Article(id=1148989443291275971, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-079, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1700409600000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-20, revisedDate=1707062400000, revisedDateStr=2024-02-05, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751870030471, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1714406400000, pubDateStr=2024-04-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751870030471, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751870030471, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751870030471, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148989441470952447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='2', pageStart='217', pageEnd='395', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751870030037, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057315553, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068078, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068079, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=221, endPage=238, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999708492673211, articleId=1148989443291275971, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Applications of synthetic biology in developing microbial-vectored cancer vaccines, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The development of cancer vaccines is confronted with significant challenges. Synthetic biology emerges as a potent tool for addressing these challenges, due to its ability to modify and engineer microbes capable of adapting to and colonizing on tumor tissues to change the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments, augment antigen presentations, and stimulate both innate and adaptive immune responses against tumors in situ. This review comments on several pivotal applications of synthetic biology in engineering bacterial and viral vectored cancer vaccines. We start with discussion on methods to mitigate the pathogenicity of bacterial or viral vectors, including the removal, deactivation, or modification of their virulent genes. Furthermore, we address strategies for enhancing their tropism and fitness within tumor tissues, such as the alteration of their cellular entry proteins or the implementation of environmentally controlled gene expression systems. Approaches to minimize their systemic toxicity are also described. To fully harness the potential of tumor microenvironment modifications induced by microbial replication, we underscore studies employing synthetic biology methods, which involve the introduction of foreign genes into the microbial genomes, thereby enabling the production of agents like cytokines, chemokines, or monoclonal antibodies to enhance the recruitment and activation of innate and adaptive cells, promote immunogenic cell death, and augment the presentation of tumor-associated antigens. We also delve into the applications of synthetic biology for the introduction of tumor antigens to the vectors, discussing various loading methods, locations, and releasing mechanisms to generate an optimized tumor-specific immune response. At the end, we highlight substantial challenges that arise in the development of microbial vectored cancer vaccines, including safety considerations, intricate interactions between anti-vector and anti-tumor immunity, and the inherent complexity of tumor biology, and propose strategies for addressing these obstacles. In conclusion, this review emphasizes the crucial role of synthetic biology in the engineering of microbes, which is instrumental in advancing the development of cancer vaccines.

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合成生物学有望创造具备独特优势的抗肿瘤微生物疫苗,合成生物学改造的微生物更能适应肿瘤微环境并在其中富集与增殖,削弱或者逆转免疫抑制细胞的功能,并增强肿瘤抗原的呈递,诱发多种先天与适应性抗肿瘤免疫反应,所以合成生物学已成为肿瘤疫苗研究的重要工具。本文总结了合成生物学在细菌和病毒载体肿瘤疫苗开发中的几个关键应用,其中包括减弱微生物载体毒性的方法,例如去除、失活或修改其致病基因等。讨论了增强它们在肿瘤组织中的趋向性和适应性的策略,如改变它们的细胞入侵分子或引入环境控制的基因表达系统等;也讨论了降低全身毒性的方法。为了充分利用微生物复制引起的肿瘤微环境改变的潜力,多种合成生物学手段被用于改造微生物载体,这些方法包括将外源基因引入微生物基因组,使其生产诸如细胞因子、趋化因子或单克隆抗体等分子,这些分子可以增强先天和适应性免疫细胞的招募和激活,促进肿瘤细胞免疫原性死亡,并增强肿瘤相关抗原的呈递。此外,还探讨了将肿瘤抗原引入载体中的方法,例如不同的装载方式、位置和释放机制。开发微生物载体肿瘤疫苗存在重大挑战,包括安全性问题、抗载体免疫与抗肿瘤免疫的复杂关系和肿瘤生物学的复杂性,克服这些困难将成为未来研究的重要方向。

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陈有海(1963—),博士生导师,欧洲科学院(Academia Europaea)院士,美国医学与生物工程院(AIMBE)Fellow,国家特聘教授,教育部长江学者,深圳理工大学药学院讲席教授、院长。研究方向为肿瘤免疫治疗。E-mail:
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谭子斌(1990—),男,助理研究员。研究方向为肿瘤疫苗与免疫治疗。E-mail:

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figureFileSmall=PE7liSNSPO49rUzMEjFmvw==, figureFileBig=8FwaL9AjZPBoYnI4ezJKJA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1172892031602012709, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989443291275971, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

A summary of current clinical microbial-vectored cancer vaccines and recently reported studies on clinical trials

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
疫苗名称 载体类型 来源 临床状态 肿瘤类型 临床试验编号

方法

免疫

肿瘤特异性抗原 结合疗法 参考文献
BCG 减毒活细菌 牛结核菌 临床使用 膀胱癌 瘤内 手术 [24]
T-VEC 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 临床使用 无法切除的转移性ⅢB/C-ⅣM1a期黑色素瘤 瘤内 [12]
G47delta 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 临床使用 复发性神经胶质瘤 UMIN000002661 UMIN000015995 瘤内 [22-23]
REOLYSIN 工程化病毒 呼肠孤病毒Dearing type 3 Ⅰb 高级神经胶质瘤、脑转移 EudraCT 2011-005635-10 静脉 手术 [19]
Delta-24-RGD 工程化病毒 腺病毒Ad5 儿童弥散内生型脑桥胶质瘤(DIPG) NCT03178032 瘤内 标准放疗+/化疗 [14]
T-VEC 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 可手术的ⅢB/C-ⅣM1a期黑色素瘤 NCT02211131 瘤内 手术 [11]
NOUS-209 工程化病毒 GAd、MVA Ⅰ/Ⅱ 一/二线转移性dMMR/MSI-H结直肠癌、胃癌、胃食管交界腺癌 NCT04041310 瘤内 209个dMMR 移码肽 PD-1单抗帕博利珠 [10,16-17]
GRANITE 工程化病毒 猩猩腺病毒ChAd68、 委内瑞拉马脑炎病毒 Ⅰ/Ⅱ 多种转移性实体瘤,包括非小细胞肺癌、结直肠癌、胃食管交界腺癌、泌尿上皮癌 NCT03639714 肌肉 个性化新生抗原 标准化疗,PD-1单抗纳武利尤,CTLA-4单抗易普利姆玛 [18]
Ad-sig-hMUC-1/ecdCD40L 工程化病毒 腺病毒 多种晚期上皮瘤,包括肺癌、乳癌、卵巢癌、前列腺癌、肠癌 NCT02140996 皮下 分泌型MUC-1-CD40L 融合蛋白 标准化疗 [21]
CAN-3110 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 恶性胶质母细胞瘤,恶性星形细胞瘤,少突胶质细胞瘤 NCT03152318 瘤内 化疗 [13]
Delta-24-RGD 工程化病毒 腺病毒Ad5 Ⅰ/Ⅱ 神经胶质瘤,神经内分泌瘤 NCT02798406 瘤内 PD-1单抗帕博利珠 [15]
T-VEC 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 二-三期三阴性乳腺癌 NCT02779855 瘤内 新辅助化疗,手术 [20]
), ArticleFig(id=1172892031669121575, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989443291275971, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

目前临床中使用的或近期发表临床试验结果的基于微生物载体的肿瘤疫苗

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
疫苗名称 载体类型 来源 临床状态 肿瘤类型 临床试验编号

方法

免疫

肿瘤特异性抗原 结合疗法 参考文献
BCG 减毒活细菌 牛结核菌 临床使用 膀胱癌 瘤内 手术 [24]
T-VEC 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 临床使用 无法切除的转移性ⅢB/C-ⅣM1a期黑色素瘤 瘤内 [12]
G47delta 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 临床使用 复发性神经胶质瘤 UMIN000002661 UMIN000015995 瘤内 [22-23]
REOLYSIN 工程化病毒 呼肠孤病毒Dearing type 3 Ⅰb 高级神经胶质瘤、脑转移 EudraCT 2011-005635-10 静脉 手术 [19]
Delta-24-RGD 工程化病毒 腺病毒Ad5 儿童弥散内生型脑桥胶质瘤(DIPG) NCT03178032 瘤内 标准放疗+/化疗 [14]
T-VEC 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 可手术的ⅢB/C-ⅣM1a期黑色素瘤 NCT02211131 瘤内 手术 [11]
NOUS-209 工程化病毒 GAd、MVA Ⅰ/Ⅱ 一/二线转移性dMMR/MSI-H结直肠癌、胃癌、胃食管交界腺癌 NCT04041310 瘤内 209个dMMR 移码肽 PD-1单抗帕博利珠 [10,16-17]
GRANITE 工程化病毒 猩猩腺病毒ChAd68、 委内瑞拉马脑炎病毒 Ⅰ/Ⅱ 多种转移性实体瘤,包括非小细胞肺癌、结直肠癌、胃食管交界腺癌、泌尿上皮癌 NCT03639714 肌肉 个性化新生抗原 标准化疗,PD-1单抗纳武利尤,CTLA-4单抗易普利姆玛 [18]
Ad-sig-hMUC-1/ecdCD40L 工程化病毒 腺病毒 多种晚期上皮瘤,包括肺癌、乳癌、卵巢癌、前列腺癌、肠癌 NCT02140996 皮下 分泌型MUC-1-CD40L 融合蛋白 标准化疗 [21]
CAN-3110 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 恶性胶质母细胞瘤,恶性星形细胞瘤,少突胶质细胞瘤 NCT03152318 瘤内 化疗 [13]
Delta-24-RGD 工程化病毒 腺病毒Ad5 Ⅰ/Ⅱ 神经胶质瘤,神经内分泌瘤 NCT02798406 瘤内 PD-1单抗帕博利珠 [15]
T-VEC 工程化病毒 单纯疱疹病毒1型 二-三期三阴性乳腺癌 NCT02779855 瘤内 新辅助化疗,手术 [20]
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合成生物学在基于微生物载体肿瘤疫苗设计中的应用
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谭子斌 , 梁康 , 陈有海
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(2): 221-238
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(2): 221-238
合成生物学在基于微生物载体肿瘤疫苗设计中的应用
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谭子斌 , 梁康, 陈有海
作者信息
  • 深圳理工大学药学院,中国科学院深圳先进技术研究院癌症免疫中心,广东 深圳 518055
  • 谭子斌(1990—),男,助理研究员。研究方向为肿瘤疫苗与免疫治疗。E-mail:

通讯作者:

陈有海(1963—),博士生导师,欧洲科学院(Academia Europaea)院士,美国医学与生物工程院(AIMBE)Fellow,国家特聘教授,教育部长江学者,深圳理工大学药学院讲席教授、院长。研究方向为肿瘤免疫治疗。E-mail:
Applications of synthetic biology in developing microbial-vectored cancer vaccines
Zibin TAN , Kang LIANG, Youhai CHEN
Affiliations
  • Center for Cancer Immunology,Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology,Shenzhen University of Advanced Technology,Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS),Shenzhen 518055,Guangdong,China
出版时间: 2024-04-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-079
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合成生物学有望创造具备独特优势的抗肿瘤微生物疫苗,合成生物学改造的微生物更能适应肿瘤微环境并在其中富集与增殖,削弱或者逆转免疫抑制细胞的功能,并增强肿瘤抗原的呈递,诱发多种先天与适应性抗肿瘤免疫反应,所以合成生物学已成为肿瘤疫苗研究的重要工具。本文总结了合成生物学在细菌和病毒载体肿瘤疫苗开发中的几个关键应用,其中包括减弱微生物载体毒性的方法,例如去除、失活或修改其致病基因等。讨论了增强它们在肿瘤组织中的趋向性和适应性的策略,如改变它们的细胞入侵分子或引入环境控制的基因表达系统等;也讨论了降低全身毒性的方法。为了充分利用微生物复制引起的肿瘤微环境改变的潜力,多种合成生物学手段被用于改造微生物载体,这些方法包括将外源基因引入微生物基因组,使其生产诸如细胞因子、趋化因子或单克隆抗体等分子,这些分子可以增强先天和适应性免疫细胞的招募和激活,促进肿瘤细胞免疫原性死亡,并增强肿瘤相关抗原的呈递。此外,还探讨了将肿瘤抗原引入载体中的方法,例如不同的装载方式、位置和释放机制。开发微生物载体肿瘤疫苗存在重大挑战,包括安全性问题、抗载体免疫与抗肿瘤免疫的复杂关系和肿瘤生物学的复杂性,克服这些困难将成为未来研究的重要方向。

肿瘤疫苗  /  免疫治疗  /  肿瘤微环境  /  细菌载体  /  病毒载体

The development of cancer vaccines is confronted with significant challenges. Synthetic biology emerges as a potent tool for addressing these challenges, due to its ability to modify and engineer microbes capable of adapting to and colonizing on tumor tissues to change the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments, augment antigen presentations, and stimulate both innate and adaptive immune responses against tumors in situ. This review comments on several pivotal applications of synthetic biology in engineering bacterial and viral vectored cancer vaccines. We start with discussion on methods to mitigate the pathogenicity of bacterial or viral vectors, including the removal, deactivation, or modification of their virulent genes. Furthermore, we address strategies for enhancing their tropism and fitness within tumor tissues, such as the alteration of their cellular entry proteins or the implementation of environmentally controlled gene expression systems. Approaches to minimize their systemic toxicity are also described. To fully harness the potential of tumor microenvironment modifications induced by microbial replication, we underscore studies employing synthetic biology methods, which involve the introduction of foreign genes into the microbial genomes, thereby enabling the production of agents like cytokines, chemokines, or monoclonal antibodies to enhance the recruitment and activation of innate and adaptive cells, promote immunogenic cell death, and augment the presentation of tumor-associated antigens. We also delve into the applications of synthetic biology for the introduction of tumor antigens to the vectors, discussing various loading methods, locations, and releasing mechanisms to generate an optimized tumor-specific immune response. At the end, we highlight substantial challenges that arise in the development of microbial vectored cancer vaccines, including safety considerations, intricate interactions between anti-vector and anti-tumor immunity, and the inherent complexity of tumor biology, and propose strategies for addressing these obstacles. In conclusion, this review emphasizes the crucial role of synthetic biology in the engineering of microbes, which is instrumental in advancing the development of cancer vaccines.

cancer vaccines  /  immunotherapy  /  tumor microenvironments  /  bacterial vectors  /  viral vectors
谭子斌, 梁康, 陈有海. 合成生物学在基于微生物载体肿瘤疫苗设计中的应用. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (2) : 221 -238 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-079
Zibin TAN, Kang LIANG, Youhai CHEN. Applications of synthetic biology in developing microbial-vectored cancer vaccines[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (2) : 221 -238 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-079
随着人均预期寿命的延长,我国每年新增恶性肿瘤病例的数量呈现逐年上升的趋势。据估计,2022年我国大约有500万人被诊断出癌症,约284万人死于癌症1。癌症的预防、诊断、治疗和控制已经成为一个重大的公共卫生问题。近年来,以CAR-T细胞和免疫检查点阻断(ICB)为代表的癌症免疫治疗为解决癌症难题提供了新的思路。这些方法或者通过合成生物学对患者的T淋巴细胞进行体外基因编辑,或者通过单克隆抗体阻断体内已有T淋巴细胞的耗竭,已经取得了令人瞩目的临床抗肿瘤效果。另一方面,通过肿瘤疫苗来激发、增强患者的抗癌免疫反应的方法仍未取得显著的突破。其原因是复杂的:肿瘤患者多数为老年人,免疫系统相对衰退,其中一部分还经历了化疗、放疗等治疗手段,难以激发有效的免疫反应;癌细胞来源于自身细胞,与正常组织细胞具有很高的相似性,因此难以突破免疫耐受产生强烈的抗癌免疫反应;由肿瘤细胞DNA突变而产生的新生抗原,理论上可以被特异性的T淋巴细胞识别和杀伤,但是近期的一项小规模临床试验发现,只有一半的胰腺癌患者对个性化mRNA新生抗原疫苗产生了免疫反应2;即使已经产生了抗肿瘤免疫反应,也会受到实体肿瘤免疫抑制微环境的影响。肿瘤新生抗原的筛选、抗原免疫原性的预测以及更具免疫原性的疫苗载体的开发目前仍然需要进一步研究。
合成生物学通过利用多种生物技术手段,包括但不限于核酸测序、基因编辑等,结合工程学、信息学原理,设计、改造甚至从头合成生物系统,来获得新的性状和功能,是疫苗设计和制造的重要工具。一部分疫苗来自于工程化的生物组分,比如乙肝重组蛋白亚基疫苗3和人类乳头瘤病毒(HPV)为基础的病毒样粒子(VLP)疫苗等4;有些疫苗本身就是由合成生物学改造的活体生命体,例如减毒活菌疫苗BCG5。因此,利用合成生物学手段创造、改造的微生物或者细胞,是肿瘤疫苗领域的一个重要方向。临床上使用改造的病毒、细菌作为传染疾病疫苗载体的实践经验相对丰富6-7。基于病毒、细菌等病原微生物载体的肿瘤疫苗研发则尚处于起步阶段,大多数此类研究还处在临床前阶段,研究关注的重点和需要解决的问题主要集中于载体的安全性、抗原负载方法和免疫的有效性等8-9。近期,有少数病毒、细菌载体疫苗进入了临床研究10-24表1),其中基于单纯疱疹病毒1型(HSV-1)的T-VEC已经在美国获批上市,用于瘤内注射治疗无法切除的转移性ⅢB/C-ⅣM1a期黑色素瘤12。预计随着合成生物技术的进步、对人类免疫系统和癌症生物学的进一步了解,微生物载体将会进一步成为对抗肿瘤的有效工具。
1891年,William B.Coley将链球菌(Streptococcus)注射到一位不适宜手术的患者的肿瘤中,并且观察到了肿瘤的缩小。Coley后来使用类似的方法尝试治疗了上千例肿瘤患者。虽然其结果的稳定性一直饱受质疑,但是Coley所提出的理论基础逐渐被接受:通过细菌激活或者放大患者的抗肿瘤免疫反应,在合适的场合下可以帮助杀伤或者控制肿瘤25。用于预防小儿脑炎和结核的减毒细菌疫苗BCG,已经在临床用于治疗膀胱癌超过50年24。瘤内注射或者系统注射的细菌可以在肿瘤相对富集。其中系统注射一般涉及减毒的菌株,以降低全身感染的风险。这些菌株在经静脉或腹腔等途径进入宿主体内后,会随血循环等散布到各器官组织,但是随后会被免疫系统逐渐清除。仅有实体瘤等环境中,免疫系统功能受到抑制,细菌能定殖与扩增,因而表现为肿瘤部位的相对富集。细菌能表达病原相关分子模式(PAMP),例如Toll样受体(TLR)配体脂多糖(LPS)和鞭毛蛋白等,激活先天免疫系统,具有增强肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞活性的潜力。细菌还能在瘤内诱导细胞死亡、释放肿瘤相关抗原与损伤相关分子模式(DAMP)等。除了作用于先天免疫系统,细菌相关抗原也能在感染局部的肿瘤和基质细胞表面呈递,并被肿瘤浸润T淋巴细胞识别,可能利于对肿瘤的控制和杀伤26
为了降低细菌的副作用和系统毒性,针对细菌的改造往往是必不可少的。例如早在2000年初进入临床试验的鼠伤寒沙门氏菌(Salmonella typhimurium)VNP20009,其msbBpurL等基因被突变27。同理,鸟苷四磷酸(ppGpp)合成被阻断的伤寒沙门氏菌,毒性降低了5~6个数量级,因此活菌可以直接经小鼠静脉注射并富集到肿瘤28。李斯特氏菌(Listeria monocytogenes、Listeria ivanovii)被敲除了actA(细胞侵入相关)与plcB(介导细菌的免疫逃逸)基因后,也可用于递送肿瘤抗原29。减毒的李斯特氏菌能够经小鼠静脉富集到皮下TC-1肺癌中,并抑制肿瘤生长。在另一个使用李斯特氏菌(Listeria monocytogenes)的例子中,Selvanesan和合作者们30通过截短、修改启动子、引入突变等方式编辑其吞噬体逃逸蛋白LLO,降低了菌株毒性。经腹腔注射后,减毒的李斯特氏菌可以富集于裸鼠胰腺原位由人胰腺癌细胞HCT116-luc2构建的肿瘤中,并抑制肿瘤生长。敲除细菌生存必需的代谢酶基因以使细菌无法在正常组织中生长;而在肿瘤组织中,细菌能从肿瘤获取上述基因相关的营养组分。肿瘤组织为了快速生长,常常过表达一些营养组分,这为调控细菌组织特异性提供了便利。例如色氨酸合成酶敲除的伤寒沙门氏菌依赖肿瘤中相对丰富的色氨酸来生长,而在正常组织中由于色氨酸缺失较难定殖31。动物模型表明,经腹腔注射的基因改造细菌能在小鼠皮下4T1乳癌中富集,并且抑制肿瘤生长。
与此类似,使用灭活细菌、细菌衍生物、低毒性菌株或者“益生菌”等作为肿瘤疫苗载体也是出于安全性考虑。基因改造的大肠杆菌(E. coli32-33或其外膜囊泡(OMV)34、乳酸乳球菌(Lactococcus lactis35、表皮葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus epidermidis36、灭活的长双歧杆菌(Bifidobacterium longum)等37-39均被尝试用于肿瘤抗原的呈递。
肿瘤中如果表达可表征的新生抗原(neoantigen),研究者们可以利用合成生物学将这些肿瘤特异性抗原引入细菌载体中。在小鼠肿瘤模型中,常见的肿瘤抗原包括:MC38小鼠肠癌的ADP依赖性葡萄糖激酶(adpgk)3234,B16-F10小鼠黑色素瘤的TRP234,TC-1小鼠肺癌的HPV相关抗原蛋白E6E729,以及常见于Renca小鼠肾细胞癌39、MBT-2小鼠膀胱癌38、TRAMP-C2小鼠前列腺癌的抗原WT-137。还有一些研究使用卵清蛋白OVA中的OTⅠ与OTⅡ短肽作为抗原,并通过人工表达OVA蛋白的肿瘤细胞系来评估免疫效果36。因为OVA是一种常见的模式抗原,呈递其抗原表位的小鼠主要组织相容性复合体(MHC)分子表征清晰、相对易得。
引入细菌的肿瘤抗原既可以锚定到细菌外膜表面,也可以被细菌分泌出来(图1)。例如,抗原短肽可以通过细菌膜蛋白溶细胞素A(ClyA)锚定在大肠杆菌分泌的OMV膜上。Yue和合作者们32利用阿拉伯糖启动子来调控由ClyA、OTⅠ或adpgk抗原短肽以及小鼠抗体保守段mFc组成的三元融合蛋白的表达。携带该调控表达质粒的大肠杆菌经小鼠口服后,能定殖在小鼠肠道中。在小鼠口服阿拉伯糖以后,细菌将启动融合蛋白的表达并由ClyA锚定于OMV膜上,而融合蛋白中的mFc能增加树突状细胞(DC)对OMV的摄取。结果显示,这种重组细菌的口服免疫方式能产生全身性的免疫反应,包括抑制静脉注射的B16黑色素瘤细胞在肺部的定殖和转移,以及抑制皮下移植的MC38结肠癌的生长。除了ClyA以外,膜蛋白GL-BP也可用于抗原多肽在细菌外膜的锚定37-39
除了通过融合表达,抗原短肽也可以通过生化反应偶联到细菌OMV上。例如,Cheng和合作者们34通过插入-展示(plug-display)平台将OTⅠ短肽偶联到了ClyA-SpC/SnC融合蛋白上。SpC和SnC能识别特定序列的短肽(Tag)并以此催化自身赖氨酸氨基与Tag短肽中天冬氨酸或天冬酰胺残基之间的缩合反应,形成一个异肽键。因此,只要将OTⅠ与Tag短肽合成为一条肽链,就能将抗原锚定到ClyA-SpC/SnC蛋白表面。相比将抗原与ClyA进行融合表达,这种模块化的装载抗原方式具有更好的灵活性。类似地,生物素(biotin)与其受体亲和素(avidin)之间的特异性、强亲和力、非共价的相互作用也可用于抗原装载。利用膜锚定融合蛋白Lpp-OmpA,Weyant和合作者们40构建了Lpp-Ompa-eMa融合蛋白,其中eMa是一种稳定的单体亲和素,生物素偶联的抗原可以借此装载到OMV表面。相比基于短肽的插入-展示平台,该方法能展示更多种类的抗原,比如寡糖、脂质、核酸等。
肿瘤抗原也可以由活的细菌载体分泌到细菌胞外。例如,减毒的李斯特氏菌Listeria monocytogenesListeria ivanovii被改造后能在感染的细胞内分泌HPV相关抗原HPV16 E6E7融合蛋白。动物实验表明,静脉注射改造细菌能引发抗肿瘤/抗原特异性免疫反应,抑制已建立的皮下TC-1鼠肺癌生长,并延长小鼠的生存期29
也有研究表明,不同的抗原类型可能需要不同的递送策略。在一个表皮葡萄球菌经小鼠皮肤免疫模型中,Chen和合作者们36或者将抗原短肽插入到N端转肽酶(sortase)信号肽与C端金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphyccocus aureus)蛋白A荚膜定位肽中间,以此构建了荚膜锚定抗原菌株;或者将抗原短肽插入到N端双精氨酸转运系统(Tat)信号肽与C端Tat转运载体中间,构建出抗原分泌菌株。预防性和治疗性的皮下B16F10-OVA黑色素瘤模型均表明,仅当MHCⅠ限制性表位OTⅠ锚定到细菌荚膜,同时MHCⅡ限制性表位OTⅡ分泌到细菌胞外时,才能产生有效的抗肿瘤免疫反应。相同免疫方式下,将OTⅠ与OTⅡ的位置对调则不能抑制肿瘤生长。基于这种呈递方式,从肿瘤细胞中鉴定出的原发新生CD4+与CD8+ T细胞抗原被用于构建疫苗菌株,用于B16F10-OVA肺转移模型和皮下TRAMP-C2前列腺癌模型。动物模型表明,运载新生抗原的菌株经皮肤免疫能控制肿瘤转移或者生长36
细菌载体也可以不携带任何肿瘤抗原。由于细菌具备诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡、释放肿瘤抗原与DAMP、激活固有免疫系统的特性,在辐照、化疗等促进细胞免疫原性死亡(ICD)41的辅助手段增强下,可以用于产生全新(de novo)的抗肿瘤免疫反应。一些细菌(如伤寒沙门氏菌)具备鞭毛,可以自主活动。这些具备运动性的细菌经纳米粒子修饰后,可以进一步获得抗原收集能力,将肿瘤抗原从致密的、免疫抑制的瘤内环境运载到瘤周淋巴组织,增强抗原呈递与免疫反应。而灭活的同种细菌则不具备可检测的抗原呈递效果42。改造的细菌疫苗也可以编码其他刺激免疫系统的分子,例如能促进常规1类树突状细胞(cDC1)增殖的蛋白Fms样酪氨酸激酶3配体(Flt3L)及其共刺激信号分子OX40L35、TLR5激动剂弧菌鞭毛蛋白B(FlaB)28、可以调动和招募已有特异性T细胞的免疫原性蛋白破伤风类毒素(TT)30、增加T细胞招募的趋化因子CXCL16与促进cDC1招募的因子CCL20等33
病毒作为疫苗载体也常用于肿瘤疫苗研究。病毒尺寸一般介于10~250 nm之间,这有利于它们在体内经淋巴系统将负载的抗原递送到免疫细胞。而且,病毒可以在其表面表达多个抗原分子,从而促进免疫受体识别。病毒感染可以激活先天免疫系统中的干扰素通路,改变肿瘤免疫微环境,招募免疫细胞,造成感染细胞发生免疫原性细胞死亡并释放PAMP与DAMP,增强肿瘤相关抗原的呈递。病毒感染的细胞与癌细胞存在诸多相似性,因而可能激活类似的免疫反应。病毒在胞浆复制时可以将表达的抗原蛋白经MHCⅠ呈递到免疫细胞表面,有助于CD8+ T细胞反应的产生。因此病毒疫苗有潜力用于病毒相关肿瘤的预防或治疗。例如,在与HPV相关的头颈癌和口咽癌中,浸润着一些能识别病毒抗原的T细胞与B细胞,它们也能识别肿瘤细胞43-46。在HPV相关的皮肤癌中也发现,HPV病毒特异性的T细胞能抑制癌症的发展47。基于VLP的HPV疫苗已经广泛用于HPV相关宫颈癌的预防,但是对已有癌症不具备治疗效果448。HPV疫苗用于癌症治疗的研究仍处于实验阶段49。借助合成生物学手段,也可以向病毒基因组中引入编码肿瘤相关抗原的基因片段,从而用于与病毒无显著相关性的肿瘤的治疗。
为了利用病毒复制产生的炎性环境,大部分病毒相关肿瘤疫苗使用具备复制能力的活病毒。然而病毒的系统性感染可能引发不可控的后果,例如炎症因子风暴。因此对于这类病毒,多数采用瘤内注射的方式。此外,多种合成生物学手段被用于降低活病毒疫苗对正常组织的毒性。
为了对病毒的复制和毒性进行时间与空间上的控制,研究者们设计了基于基因表达调控的“逻辑电路”系统(图2)。例如,曾用于天花疫苗的痘苗病毒(VV)具备较大的基因组,适合用于编码功能基因。FDA批准的小分子药雷帕霉素(rapamycin)可以通过结合FKBP(FK506结合蛋白)并诱导构象改变,促使其结合FRB(FKBP-雷帕霉素结合蛋白)形成三元复合物50。受此启发,Azad和合作者们51将分割成N端、C端两部分的T7噬菌体RNA聚合酶分别与FKBP、FRB进行融合表达于痘苗病毒基因组中,并将病毒复制关键基因置于T7启动子的下游。仅在雷帕霉素存在的条件下,FKBP-雷帕霉素-FRB三元复合物的组装将T7聚合酶的两部分拉拢结合并组装成完整的功能性聚合酶,从而启动T7启动子下游的病毒基因的表达。当细胞内不含雷帕霉素时,T7聚合酶无法组装,T7启动子下游的病毒基因处于沉默状态。因此,雷帕霉素在这个系统中能够调控病毒的复制。除了调控RNA聚合酶以外,小分子亦能影响其他基因调控机制,例如抑制子。抑制子能结合DNA中一类被称为操作子的片段,阻断下游基因的转录。一些小分子能结合抑制子,以此降低它们对DNA的亲和力,从而释放操作子,恢复基因的表达。比如,通常情况下四环素抑制子TetR能结合基因中的操作子TetO片段,阻止下游基因的转录。四环素类抗生素多西环素(doxocycline)能结合TetR,释放TetO,从而启动下游基因的表达。类似地,4-异丙基苯甲酸(cumate)能结合cumate抑制子CymR,释放操作子CuO,从而启动下游基因的转录。这些例子中小分子也被用作“开启”信号。利用这些小分子开关控制病毒的复制、传播、外源性抗原和细胞因子的表达,能够在动物模型上实现更高的安全性和更有效的肿瘤控制51
对于RNA病毒的改造,以上针对基因转录的调控系统不太适用。Heilmann和合作者们52因此提出使用蛋白酶来限制病毒复制的思路。水疱性口炎病毒(VSV)依赖P和L等关键蛋白完成复制。将自催化的HIV蛋白酶和C端酶切位点插入P或者L序列中间融合表达时,蛋白酶能将融合蛋白剪切而使其失活。临床使用的抗逆转录小分子药物HIV蛋白酶抑制剂能抑制蛋白酶的功能,从而保护P、L蛋白的活性和病毒的复制,即此抑制剂将作为“开启”病毒复制的信号。蛋白酶也可以融合到L蛋白的N端作为一个“关闭”信号:不同于序列中间的融合,N端蛋白酶的存在会影响L蛋白的功能,因此在有抑制剂的环境中病毒无法复制;没有抑制剂的情况下,蛋白酶可以将自己从L蛋白N端切除,恢复L蛋白的正常功能。动物模型表明,该系统在小鼠体内可以控制VSV的复制和传播52
合适的策略也能以一种组织特异性的方式调整病毒适应性。将肌肉组织特异性微小RNA(miRNA)互补序列插入柯萨奇病毒(Coxsackie virus)3′非翻译区(3′UTR)位点后,病毒无法在肌肉组织中复制,因为肌肉组织中的miRNA会以互补配对的方式介导病毒mRNA的降解;而肿瘤组织中缺乏该miRNA,病毒能正常复制53。Huang和合作者们54利用肿瘤相关启动子和受miRNA调控的转录激活样效应抑制子(TALER),在腺病毒(Adv)中搭建了更加复杂的“逻辑电路”控制系统。在这个系统中,仅当肿瘤启动子为激活状态、正常组织相关miRNA位于低水平、肿瘤组织相关miRNA位于高水平这三个条件同时达成时,Adv的复制和免疫调节分子的表达才会开启。该结果也表明,改造的腺病毒能在肿瘤细胞中特异性地复制并且表达免疫调控因子。
T-VEC是一种经过基因工程改造的HSV-1,它可以在肿瘤组织中选择性地复制。T-VEC已经被批准用于瘤内注射治疗无法切除的转移性ⅢB/C-ⅣM1a期黑色素瘤。对T-VEC的改造包括添加HSV-1 JS1US11两个基因,这些改造增强了病毒对肿瘤细胞的趋向性和适应性。为了减弱病毒在正常神经组织中的致病性,神经毒性基因ICP34.5被删除。被删除的还有ICP47基因,该基因能抑制抗原呈递。此外,病毒基因组中还插入了人类粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(GM-CSF),该细胞因子可以促进DC的招募和激活12。于日本完成临床Ⅱ期试验并被批准临床使用的G47Delta也是基于HSV-1。G47Delta中除了与T-VEC类似的ICP34.5删除以外,还有UL39的失活与α47的删除。这些编辑能恢复宿主细胞被病毒抑制的MHCⅠ表达,不仅能增强肿瘤相关抗原呈递,还能降低正常组织中的毒性,且不影响肿瘤组织适应性22-23。另一个基于HSV-1的溶瘤病毒CAN-3110正在Ⅰ期临床研究中。与前述HSV-1不同的是,CAN-3110保留了功能性的ICP34.5基因,但是它被置于巢蛋白启动子下游。巢蛋白过表达于神经胶质瘤等中,但是在成年脑部和已分化组织中表达水平较低,这使得CAN-3110能富集于神经系统肿瘤中13
正处于多项临床Ⅰ/Ⅱ期研究的肿瘤特异性腺病毒Delta-24-RGD,其E1A基因中的24个碱基对被删除,以降低其在正常组织中的复制能力。E1A在腺病毒基因组中编码一个早期表达的蛋白,后者能结合人类抑癌信号通路中的视网膜母细胞瘤蛋白(pRB)。E1A蛋白与pRB的结合能释放原本被pRB抑制的转录因子E2F-1,使细胞进入S周期,以帮助病毒复制。突变的E1A蛋白与pRB的结合能力降低,因此这种腺病毒在正常组织中复制效率较低。在一些恶性肿瘤(例如神经胶质瘤等)中,pRB通路本身被抑制,E2F-1处于激活状态,因此突变的腺病毒仍然能够正常复制。而向病毒丝蛋白中添加RGD序列则增强了病毒与癌细胞表面整合素ανβ3与ανβ5的结合力14。Guo和合作者们55还通过HCT-116结肠癌肿瘤细胞系中的连续培养和定向选择来提高甲病毒(Alpha virus)M1的肿瘤适应性。此外,替换病毒用于侵入细胞的蛋白亦可以改变其趋向性,进而影响病毒对不同组织的毒性。Das等56报道,将VSV的糖蛋白VSVg替换成淋巴细胞脉络丛脑膜炎病毒(LCMV)糖蛋白,能降低病毒的神经毒性。
相比瘤内注射,系统给药具备更广泛的适用性。临床Ⅰb试验表明,静脉注射的人类正呼肠孤病毒(Orthoreovirus)能穿透血脑屏障并在高级胶质瘤中复制19。小鼠实验中,改造的痘苗病毒安卡拉株(MVA)也能在单次静脉注射后,在肿瘤部位富集和复制57。静脉注射的活病毒最好同时具备肿瘤趋向性、相对低的抗原性和免疫原性,以避免被血清抗体中和并降低系统性炎症因子风暴的风险。人类腺病毒hAdv-C5经小鼠静脉注射后急速富集于肝脏,随后在天然IgM和补体介导下,主要由Kuffer细胞吞噬,产生炎性细胞因子,诱发急性肝炎。通过对hAdv-C5衣壳上六面体超变异区域1(HVR1)进行针对性的变异,能消除其IgM识别和补体标记,降低病毒在Kuffer细胞中的富集(图3)。使用能识别上皮细胞相关整合素α3β1、α6β1、α6β4的人类层粘连蛋白α1序列SIKVAV取代hAdv-C5五面体中原本的RGD序列则能进一步降低其巨噬细胞趋向性,并增强其对上皮肿瘤细胞的感染能力。小鼠模型表明,经过改造的腺病毒经静脉注射后,能特异性地在肿瘤富集,并长时间留存。值得注意的是,这些改造仅能使病毒逃避已有天然IgM的识别,无法避免新诱导的高亲和力IgG抗体的中和作用58
在某些应用场景中,单一病毒重复免疫会诱导高亲和力的血清中和抗体,从而掩蔽或削弱后续免疫的效果。使用多种不同的病毒载体携带同种肿瘤抗原能一定程度上缓解这个现象。另一种避免血清免疫系统的病毒疫苗递送方式是将病毒装载在细胞内。Evgin和合作者们59使用编码小鼠干扰素mIFNβ的VSV感染针对表皮生长因子受体变体Ⅲ(EGFRvⅢ)的CAR-T细胞,然后再将CAR-T细胞经静脉输送给荷瘤小鼠,发现与单独静脉注射的VSV相比,CAR-T细胞能更有效地将VSV递送到肿瘤和淋巴系统。同时,被VSV刺激的CAR-T细胞也能在体内更好地扩增,具有更强的肿瘤杀伤效果。另一种绕过体液免疫系统的方法是彻底抛弃病毒表面的免疫原性分子(膜蛋白、衣壳等),而将编码病毒基因的mRNA通过脂质纳米粒子(LNP)输送。小鼠研究表明,这种策略能成功地将Seneca Valley病毒和柯萨奇病毒A21的mRNA经静脉递送到肿瘤,实现在肿瘤内部的翻译、病毒组装和复制,即使小鼠血清中具备针对病毒的中和抗体也不影响递送效果。该策略能用于需要重复系统给药的场合60。血清中针对载体的抗体亦有可能增强抗肿瘤免疫。Ling等13发现,关于CAN-3110(基于HSV-1)的临床Ⅰ期结果表明,预存和接种后血清中的HSV-1抗体均与更长的患者生存期与更好的预后相关;作为对照,HSV-2血清抗体则与治疗结果无关。宿主针对疫苗载体的抗病毒免疫也能被其他策略主动利用,以用于对抗肿瘤。Niemann等61发现,在皮下MC38、CMT-64小鼠肺癌和B16F10等人工高表达多聚唾液酸的小鼠模型中,瘤内接种腺病毒Ad5,然后经静脉给予由多聚唾液酸单抗单链可变域(scFv)和Ad5六面体DE1抗原组成的融合蛋白,能将DE1标记到肿瘤细胞,并使其能被宿主血清中的抗病毒抗体识别。该策略能增加CD8+ T细胞瘤内浸润,促进肿瘤消除和小鼠长期生存,并使原本对PD-1 ICB不敏感的肿瘤变得敏感。
原位的病毒复制会导致肿瘤微环境发生改变。这种效应可以通过病毒载体和/或共同使用的免疫调节信号(如单克隆抗体、趋化因子和细胞因子)进一步增强。Svensson-Arvelund等62发现通过瘤内接种溶瘤新城疫病毒(NDV)能够激活DC,并通过上调细胞死亡相关受体使其对正在死亡的肿瘤细胞更加敏感。这个模型中NDV被发现能与Flt3L协同作用,动员并扩增瘤内DC细胞。该联合疗法在皮下小鼠A20淋巴瘤模型中诱导产生了善于交叉呈递的cDC1、依赖Ⅰ型干扰素的1型辅助T细胞(Th1)以及能对新生抗原肽响应的CD8+ T细胞。病毒载体疫苗也可以编码CD40配体(CD40L)21,这是肿瘤坏死因子受体家族的一个成员,被认为是DC的关键共刺激开关。Medina-Echeverz等57发现由MVA编码的CD40L能刺激DC,并诱导肿瘤特异性CD8+ T细胞的产生。
在颅内CT2A小鼠神经胶质瘤(GBM)模型中,Xu等63发现编码全长抗CD47 IgG1单克隆抗体的溶瘤单纯疱疹病毒-1(oHSV)可以增强巨噬细胞和自然杀伤(NK)细胞的活性。CD47是某些癌细胞中过度表达的一种表面蛋白,它能与巨噬细胞等吞噬细胞上存在的信号调节蛋白α(SIRPα)结合,并向吞噬细胞发出“不要吃我”的抑制信号。病毒感染的细胞分泌的单抗中断了CD47-SIRPα的相互作用,从而恢复了巨噬细胞对癌细胞的吞噬活性。此外,单抗通过抗体依赖细胞介导的细胞毒性作用(ADCC)介导了NK细胞对CD47高表达癌细胞的杀伤。最终,该病毒能够对荷瘤小鼠产生保护效果。利用表达载脂蛋白A1(ApoA1)的腺病毒,Wang等64发现GBM中巨噬细胞的抗肿瘤活性也可以通过操纵胆固醇外排来恢复。ApoA1是ATP结合盒转运蛋白A1/G1(ABCA1/G1)胆固醇外排受体的配体,这种受体在GBM肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(TAM)中上调表达。这种上调,以及与之相关的吞噬抑制受体如唾液酸结合免疫球蛋白样凝集素10(Siglec-10)和程序性细胞死亡受体1(PD-1)的表达增加,通常被认为是GBM中胆固醇积累的结果。腺病毒产生的ApoA1刺激ABCA1/G1,可以逆转巨噬细胞吞噬力缺陷,促进肿瘤消除。这种效应在GL261和G422小鼠颅内GBM移植瘤模型中得到了证实。此外,发现瘤内接种的病毒能够增强全身抗肿瘤免疫,并建立长期的肿瘤特异性记忆。
Nakao等65的结果表明,经工程改造编码白细胞介素-12(IL-12)和白细胞介素-7(IL-7)的痘苗病毒,具有调节免疫抑制性肿瘤微环境的潜力。IL-12的作用是激活NK和T细胞,从而放大干扰素-γ(IFN-γ)的产生和分泌;同时,IL-7在维持T细胞稳态中起着关键作用,并能与IL-12协同刺激T细胞。在低免疫原性(冷)的小鼠肿瘤模型,特别是小鼠黑色素瘤B16-F10和小鼠Lewis肺癌(LLC)中,病毒复制与细胞因子联合触发了炎症反应,并增加了肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞(TIL)的数量。该病毒经瘤内注射后能诱导全身免疫反应,杀伤未直接注射病毒的远端肿瘤(abscopal效应),并产生肿瘤特异性免疫记忆,抑制二次移植肿瘤的生长。此外,该病毒提高了肿瘤对PD-1和CTLA-4单抗疗法的敏感性。病毒编码的白细胞介素-2(IL-2)也可以改善肿瘤微环境的免疫抑制。IL-2能促进T细胞增殖和激活,并增强T细胞的效应功能,以促进肿瘤消除,但是,临床上发现全身给予IL-2可能导致严重的毒副作用。Liu等66利用溶瘤痘苗病毒来递送由磷脂酰肌醇(GPI)锚定的重组IL-2,发现瘤内接种改造病毒能实现IL-2在肿瘤环境的局部表达,在LLC、小鼠肠癌MC38和CT26等肿瘤模型中诱导抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞反应,且未表现出明显的毒副作用。病毒载体疫苗也可以与ICB协同作用。Wang等67发现,给小鼠瘤内接种表达抗PD-L1单抗和GM-CSF的痘苗病毒,能够增加淋巴细胞和DC的肿瘤浸润,促进DC的成熟和新生抗原呈递,从而增强抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞反应并促进B16-F10、MC38和小鼠乳腺癌Py230等肿瘤的消除。重要的是,未直接注射的肿瘤也能被免疫系统杀伤。Shekarian等68也发现瘤内接种轮状病毒能与CTLA-4和PD-L1单抗协同作用。瘦素是一个典型的脂肪因子,具有代谢重编程功能,如促进葡萄糖和脂肪酸的氧化以及线粒体的生长。在瘦素刺激下,T细胞可以合成更多的细胞因子并更快增殖。Rivadeneira等69工程改造了痘苗病毒使其在瘤内表达瘦素,该病毒经瘤内接种能实现肿瘤移植小鼠的完全康复并诱导免疫记忆。
第10号染色体缺失的磷酸酶张力蛋白同源物(PTEN)编码一个脂质/蛋白质磷酸酶,并因其在对抗磷脂酰肌醇-4,5-二磷酸3-激酶/蛋白激酶B(PI3K/AKT)通路中的作用而被定义为抑癌基因。Russell和合作者们70发现在小鼠颅内DB7乳腺癌模型中,瘤内接种编码了PTENα的溶瘤疱疹病毒HSV-P10能降低AKT磷酸化和AKT/mTOR活性,增加线粒体膜电位,并增加ATP分泌,后者因为与细胞膜损伤相关可以作为一种DAMP。HSV-P10增加了CD8+ T细胞在瘤内的浸润,降低了PD-L1的表达,延长荷瘤小鼠的生存期,并通过免疫记忆抑制了治疗后重新接种的肿瘤。病毒载体疫苗也可以编码细胞毒性因子,如诱导焦亡的gasdermin分子N端结构域(GSDMNT)。Lu等71发现重组腺相关病毒(rAAV)表达的GSDMNT在大鼠颅内C6神经胶质瘤模型中诱导了抗肿瘤免疫反应。rAAV暂时打开了血脑屏障,并招募淋巴细胞进入大脑和浸润肿瘤。与抗PD-L1疗法结合后,肿瘤杀伤效果得到进一步增强。Lin等72发现溶瘤性副痘病毒(ORFV)也可以诱导细胞焦亡,因为它能够激活gasdermin E(GSDME)通路。因此,在小鼠冷肿瘤例如B16和小鼠乳腺癌4T1模型中,ORFV能使肿瘤对ICB更加敏感。同样,Wu等73发现重组麻疹病毒疫苗株rMV-Hu191在小鼠食管鳞状细胞癌(ESCC)移植模型中,能通过caspase-3/GSDME介导的通路诱导焦亡。肿瘤细胞可以用趋化因子标记,从而招募免疫细胞。例如,CCL5是一种炎症趋化因子,它能通过与免疫细胞表面受体CCR1和/或CCR5相互作用,促进免疫细胞的趋化。Tian等74构建了一个嵌合的抗体样分子,其一条链由EGFR单抗cetuximab的scFv融合到IgG1可结晶段(Fc)构成,而另一条链由CCL5融合到IgG1 Fc形成。为了让它们能正确组装,两条链的Fc序列略有差异,以不对称的互补方式组装(图4)。这个双特异性蛋白分子能结合癌细胞表面高表达的EGFR,将CCL5标记到肿瘤微环境,同时通过Fc介导ADCC效应。在小鼠颅内C2A-EGFR神经胶质瘤模型中,瘤内接种编码了分泌型双特异性蛋白的oHSV显著增强了NK细胞、巨噬细胞和T细胞的浸润和激活,抑制了肿瘤EGFR信号,从而抑制了肿瘤生长并延长了荷瘤小鼠的生存期,而且疫苗接种还诱导了abscopal效应。
就像细菌一样,病毒表面的蛋白也可以通过化学反应或者物理吸附偶联抗原。于2022年获得诺贝尔化学奖的点击化学(click chemistry)被广泛用于病毒表面的化学修饰。Ji和合作者们75通过点击化学向改造的流感病毒(influenza virus)表面引入模式抗原OVA,并验证了其诱导抗肿瘤免疫反应的能力。Fusciello和合作者们76则从肿瘤细胞系(例如B16-F10)中分离出细胞膜,并将其与腺病毒Delta-24-RGD反复挤出,从而将细胞膜包裹在病毒表面形成膜-病毒复合疫苗。肿瘤细胞表面的膜蛋白等抗原因此被修饰到病毒表面,并在动物实验中产生预防性和治疗性的抗肿瘤免疫效果。这种方式可以免去肿瘤相关抗原的鉴定、表征与合成等步骤。Roy和合作者们77发现,一些条件下抗原不必与病毒在分子层面相结合,作为佐剂的病毒与抗原短肽的混合物亦能有效呈递短肽抗原。在小鼠模型中,他们使用4种不同的病毒,包括腺病毒、马尔堡病毒(Maraba virus)、VSV和痘苗病毒,分别与短肽抗原混合,然后进行交替免疫,激发了有效的抗肿瘤免疫应答。
然而,这些后期修饰策略生产的病毒疫苗,其复制出来的新一代病毒粒子不会包含这些抗原。为了持续稳定的抗原递送,将编码肿瘤抗原的基因整合到病毒粒子中是更常见的做法。D’Alise和合作者们78通过测序与抗原性预测从CT26细胞中鉴定出31种由单碱基突变产生的新生T细胞抗原,并将它们融合表达为一条抗原蛋白。随即将抗原蛋白的编码基因导入巨猿腺病毒(GAd)基因组中,构建出肿瘤疫苗。动物实验表明,编码新生抗原的腺病毒疫苗能引发T细胞响应:对小鼠进行单次免疫后,有7个抗原检测到了T细胞应答,其中能被CD4+与CD8+ T细胞识别的抗原基本各占一半。这些肿瘤特异性T细胞能抑制肿瘤的发生和发展,且不会识别未突变的原生蛋白。动物模型表明,编码肿瘤新生抗原的GAd疫苗能增强肿瘤特异性CD8+ T细胞的“干性特征”10。以GAd与MVA为基础的抗肿瘤疫苗Nous209编码由DNA错配修复缺陷(dMMR)肿瘤患者共享的209个移码肽(FSP)抗原,目前正处于临床Ⅰ期16与Ⅰ/Ⅱ期17研究中。初步结果显示,Nous209联合PD-1单抗疗法在dMMR癌症患者中是安全的,并且有效诱发了抗肿瘤免疫应答。个性化疫苗GRANITE正处于Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床研究中,它包含编码新生肿瘤抗原的猩猩腺病毒ChAd68与编码同种抗原自复制RNA(samRNA)的委内瑞拉马脑炎病毒(Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus)。该试验中两种病毒交替免疫,并联合PD-1与CTLA-4单抗,用于治疗晚期转移性实体瘤。初步结果表明,该疗法安全并诱发了有效的抗肿瘤T细胞应答18。编码肿瘤相关抗原人类黏菌素-1(hMUC-1)的腺病毒疫苗Ad-sig-hMUC1/ecdCD40L将hMUC-1与人CD40L进行融合表达。该疫苗在动物模型上表现出抗肿瘤效果;Ⅰ期临床研究也表明,该疫苗在高表达hMUC-1晚期上皮腺癌患者中是安全的21
Ring和合作者们79报道了编码TRP2的非致病性LCMV,该重组病毒在小鼠实验中能重编程成纤维基质细胞(FSC),进而招募抗原特异性CD8+ T细胞,控制肿瘤生长。Smith和合作者们80报道了编码TRP2的腺病毒Ad5-TRP2,预防性和治疗性小鼠肿瘤模型均表明,疫苗联合聚乳酸-聚乙醇酸共聚物/树枝状聚酰胺-胺(PLGA/PAMAM)纳米粒子佐剂可以抑制皮下B16F10肿瘤的发生和生长。Das等56报道了编码肿瘤相关抗原的VSV(VSV-GP-TAA)与人工蛋白抗原KISIMA交替免疫在小鼠肿瘤模型中的效果。该研究中,病毒编码的肿瘤相关抗原包括OVA、新生抗原Adpgk、Reps1和致癌病毒HPV相关抗原E7,KISIMA则是一个包含抗原肽、穿膜肽和TLR2、TLR4配体肽的人工融合蛋白。研究者们注意到病毒与蛋白交替免疫相比单一疫苗具备更好的抗肿瘤效果。Moshaheb和合作者们81报道了编码肿瘤相关抗原DMG/DIPG H3.3K27M的杂交病毒PVSRIPO在小鼠模型中的抗肿瘤效果。PVSRIPO是一株基因稳定的脊髓灰质炎病毒(Poliovirus)与鼻病毒(Rhinovirus)杂交病毒,在动物模型中能通过感染DC细胞呈递抗原,激活CD8+ T细胞并延缓肿瘤生长。Medina Echeverz等57报道了编码肿瘤相关抗原的MVA疫苗rMVA-CD40L-TAA。rMVA-CD40L-TAA编码鼠CD40L和多肽融合抗原,包括黑色素瘤相关表位TRP2、小鼠白血病病毒(MLV)gp70相关抗原p15E和AH-1A5。动物实验表明,rMVA-CD40L-TAA经单次静脉注射后,除了扩增CD8+ T细胞,还能激活NK细胞,并与抗肿瘤单抗TA99协同杀伤肿瘤。
细菌与病毒作为肿瘤疫苗载体具有许多显著的差异,因而选择肿瘤疫苗的载体时需综合考虑不同平台的特征。第一,细菌平台基因组的容量显著高于一般病毒,因而能编码更多外部基因。第二,二者的生命过程显著不同:细菌大多具备独立完成复制的能力,往往仅依靠宿主细胞提供能量和小分子原料;而病毒的复制过程大多依赖宿主提供的核糖体、核酸聚合酶等分子机器。因此,病毒复制可能受到宿主细胞周期的影响。从这一方面来说,细菌具备更广的适应性潜力,但是病毒对细胞周期的相对依赖也提供了改造其组织适应性的空间。第三,虽然二者皆可能通过被感染的免疫细胞传递,但是在细胞外时,细菌与病毒在免疫系统内传输方式有差异:病毒粒子更小的尺寸往往有利于它们通过淋巴循环以被动的方式富集到中心和外周淋巴组织中;而一部分细菌具有鞭毛或跨细胞主动运动能力,能以不依赖淋巴循环的方式将携带的抗原输送到肿瘤外周组织。第四,细菌与病毒载体的免疫原性有差异:细菌特有的免疫原性组分包括TLR4配体LPS、TLR5配体鞭毛蛋白等,它们往往激活细胞表面的免疫受体;而病毒在胞内复制时产生的DNA、RNA等抗原则往往激活胞内免疫受体,例如cGAS、TLR3等。因此二者能刺激免疫系统的不同通路,这些差异将影响载体的佐剂性质。第五,二者携带的抗原被免疫系统呈递的路径有差异:细菌自身能完成大部分蛋白的合成,因此抗原通常需要通过细菌分泌、内含体逃逸等方式进入胞浆,被宿主酶降解以交叉呈递到MHCⅠ分子上;大部分病毒的蛋白合成依赖宿主核糖体,该过程中,蛋白能更被高效地直接呈递到MHCⅠ分子上,从而在诱导抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞反应上具备一定的优势。第六,二者蛋白翻译后修饰机制的差异可能影响蛋白的抗原性:细菌自身缺乏真核细胞的糖基化修饰系统,因而如果目标抗原原本高度糖基化时,细菌合成的抗原会与宿主抗原有较大结构差异。对不同糖蛋白抗原来说,糖基化的缺失可能增强82-83或者减弱84-85其抗原性。而病毒编码的抗原则经由宿主细胞合成,其糖基化修饰模式更能反映其原生结构。第七,病毒平台相比细菌相对更加简单,具有相对少的基因、蛋白质数量,更加容易表征与质控,病毒感染细胞的机制也研究得相对透彻,这可能是目前病毒载体更容易进入临床研究(见表1)的原因之一。第八,从生产的角度来说,细菌因具备更好的稳定性和较大的尺寸,往往比病毒粒子更容易分离、纯化。其制剂的保存条件也比病毒更加温和。例如,冻干的活菌往往能在4 ℃保存较长时间,而病毒粒子往往需要冷冻保存在缓冲液中。
总体来说,开发肿瘤疫苗的机遇与挑战并存。合成生物学提供了独特的工具与手段,使我们能够改造细菌与病毒以达成特定的目标。微生物载体作为肿瘤疫苗仍然有许多需要解决的问题,其中之一就是它们仍然面临安全性的担忧。即便在今天,距离Coley首次向患者肿瘤接种细菌已有一百多年,病毒载体首次用于基因治疗已三十余年,微生物在体内所引发的效应仍然未得到充分研究。在最近一次发生了灾难性后果的临床实验中,一位身患重度肌肉萎缩的27岁患者接受了高剂量的重组AAV治疗,8天后死于重度器官衰竭。尸检结果表明,这次罕见的反应可能与患者先天免疫系统异常激活导致的急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)相关86。诚然,不像基因治疗针对全身的细胞,疫苗只需要转化非常少量的细胞即可刺激免疫系统,因而剂量更加安全可靠。但是,由于生命系统的复杂性,我们仍无法完全预见向患者输送活的微生物可能引发的后果。所以前文我们概述了一些提升载体安全性的方式,这仍然会是目前和未来的研究重点。
针对疫苗载体的免疫反应对抗肿瘤免疫的影响是目前微生物载体肿瘤疫苗开发的另一个挑战。免疫反应的产生是一个高能耗的过程87。针对载体的免疫反应可能与抗肿瘤免疫反应竞争能量、营养与细胞资源。但是,针对载体的先天免疫反应也可能以非特异性的方式杀伤肿瘤、增强抗肿瘤免疫。从传染疾病疫苗开发得到的数据来看,针对载体的预存免疫似乎增强针对目标抗原的血清免疫但是降低细胞免疫88。在抗肿瘤免疫的发生和演变的过程中,对于抗载体预存免疫的影响目前仅有初步的认识和了解89-91。前面我们总结了一些降低宿主抗载体免疫反应的方法,也有一些将抗载体免疫反应导向肿瘤的例子。
针对上述挑战,除了对病原-宿主免疫相互作用、肿瘤免疫等机制进行更深入研究和了解以外,我们可能也不能忽视不同人个体免疫系统之间的差异。我们可能不仅需要“个性化”的抗原,还需要“个性化”的载体。例如,血清预存抗载体抗体的水平不但会影响对应病毒载体的免疫效果,还可能影响该患者接种后发生严重过敏反应的概率。除了预存抗体水平差异以外,HLA多态性也会影响某一特定病原的致病性。例如,近期的研究表明在携带HLA-B*15:01的人群中,因为其免疫细胞能更高效地呈递一个冠状病毒共有表位,这类人群的T细胞能更强更广泛地识别多种不同冠状病毒感染的细胞:这类人群在感染新冠病毒后往往表现为更轻微的症状92。考虑到在这个例子中普通感冒冠状病毒在人群中的广泛流行可能筛选了此类优势基因,对于其他在人群中广泛传播的病毒(例如腺病毒、HSV等),其致病性、抗原呈递效率也有可能受到HLA多态性的影响。因此,微生物载体疫苗的临床研究可能需要考虑患者基因型差异带来的影响。
肿瘤的复杂性是肿瘤疫苗开发的另一大难点。一个成功的肿瘤疫苗,可能需要同时用到微生物学、肿瘤生物学与免疫学相关的知识,以解决该领域的诸多难点。因此,跨领域的合作显得至关重要。同时,由于肿瘤异质性和高突变率的特点,任何针对肿瘤的某一方面、某一机制的抗肿瘤疗法最终很有可能因肿瘤逃逸而失效。因此,目前处于临床研究中的肿瘤疫苗也常常与其他疗法进行结合,比如放疗、化疗、ICB等,表1归纳了临床上常用的结合疗法。结合多种方法的治疗手段的趋势将持续下去,将来的研究方向可能涉及更多其他领域的研究成果,例如新的生物信息学方法、深度学习与人工智能等,与肿瘤疫苗相结合,从多个不同角度抗击肿瘤,以此实现肿瘤患者生存和生活质量的改善。
符号说明
3'UTR——3'非翻译区(3'untranslated region)
AAV——腺相关病毒(adeno-associated virus)
ABCA1/G1——ATP结合盒转运蛋白A1/G1(ATP-binding cassette transporter A1/G1)
ADCC——抗体依赖细胞介导的细胞毒性作用
adpgk——ADP依赖性葡萄糖激酶(ADP-specific glucokinase)
Adv——腺病毒(adenovirus)
AKT——蛋白激酶B(protein kinase B)
ApoA1——载脂蛋白A1(apolipoprotein A-I)
ARDS——急性呼吸窘迫综合征
BCG——卡介苗(bacille Calmette-Guerin)
CAR-T——嵌合抗原受体T细胞
cGAS——环磷酸鸟苷-腺苷酸合成酶
ChAd——猩猩腺病毒(chimpanzee adenovirus)
ClyA——溶细胞素A(cytolysin A)
DAMP——损伤相关分子模式
DC——树突状细胞(dendritic cell)
dMMR——DNA错配修复缺陷
EGFRvⅢ——表皮生长因子受体变体Ⅲ
ESCC——食管鳞状细胞癌
Fc——可结晶段(fragment crystallizable)
FKBP——FK506结合蛋白(FK506 binding protein)
FlaB——弧菌鞭毛蛋白B(flagellin B)
Flt3L——FMS样酪氨酸激酶3配体(FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand)
FRB——FKBP-雷帕霉素结合蛋白(FKBP-rapamycin binding domain)
FSC——成纤维基质细胞(fibroblastic stromal cell)
FSP——移码肽(frameshift peptide)
GAd——巨猿腺病毒(gorilla adenovirus)
GBM——神经胶质瘤(glioblastoma)
GL-BP——半乳-N-二糖/乳-N-二糖-Ⅰ结合蛋白(galacto-N-biose-/lacto-N-biose Ⅰ-binding protein)
GM-CSF——粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子 (Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor)
GPI——磷脂酰肌醇(glycosylphosphatidylinositol)
HLA——人类白细胞抗原(human leukocyte antigen)
hMUC-1——人类黏菌素-1(human mucin 1)
HPV——人类乳头瘤病毒(human papillomavirus)
HSV-1——单纯疱疹病毒1型 (herpes simplex virus type 1)
HVR1——六面体超变异区域1(hypervariable region 1)
ICB——免疫检查点阻断(immune checkpoint blockade)
ICD——免疫原性细胞死亡(immunogenic cell death)
IFN——干扰素(interferon)
IL——白介素(interleukin)
LCMV——淋巴细胞脉络丛脑膜炎病毒(lymphocytic choriomeningitis)
LLO——吞噬体逃逸蛋白(listeriolysin O)
LNP——脂质纳米粒子(lipid nanoparticle)
LPS——脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide)
MHC——主要组织相容性复合体(major histocompatibility complex)
miRNA——微小RNA(microRNA)
MLV——小鼠白血病病毒(murine leukemia virus)
MVA——改造的痘苗病毒安卡拉株 (modified vaccinia virus Ankara)
NDV——新城疫病毒(Newcastle disease virus)
NK——自然杀伤细胞(natural killer cell)
NSCLC——非小细胞肺癌(non-small-cell lung cancer)
oHSV——溶瘤单纯疱疹病毒 (oncolytic herpes simplex virus)
OMV——外膜囊泡(outer membrane vesicles)
ORFV——溶瘤性副痘病毒(Orf virus,parapoxvirus ovis)
OVA——卵清蛋白(ovalbumin)
PAMAM——树枝状聚酰胺-胺[poly(amidoamine)]
PAMP——病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular pattern)
PD-1——程序性细胞死亡受体1 (programmed cell death protein 1)
PI3K——磷脂酰肌醇-4,5-二磷酸3-激酶 (phosphoinositide 3-kinases)
PLGA——聚乳酸-聚乙醇酸共聚物 [poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)]
ppGpp——鸟苷四磷酸(guanosine tetraphosphate)
pRB——视网膜母细胞瘤蛋白(retinoblastoma protein)
PTEN——第10号染色体缺失的磷酸酶张力蛋白同源物(phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10)
samRNA——自复制mRNA(self-amplifying mRNA)
scFv——单链可变域(single-chain variable fragment)
Siglec-10——唾液酸结合免疫球蛋白样凝集素10 (sialic acid-binding Ig-like lectin 10)
SIRPα——信号调节蛋白α(signal-regulatory protein alpha)
TALER——转录激活样效应抑制子 (transcription activator-like effector repressor)
TAM——肿瘤相关巨噬细胞 (tumor associated macrophages)
Th1——1型辅助T细胞(helper T cell 1)
TIL——肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞 (tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte)
TLR——Toll样受体(Toll-like receptor)
TT——破伤风类毒素(tetanus toxoid)
VLP——病毒样颗粒(virus-like particle)
VSV——水疱性口炎病毒(vesicular stomatitis virus)
VSVg——水疱性口炎病毒糖蛋白 (vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein)
VV——痘苗病毒(vaccinia virus)
  • 国家重点研发计划(2022YFA0912400)
  • 深圳市科技计划(JCYJ20220818100806015)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32130040)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82250710172)
  • 深圳市医学科研基金(B2301006)
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2024年第5卷第2期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-079
  • 接收时间:2023-11-20
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-04-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-20
  • 修回日期:2024-02-05
基金
国家重点研发计划(2022YFA0912400)
深圳市科技计划(JCYJ20220818100806015)
国家自然科学基金(32130040)
国家自然科学基金(82250710172)
深圳市医学科研基金(B2301006)
作者信息
    深圳理工大学药学院,中国科学院深圳先进技术研究院癌症免疫中心,广东 深圳 518055

通讯作者:

陈有海(1963—),博士生导师,欧洲科学院(Academia Europaea)院士,美国医学与生物工程院(AIMBE)Fellow,国家特聘教授,教育部长江学者,深圳理工大学药学院讲席教授、院长。研究方向为肿瘤免疫治疗。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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