新的多能状态,代表EPI发育的中间阶段,即处于Naïve和Primed之间的一种中间态。Naïve ESC在分化产生三胚层谱系过程中,需要先经历一个获能过程才具备分化能力87。Formative多能状态相当于Naïve ESC的获能阶段——重塑转录、表观、信号和代谢调控网络,为具备多谱系分化能力和对谱系特化信号的响应做好准备81。在小鼠上,上胚层样细胞(epiblast-like cell,EpiLC)对应Formative多能状态90,因此,PGC的分化能力被作为判断Formative多能性的重要标准81。两个研究团队同时报道获得了人的Formative ESC,但这些细胞代表Formative身份的证据还比较欠缺,需要进一步鉴定91-92;此外,作为报道的Formative多能性的标志基因,SOX11OTX2和一些ZNF基因91-92,在体外培养胚胎的EPI中的表达显示矛盾的结果——相比着床后早期EPI(对应Formative阶段),这些基因在着床后晚期EPI(对应Primed阶段)中具有更高的表达29。此外,之前建立的一种中间态的RSeT PSC,在Naïve标志基因表达、X染色体活化、DNA甲基化和代谢状态等方面似乎介于Naïve ESC和Primed ESC之间93,其是否对应Formative状态需要进一步探索。
人胚外干细胞,是指除EPI之外具有干性的其他细胞类型。当前报道的人胚外干细胞,包括滋养层干细胞(trophoblast stem cell,TSC)和胚外内胚层干细胞(extraembryonic endoderm stem cell,XEN)(图2)。此外,最近分离到的胚外中胚层细胞(extraembryonic mesoderm cell,ExM)也显示有限的增殖能力,在此一并介绍。
人TSC对应胚胎的TE及其衍生物(图2)。BMP4能够诱导Primed hPSC产生滋养层样细胞(trophoblast-like cell,TrBLC),并且通过抑制Activin/Nodal和FGF信号能够提高诱导效率94-96。然而,这些TrBLC快速失去增殖能力,不能在体外维持稳定的自我更新97,因此,BMP4诱导产生的TrBLC不能作为一个很好的工具来深入研究滋养层细胞和胎盘发育。此外,TrBLC还被质疑可能是中胚层样细胞98和羊膜样细胞64-6599。尽管人们早就猜测或认识到人囊胚的TE和早期胎盘滋养层细胞中含有干细胞亚群,但通过囊胚和早期胎盘分离TSC的尝试一直没有成功100-101。来自日本的研究团队对胎盘滋养层细胞的转录组进行分析,找到相关上调和下调的信号通路,然后通过激活Wnt,抑制Activin/Nodal、组蛋白去乙酰化酶和ROCK,并辅以表皮细胞生长因子(epidermal growth factor,EGF),首次建立了人TSC的培养体系。并通过着床前囊胚和早期胎盘,首次体外建立可以维持自我更新和具有分化潜能的人TSC102图2)。最近,几个不同的研究小组,分别通过体细胞重编程、Naïve和Primed ESC的诱导分化也获得了人的TSC64-6597103-110,从而为TSC的获取扩宽了来源,并为胎盘发育的个性化研究提供了可能。但是,当前建立的TSC不表达早期囊胚TE的标志物CDX2,细胞特征与着床后胚胎的CTB相似64-6597102105图2),因此代表滋养层发育的Primed阶段,不能用于模拟TE的发育动态44。最近的两个研究显示,在Naïve ESC分化为TSC的过程中,会瞬时经历TE样的发育阶段64-65,因此,Naïve ESC分化TSC的中间细胞产物,可以作为有效的研究工具,用于筛选稳定培养和维持TE样细胞的培养体系。
人XEN对应胚胎的PrE及其衍生物(图2)。之前的两个研究用Wnt激活剂、Activin/Nodal激活剂和LIF处理Naïve ESC和RSeT ESC,分别产生Naïve胚外内胚层细胞(Naïve extra-embryonic endoderm cell,nEnd)10和卵黄囊样细胞(yolk sac-like cell,YSLC)111。然而,一些胚外内胚层的关键转录因子,如SOX17OTX2FOXA2HNF4A,在nEnd里几乎不表达44,表明这些细胞可能不是真正的XEN。一项最新的研究也证实,nEnd在培养过程中逐渐过渡到ExM命运10112。不同于nEnd,YSLC表达胚外内胚层的关键转录因子,基因表达模式类似着床后胚胎的AVE111,但其确切身份还需要进一步鉴定。最近,两个研究使用不同的方法,获得人的XEN:Wei等113通过激活FGF、转化生长因子-β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)和Wnt信号通路,诱导人的Naïve ESC和EPSC产生可以连续传代培养的XEN,但其增殖速度比相同体系下建立的小鼠和食蟹猴XEN更慢;Okubo等114通过过表达GATA6或建立新体系,成功诱导Naïve hPSC产生着床前的PrE样细胞,并揭示BMP/FGF信号对PrE样细胞的特化至关重要,但没有报道这些PrE样细胞是否能在体外长期稳定培养和扩增。除了通过hPSC分化产生XEN外,当前还没有通过人胚胎直接建立XEN的报道。ExM的研究比较滞后,2022年,Pham等112在用Naïve ESC分化TSC的过程中,在TSC的培养物中意外发现一群CDH1阴性的基质细胞,通过鉴定,发现这群细胞具有ExM的特征。经流式分选和富集后,这群细胞在TSC的培养体系里能稳定培养和扩增超过14代(70天)。综上,XEN和ExM的研究尚处于起步阶段。
基于同时具备自我更新和分化潜能的细胞特性,近年来,干细胞在人的类胚胎和类器官方面的应用取得了突飞猛进的发展(图3)。干细胞建系,是从有序的胚胎里将特定类型的细胞群体(如TE、EPI和PrE)分离纯化出来,在体外进行单一细胞类型的培养和扩增(图2)。相反,类胚胎和类器官的制备,是将单一类型的一种或多种干细胞进行组装,让无序的干细胞自我组织为有序的胚胎或器官样结构(图3)。一个或一群干细胞,在特定条件下能够形成具有有序组织结构的类胚胎或类器官,在此过程中,细胞通信、谱系互作、信号梯度、黏附分子、生物力学和细胞外基质等因素对命运决定、细胞分选、迁移重排和自我组织起着关键调控作用(图3)。
在胚胎和组织器官发育过程中,存在广泛的细胞通信和谱系互作。首次证实人存在“organizer(组织者)细胞”的研究117,用Wnt-3a和Activin-A联合处理生长在微图案上的ESC集落,诱导产生前原条(anterior primitive streak)并将其移植到鸡胚,发现人的前原条细胞通过分泌BMP、Wnt和Nodal抑制剂,与相邻的鸡胚细胞进行信号互作,并诱导其形成有序的、包括脊柱和神经系统的次生胚轴(secondary axis)。用BMP4处理包裹在hydrogel(水凝胶)/Matrigel(基质胶)(5∶1)中的Primed ESC球,能够模拟原肠起始阶段的EPI前后轴对称打破;在此过程中,率先分化的中胚层细胞同时表达Wnt激活剂Wnt-3a和Wnt抑制剂DKK1,这种特殊的基因表达模式,推迟与之相邻细胞分化为中胚层的速度,进而形成瞬时的EPI前后轴不对称模式118。在羊膜囊胚体中,背侧的羊膜上皮细胞能够作为信号中心,分泌BMP和Wnt信号配体,诱导腹侧的EPI样细胞特化产生原肠细胞和PGC28。最近的两个研究,分别使用胚外细胞(SNC和xEM细胞)同Naïve ESC和Primed ESC进行组装构建胚胎组装体(embryo assembloid),在胚胎组装体的制备和发育过程中,SNC和xEM细胞扮演了关键的信号调控角色29119。SNC细胞分泌BMP和Wnt信号,诱导组装体中的Naïve ESC自我组织形成有序的3D空间结构,包括羊膜腔和卵黄囊,并特化产生上胚层、胚外内胚层、胚外中胚层、羊膜、原条和PGC等胚胎和胚外细胞谱系;该研究还进一步揭示,内源性Nodal信号是形成卵黄囊和胚外内胚层的必要条件29。xEM细胞分泌BMP信号,诱导组装体中的Primed ESC发生前后轴对称打破,并特化产生原条和中胚层细胞119。类囊胚中,EPI与极性滋养层的信号互作,是极性滋养层细胞成熟和类囊胚着床的前提19;同时,子宫内膜与极性滋养层细胞的互作,也是囊胚或类囊胚正常着床和发育的关键14120。最新研究发现,啮齿类和非人灵长类的PrE通过分泌细胞外基质(如层粘连蛋白)抑制EPI增殖113;而人的PrE与EPI能自我组装为双胚盘结构,且PrE进一步诱导EPI形成羊膜腔,在此基础上,TE进一步提高双胚盘结构的形成效率并促进EPI增殖和羊膜腔扩张114。此外,YSLC能够扮演AVE的角色,抑制EPI的中内胚层特化,促进EPI特化为前轴命运111。总之,在胚胎发育过程中,细胞通信和谱系互作发挥着关键调控作用。
从受精卵到体轴形成,胚胎最初的对称性被打破,这个过程被称为“模式形成”(pattern formation)。1924年,Spemann和Mangold发现非洲爪蟾胚胎背侧的一小团细胞能分泌扩散性分子,诱导腹侧的细胞产生一个完整的次级轴,并首次提出“organizer”的概念,organizer能够分泌扩散性分子(长距离信号分子)影响和调控周围细胞的命运121。1952年,Turing提出基于反应-扩散(reaction-diffusion)的图灵学说,将扩散性分子称为形态素(morphogen),认为某形态素在发挥作用时,会诱导在“功能”上与之相反的另一种形态素的产生,最终导致一对形态素激活剂(activator)和抑制剂(inhibitor)以不同速度在介质中自由扩散形成浓度梯度,诱导周围细胞和组织自发形成周期性的结构122。1969年,Wolpert123进一步提出位置信息(position information)理论——用著名的 “法国国旗” (Franch flag)模型来解释胚胎发育过程中的模式形成,在这个模型中,生物体内细胞的位置由两个固定边界区域之间的形态素线性浓度梯度决定,该模型的核心内容同organizer概念以及图灵学说的内容相符,认为一群特定细胞分泌的特定形态素,能够在细胞间扩散以建立浓度梯度,通过胞内信号通路调控不同靶基因的表达来控制周围细胞的增殖、分化和迁移等行为,逐渐确立周围细胞的空间位置信息并决定其命运,最终建立细胞或组织的区域边界123。综上,模式形成的核心是对称打破,而对称打破的基础则是形态素的浓度梯度。因此,形态素的浓度梯度在类胚胎或类器官的形成过程中起着至关重要的作用。例如,羊膜囊胚体的制备过程中,借助微流控系统,在人ESC球的两侧成功构建BMP4浓度梯度,接触高浓度BMP4的背侧形成鳞状羊膜上皮,而低浓度BMP4的腹侧维持多能性的柱状上皮,最终形成双极胚盘的对称打破28;FGF/Wnt和维甲酸所呈现的相反信号浓度梯度是人的连续体节样结构(Axioloid或Segmentoid)形成的关键124-125;在用2D培养的人ESC分化神经外胚层的过程中,通过构建稳定的Wnt信号梯度能够模拟神经管的前后轴特化(展示前脑-中脑-后脑的渐进变化)。形态素的浓度梯度固然是对称打破的基础,但在细胞的自我组织过程中,除了需要形态素的浓度梯度,还需要其他的细胞分选机制共同参与,才能实现特定组织结构的有序排列。比如人的连续体节样结构中,最初MESP2的表达呈现杂乱的salt-and-pepper模式,随后在细胞分选的驱动下,MESP2-high的细胞从MESP2-low的区域迁出,最终实现前后轴的形成125;在人的合成胚胎(两种或三种类型的起始细胞)制备过程中,起始细胞最初以一种无序状态随机混合在一起,随着延长培养,在没有人为施加形态素浓度梯度条件下,不同类型的细胞会经细胞分选后自发聚集在一起并特化产生有序的空间结构126-127。之前的一项研究提出,基于细胞表面黏附分子密码的细胞分选机制,能够推动机体实现有序组织结构的形成128,该观点同1970年Steinberg提出的细胞差异黏附分选模型的假说一致129。最近,Bao等130通过小鼠的合成胚胎,进一步证实差异表达的钙黏蛋白密码驱动小鼠TSC、XEN和ESC实现细胞分选、迁移重排并自我组织形成正确结构的合成胚胎。综上,形态素浓度梯度是组织模式形成的主要驱动因素,但在形态素诱导细胞命运转换过程中,会存在一定的随机性或精确度不够,导致特定组织的局部区域存在不同类型细胞以salt-and-pepper的方式共存,这时候需要依赖其他细胞分选机制对细胞的空间位置进行微调,如细胞表面的黏附分子密码驱动的细胞迁移和重排,最终才能实现相同或相似细胞的物以类聚。
胚胎发育除了受化学信号调控,还受力学信号影响。如前所述,囊胚形成过程中,伴随一系列生物力学事件的发生,如卵裂球的收缩力、液腔压力、皮质张力、流体力甚至细胞膜表面的力学波动都参与了TE、ICM、EPI和PrE等不同谱系的命运决定和空间位置的分离重排。此外,囊胚TE对EPI的力学作用直接决定了着床后EPI的形状——小鼠极性TE对EPI施加推力使其成为杯状卵圆桶结构,人极性TE对EPI施加拉伸力使其成为双层胚盘结构131。已有研究表明,生物力学也在类胚胎或类器官的构建过程中发挥重要作用。小鼠合成胚胎中,三种细胞谱系的皮质张力差异是维持正确空间组织结构的关键130;在人胚胎组装体中,SNC除了分泌信号因子,还为Naïve ESC发育而来的胚胎和胚外组织提供机械支撑作用,让其形成规则的羊膜腔和卵黄囊结构29;羊膜类器官制备过程中,软基质材料促进羊膜发生,硬基质材料则利于多能性维持34。尽管生物力学对胚胎发育具有重要影响,但其作用机制研究尚处于起步阶段。
细胞外基质在细胞的生理活动中具有重要作用,为胚胎发育提供结构支撑,参与细胞信号传导、黏附迁移和生长分化等过程。在类胚胎和类器官的制备和扩展培养过程中,细胞外基质扮演着重要角色。用人ESC模拟羊膜腔的发生过程(上皮极化、玫瑰花环的形成和腔的发生)中,Matrigel提供的软基质表面是形成羊膜腔的必要条件32-34;在连续体节样结构的培养中,5%~10% Matrigel促进体节样结构拉长生长和发育,同时促进血管祖细胞的特化124-125;能够模拟围着床胚胎发育的胚胎组装体29和模拟原肠发育的围原肠体(peri-gastruloids)132都是生长在Matrigel提供的3D环境中;将子宫内膜基质细胞和腺体同时接种至Matrigel和Ⅰ型胶原的混合物,能够制备与子宫内膜结构相似的类器官(图3),并用于研究囊胚的着床动态和机制14133;滋养层类器官的生长和发育,依赖Matrigel提供的3D微环境134-135;最近还发现,细胞外基质能够决定滋养层类器官中CTB和STB的排列方向——CTB位于细胞外基质浓度高的一侧,STB位于细胞外基质浓度低的一侧136-137图3)。这解释了着床后胚胎和胎盘绒毛的生理特征:着床后胚胎的胚外体腔中,分布着大量能够分泌细胞外基质的胚外中胚层细胞37图1),胎盘绒毛核里也存在大量分泌细胞外基质的基质细胞43,因此,CTB位于靠近胚外中胚层细胞或基质细胞的内侧,而STB则镶嵌在CTB的外侧。总之,细胞外基质对胚胎的形态结构具有重要作用。
近年来,针对胚胎早期发育、胚胎和胚外干细胞的研究处于快速发展阶段,干细胞来源的类胚胎和类器官研究更是取得了突飞猛进的发展(图3)。之前,关于人胚胎着床后发育事件的大部分知识,主要来自于体内胚胎的现有组织学样本、解剖学结构和单细胞组学数据274956-60。然而,通过组织学样本、解剖学结构和单细胞组学数据,我们很难解析着床后早期胚胎发育的时空动态、信号调控和分子机制。2016年,人胚胎体外延长培养技术的诞生,使科学家能够在显微镜下实时观察着床后早期胚胎的发育动态,并解析了着床后早期胚胎形态发生和谱系特化的关键事件,包括上胚层极化,羊膜腔、卵黄囊、双层胚盘、前后轴和基底膜形成,滋养层发育,多能状态转换,胚外中胚层和原条特化等;绘制了着床后早期胚胎谱系发育的基因表达调控网络和DNA甲基化动态图谱24-26138-140。在此基础上,进一步鉴定了不同细胞谱系的发育动态和分子特征,揭示了FGF、Wnt和BMP信号在不同细胞谱系特化中的功能,并解析了异倍体胚胎异常发育的可能机制2940141。用人胚胎作为研究材料,是揭示人早期发育奥秘的基础,但面临诸如伦理关切、资源稀缺和技术挑战等限制,因此无法对其进行深入和系统的发育机制研究。干细胞来源的类胚胎和类器官,很大程度上可以避开“胚胎研究”所面临的局限。最近几年,用干细胞构建人的类胚胎和类器官取得了一系列突破性进展(图3),模拟了人着床后早期胚胎发育的部分关键事件,包括胚胎着床和母胎互作1419120,滋养层谱系发育134-137,上胚层极化2532,多能状态转换142,羊膜腔、卵黄囊、双层胚盘和前后轴形成,以及ExM、原条、PGC、造血系统甚至三胚层特化28-2933-34114118-119126-127132143-146。尽管相关研究取得了快速发展,但当前对人早期发育奥秘的认识尚处于初步阶段,还有很多关键难题和未知科学问题等待进一步解决和探索,比如:
(1)对应卵裂球或囊胚三谱系的干细胞尚未完全建立(图2
干细胞是构建类胚胎和类器官的基础,当前,人8C样细胞不能稳定培养,且它们的转录、表观特征、发育潜能都有待进一步确定;Naïve ESC的基因组存在过度去甲基化、印记基因丢失和染色体异常;对应人着床前TE的TSC还未建立;尽管有研究报道建立了对应人着床前PrE的XEN,但其是否能稳定培养和扩增尚未知。
(2)胚胎和子宫内膜模型的仿真度有待进一步提高
当前建立的具有着床后早期胚胎结构特征的完整类胚胎效率极低,且不能完全模拟从囊胚到原肠前胚胎的完整发育事件,也不能模拟胚胎的着床过程126;类囊胚具有囊胚的形态特征和极性滋养层,适合用于研究胚胎着床过程,但当前建立的类囊胚,在延长培养过程中,还不能模拟着床后早期胚胎3D组织结构和谱系特化的时空发育,其发育潜能还需要进一步完善19120144147;用于研究胚胎着床和母胎互作的子宫内膜类器官与着床窗子宫内膜的细胞组成和生理结构相差甚远1419120。最近,Tian等133利用气液界面培养法在体外建立具有腔上皮的子宫内膜类器官,为建立适合用于母胎互作研究的子宫内膜模型提供了新的思路。
(3)谱系互作和信号来源不清楚
形态素驱动的信号调控网络是决定谱系特化和细胞自我组织的基础。现在已经知道,Hippo信号调控TE和ICM分离5;Wnt和FGF信号调控EPI和PrE分离9;EPI分泌的FGF信号促进TE、PrE和EPI的存活和增殖40;羊膜分泌的BMP和Wnt信号作用于EPI诱导原肠启动和PGC特化28。然而,人AVE对前后轴形成如何发挥功能?驱动羊膜发生的BMP信号,以及驱动ExM特化的BMP和Wnt信号来自哪些组织或细胞谱系?TE、VE/YE和ExM对其他谱系的产生和特化如何发挥作用?TE来源的细胞谱系如何跟子宫内膜的不同类型细胞进行互作?以及不同谱系间如何协同互作实现胚胎3D组织结构的自我组织?这些问题都处于空白状态。
(4)发育起源和特化动态不清楚
次级卵黄囊和ExM在胚胎发育过程中起着至关重要的作用,PGC是生命繁衍的基础,但次级卵黄囊、ExM和PGC的发育起源和特化动态至今不清楚44
(5)原肠运动和早期器官发生依然处于黑匣子状态
当前,我们对人原肠运动和早期器官发生的理解主要基于体内胚胎的解剖学结构和单细胞转录组数据,但这些静态的数据无法帮助我们理解原肠运动和早期器官形成的发育动态、调控机制。尽管最新研究可以用类胚胎模拟人的原肠运动和早期器官发生,但这仅仅局限于观察到原条、中胚层和神经外胚层等细胞的特化132,并不能像小鼠合成胚胎一样,再现原肠运动和三胚层特化过程中的有序3D组织结构、细胞迁移重排甚至形成神经管和原始心管等早期器官148-150
生命的奥秘,如同宇宙般深邃;探索人胚胎早期发育奥秘,前路漫漫,道阻且长。但如果做到以下三点,也将未来可期,大有可为:①基于不同胚胎和胚外谱系的信号调控原理以及转录和表观状态,优化培养体系,利用早期胚胎或体细胞重编程建立与卵裂球或囊胚三谱系高度相似的干细胞对应物;②基于干细胞的自我组织原理,综合考虑各种化学和物理因素,如形态素浓度梯度、细胞外基质、表面硬度、生物力学和气液界面等,采用微孔培养、3D打印和器官芯片等技术,构建基于干细胞的高仿真类胚胎和类器官;③联合使用荧光报告系统、高分辨率和高内涵实时成像、机器学习、单细胞谱系示踪、CRISPR-gRNA文库筛选和单细胞空间组学等技术,建立一套标准化系统,解析高仿真类胚胎和类器官发育过程中的谱系互作、信号来源、发育起源、特化动态、基因功能和转录调控网络等。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32360177)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32260176)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32360178)
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-094
  • 接收时间:2023-11-30
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-08-31
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-30
  • 修回日期:2024-02-04
基金
国家自然科学基金(32360177)
国家自然科学基金(32260176)
国家自然科学基金(32360178)
作者信息
    1 昆明理工大学灵长类转化医学研究院,省部共建非人灵长类生物医学国家重点实验室,云南 昆明 650500
    2 云南中科灵长类生物医学重点实验室,云南 昆明 650500

通讯作者:

李天晴(1975—),男,博士,教授,“国家高层次人才”特聘教授和科技部重点研发计划首席科学家。研究方向为干细胞与组织工程,从事灵长类干细胞和胚胎发育研究。E-mail:
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https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/hcsw/CN/10.12211/2096-8280.2023-094
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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