Article(id=1148989443480019652, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-078, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1699459200000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-09, revisedDate=1708531200000, revisedDateStr=2024-02-22, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751870030517, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1714406400000, pubDateStr=2024-04-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751870030517, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751870030517, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751870030517, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148989441470952447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='2', pageStart='217', pageEnd='395', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751870030037, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057315553, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068078, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068079, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=267, endPage=280, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999702511595697, articleId=1148989443480019652, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=New strategies for engineering influenza viruses and their applications, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Influenza viruses are highly variable and transmissible, and their infections can cause infectious respiratory diseases, such as seasonal influenza outbreaks around the world, one of the most serious public health problems at present, which can be prevented by influenza vaccination. The genome sequences, protein structures and functions of influenza viruses, as well as their packaging mechanisms are relatively clear. they are also important models, which can be used for developing conditional control genetic elements and the construction of intelligent responsive viruses. With the development of reverse genetics and synthetic biology technology, influenza viruses that are genetically engineered can better control virus replication to improve the safety of vaccines, and induce strong immune responses in human being, which have attracted wide attention in tumor immunotherapy. Several studies using simple or modified influenza viruses for treating liver cancer, melanoma, or lung cancer have found breakthroughs. In this paper, three novel strategies for attenuating influenza viruses, namely, proteolytic targeted chimeric virus, conditionally replicating influenza-attenuated live virus and highly interferon-sensitive virus, are described. The oncolytic effects of influenza viruses encoding premature stop codon chimeric antigen peptide, influenza viruses recombining with PD-L1 or CTLA4 immune checkpoint and influenza viruses expressing GM-CSF with truncated NS1 fragment on melanoma and hepatocellular carcinoma are reviewed, respectively, which suggest that the influenza viruses can be used as a live attenuated vaccine and a potential carrier for oncolytic viruses, and future researchers can be focused on constructing influenza viruses with more innovative strategies and different viruses to build a live attenuated vaccine and oncolytic viruses, in order to obtain high safety and more clinical curative treatment, improving the life quality of the patients.

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流感病毒有着极强的变异性和传播性,常在全球范围内引起季节性的流感爆发。流感病毒的基因组序列、蛋白结构与功能、病毒的包装机制等环节研究相对清楚,也是一种重要的模式病毒,用于条件控制基因元件的发现和确证,构建智能响应型病毒等。随着反向遗传学与合成生物学的发展,通过基因工程改造的流感病毒能更好地控制病毒复制来提高疫苗的安全性,以及诱发机体产生强烈的免疫反应,在肿瘤免疫治疗领域引发广泛关注。本文描述了蛋白质水解靶向嵌合病毒、条件复制型流感减毒活病毒和高干扰素敏感病毒等三种新型减毒流感病毒改造策略,并对编码过早终止密码子的嵌合抗原肽的流感病毒、与PD-L1或CTLA4免疫检查点重组的流感病毒、截短的NS1片段表达GM-CSF的流感病毒分别对黑色素瘤、肝癌的溶瘤作用进行评述。未来,将通过创新性地运用不同策略、不同病毒来构建减毒活疫苗和溶瘤病毒,以便在临床上获得更加安全有效的治疗手段。

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董铭心(1978—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为抗病毒和神经系统小分子药物及疫苗。E-mail:
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郭茜亚(1997—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为溶瘤病毒的研发策略及应用。E-mail:

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郭茜亚(1997—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为溶瘤病毒的研发策略及应用。E-mail:

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郭茜亚(1997—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为溶瘤病毒的研发策略及应用。E-mail:

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流感病毒改造新策略及其应用
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郭茜亚 , 陈积 , 董铭心
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(2): 267-280
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(2): 267-280
流感病毒改造新策略及其应用
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郭茜亚 , 陈积, 董铭心
作者信息
  • 青岛大学药学院药物化学系,山东 青岛 266000
  • 郭茜亚(1997—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为溶瘤病毒的研发策略及应用。E-mail:

通讯作者:

董铭心(1978—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为抗病毒和神经系统小分子药物及疫苗。E-mail:
New strategies for engineering influenza viruses and their applications
Xiya GUO , Ji CHEN, Mingxin DONG
Affiliations
  • Department of Medicinal Chemistry,College of Pharmacy,Qingdao University,Qingdao 266000,Shandong,China
出版时间: 2024-04-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-078
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流感病毒有着极强的变异性和传播性,常在全球范围内引起季节性的流感爆发。流感病毒的基因组序列、蛋白结构与功能、病毒的包装机制等环节研究相对清楚,也是一种重要的模式病毒,用于条件控制基因元件的发现和确证,构建智能响应型病毒等。随着反向遗传学与合成生物学的发展,通过基因工程改造的流感病毒能更好地控制病毒复制来提高疫苗的安全性,以及诱发机体产生强烈的免疫反应,在肿瘤免疫治疗领域引发广泛关注。本文描述了蛋白质水解靶向嵌合病毒、条件复制型流感减毒活病毒和高干扰素敏感病毒等三种新型减毒流感病毒改造策略,并对编码过早终止密码子的嵌合抗原肽的流感病毒、与PD-L1或CTLA4免疫检查点重组的流感病毒、截短的NS1片段表达GM-CSF的流感病毒分别对黑色素瘤、肝癌的溶瘤作用进行评述。未来,将通过创新性地运用不同策略、不同病毒来构建减毒活疫苗和溶瘤病毒,以便在临床上获得更加安全有效的治疗手段。

流感病毒  /  基因元件  /  减毒策略  /  条件响应  /  减毒活疫苗  /  溶瘤病毒

Influenza viruses are highly variable and transmissible, and their infections can cause infectious respiratory diseases, such as seasonal influenza outbreaks around the world, one of the most serious public health problems at present, which can be prevented by influenza vaccination. The genome sequences, protein structures and functions of influenza viruses, as well as their packaging mechanisms are relatively clear. they are also important models, which can be used for developing conditional control genetic elements and the construction of intelligent responsive viruses. With the development of reverse genetics and synthetic biology technology, influenza viruses that are genetically engineered can better control virus replication to improve the safety of vaccines, and induce strong immune responses in human being, which have attracted wide attention in tumor immunotherapy. Several studies using simple or modified influenza viruses for treating liver cancer, melanoma, or lung cancer have found breakthroughs. In this paper, three novel strategies for attenuating influenza viruses, namely, proteolytic targeted chimeric virus, conditionally replicating influenza-attenuated live virus and highly interferon-sensitive virus, are described. The oncolytic effects of influenza viruses encoding premature stop codon chimeric antigen peptide, influenza viruses recombining with PD-L1 or CTLA4 immune checkpoint and influenza viruses expressing GM-CSF with truncated NS1 fragment on melanoma and hepatocellular carcinoma are reviewed, respectively, which suggest that the influenza viruses can be used as a live attenuated vaccine and a potential carrier for oncolytic viruses, and future researchers can be focused on constructing influenza viruses with more innovative strategies and different viruses to build a live attenuated vaccine and oncolytic viruses, in order to obtain high safety and more clinical curative treatment, improving the life quality of the patients.

influenza viruses  /  genetic parts  /  attenuation strategies  /  conditional responses  /  attenuated live vaccines  /  oncolytic viruses
郭茜亚, 陈积, 董铭心. 流感病毒改造新策略及其应用. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (2) : 267 -280 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-078
Xiya GUO, Ji CHEN, Mingxin DONG. New strategies for engineering influenza viruses and their applications[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (2) : 267 -280 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-078
流感病毒属于正黏病毒家族1,分为四型:甲(A)、乙(B)、丙(C)、丁(D)2,为有包膜的单链负义RNA病毒,分子量12~14 kb。在四类流感病毒中,甲型流感病毒(influenza A virus,IAV)和乙型流感病毒(influenza B virus,IBV)可导致每年流行发生,也被称为季节性流感。IAV和IBV基因组含有8个片段,分别编码血凝素(hemagglutinin,HA)蛋白、神经氨酸酶(neuraminidase, NA)蛋白、碱性聚合酶1(polymerase basic 1,PB1)、碱性聚合酶2(polymerase basic 2,PB2)、酸性聚合酶(polymerase acidic,PA)、核衣壳蛋白(nucleocapsid protein,NP)、基质蛋白(matrix protein,M)和非结构蛋白(non-structural protein,NS)。HA和NA为病毒包膜糖蛋白抗原;PA、PB1和PB2三者为病毒RNA聚合酶亚单位;NP为可溶性抗原,具有特异性和抗原性稳定;M构成病毒的外壳框架,具有抗原性稳定;NS是影响流感发病机制和对新宿主适应的关键毒力因子。此外,IAV具有使人畜共患病的潜力,很容易从动物传播到人类,演变成一种致命的流行病毒株3
流感病毒强有力的传播和目前有限的抗病毒治疗方案加剧了公众的担忧。迄今为止,美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration,FDA)批准了三种可供人类使用的流感病毒疫苗:重组流感病毒血凝素三聚体蛋白疫苗、灭活流感病毒疫苗(inactivated influenza vaccine,IIV)和流感减毒活疫苗(live attenuated influenza vaccine,LAIV)4-5。应用最广泛的流感疫苗是灭活流感病毒疫苗。灭活流感病毒疫苗的主要有效成分是HA和NA蛋白,这两种蛋白诱导机体产生的中和抗体是疫苗产生保护作用的最主要因素。HA蛋白易变异,产生新的流感病毒亚型,但是HA抗原刺激机体产生的抗体特异性强,由此诱导产生的中和抗体无法有效中和变异后的流感病毒,所以现有灭活疫苗无法应对由流行株变异引起的流感大流行4-5
LAIV由于具有诱导较长且较强免疫反应的潜力和易于给药的便利性,首次出现便引起广泛关注。与IIV相比,LAIV能更好地抵抗异型流感病毒感染6-7。FDA推荐的LAIV是由阿斯利康旗下子公司Medimmune制备的名为FluMist的疫苗。该疫苗是一种冷适应、温度敏感且减毒的三价的活病毒流感疫苗8-9。其为鼻内给药,推荐用于免疫功能正常的2~49岁人群10。我国批准上市的减毒活疫苗为三价减毒活疫苗(LAIV3),由长春百克生物科技股份有限公司制备。LAIV3仅适合3~17岁人群,所适配的年龄范围更为窄小。因此可能需要更优策略来设计减毒活疫苗,扩大适用范围、增加有效性和降低副作用。
目前研究的经典流感疫苗减毒策略之一是通过反向遗传学方法制备缺失非结构蛋白1 (non-structural protein 1,NS1)的流感病毒。流感病毒NS1是一个关键的毒力元件和强干扰素拮抗剂,在病毒复制中具有多功能作用11-12。虽然NS1蛋白不是病毒复制所必需的,但在流感病毒感染期间,它对逃避宿主先天性免疫和干扰适应性免疫至关重要13-14。因此,删除NS1一直被认为是制备安全性高、免疫原性强的流感疫苗的理想策略15。在老年小鼠中,NS1截短疫苗可诱导强烈的免疫应答,与灭活病毒疫苗相比具有更好的保护效果16-17。然而,截短或缺失NS1的流感病毒在犬肾细胞(madin darby canine kidney,MDCK)中的生长效率相对较低18,缺乏有效的生产系统限制了缺失NS1的流感病毒减毒活疫苗株的进一步发展。因此,需要新的减毒策略,克服当前减毒流感疫苗生产等方面的局限性。
随着反向遗传学与合成生物学的发展,一些新的减毒策略被用于制备LAIV,可以更好地控制病毒复制,提高安全性、有效性和克服病毒生产的难题,如蛋白质水解靶向嵌合病毒19、条件复制型流感减毒活病毒20和高干扰素敏感病毒21。这些新型减毒策略的研发对于将来季节性流感和流感大流行的应对十分重要。基因工程改造后的流感病毒,在同样需要安全可控和强免疫载体的溶瘤病毒(oncolytic virus,OV)疗法中也发挥重要作用。因流感病毒的基因组、蛋白功能及合成机制研究相对清楚,可以在改造或修饰后制备出毒性低,溶瘤有效性高的溶瘤病毒。近年来,将修饰过的流感病毒作为溶瘤病毒,已成为肿瘤治疗科研的焦点22-23。如编码过早终止密码子的嵌合抗原肽的流感病毒、与PD-L1或CTLA4免疫检查点重组的流感病毒和截短的NS1片段表达GM-CSF的流感病毒分别对黑色素瘤或肝癌有较好的溶瘤作用。这里将介绍上述三种新的减毒策略和修饰后的流感病毒在黑色素瘤和肝癌中的溶瘤应用。
鉴于病毒复制依赖病毒编码的蛋白质13,通过宿主细胞的蛋白质降解机制来操纵病毒蛋白质稳定性可能是一种打开和关闭病毒复制周期的潜在方法24-29。为此,Si等19将蛋白酶体靶向结构域(proteasome-targeting domain,PTD)与流感病毒基质蛋白1(matrix protein 1,M1)融合设计成蛋白质水解靶向嵌合(proteolysis-targeting chimeric,PROTAC)病毒。PTD为包含蛋白酶体靶向肽(proteasome-targeting peptide,PTP)ALAPYIP和烟草蚀刻病毒切割位点(tobacco etch virus cleavage site,TEVcs)接头ENLYFQG。ALAPYIP被肿瘤抑制蛋白(von hippel-lindau,VHL)识别,VHL是CRL2VHL E3泛素连接酶的底物识别成分,导致泛素化,从而通过蛋白酶体降解标记蛋白30-33。VHL在大多数正常组织和细胞类型中的普遍表达,为PROTAC疫苗的有效性提供关键基础34-37。烟草蚀刻病毒蛋白酶(tobacco etch virus protease,TEVp)可以选择性地切割PTD的TEVcs接头,以将病毒蛋白从PTD中分离出来,使其免于降解。该团队建立了稳定表达TEVp的细胞系,以在疫苗生产过程中保持PROTAC病毒的繁殖潜力19。该团队还将PTD掺入另一种病毒株A/Puerto Rico/8/1934(H1N1)流感病毒(PR8)的M1蛋白中,通过细胞病变效应(cytopathic effect,CPE)测定和病毒复制曲线测量,发现得到的PROTAC病毒株M1-PTDPR8也被高度减毒。总之,制备的PROTAC病毒可以依靠宿主细胞的泛素化在传统细胞中高度衰减,也可以在工程表达TEVp的细胞株中使病毒脱离泛素化保持高效复制的能力38。PROTAC病毒在体内可被充分减弱,但能引起强大的体液、黏膜和细胞免疫,对同源和异源病毒的挑战提供了广泛的保护(图1)。
现有方法制备的疫苗在常规细胞中显示出相当强的复制能力,甚至在高剂量下可杀死宿主39,这会导致严重的安全性问题。与现有的减毒活疫苗制备方法相比,PROTAC病毒疫苗技术采用了一种独特的疫苗设计原则,即有条件地将病毒蛋白靶向到宿主的蛋白质降解系统中,以创造蛋白质靶向分解病毒疫苗。这种方法可以将病毒的复制高度衰减到低水平。通过使用稳定表达TEVp的细胞让病毒增殖,在正常细胞培养条件下可以在数周内生产成本效益高的疫苗,这比依赖于鸡胚的方法有优势40。因此,与现有方法生产的疫苗相比,PROTAC病毒疫苗可能具有更高的安全性,它可能是预防季节性大流行等多重流行的有效方法。实际上,有许多PTD可用于生成PROTAC病毒,因为在人泛素-蛋白酶体系统中已经发现了600多个E3连接酶33。PROTAC疫苗技术的成功也可能是蛋白质降解机制基础研究与疫苗开发之间的一个重要突破,是这两个领域的一个新前沿。目前,一些不依赖蛋白酶体的蛋白质降解系统(包括内体、溶酶体或自噬体系统)已被用于开发新的靶向降解技术,如溶酶体靶向嵌合体、自噬靶向嵌合体和自噬小体绑定化合物41-43,这些研究也提示我们可以观察体内其他的酶解通路,有望制成新的、安全性更高、有效性更强且生产成本低的减毒活疫苗,为未来减毒疫苗发展提供了新的思考。
Buskirk等44开发了一种基于内含肽(intein)的分子开关,将小分子4-羟基他莫昔芬(4-hydroxy tamoxifen,4-HT)的结合转化为靶蛋白的激活,使得蛋白质的功能依赖于小分子。intein是位于宿主蛋白质中的一段插入序列,翻译后从蛋白质前体中切除,从而形成成熟的宿主蛋白。在此过程中,其被称为外显肽(extein)的宿主蛋白质序列两侧通过正常的肽键连接起来。内含肽的自剪接最初是由哈佛大学 David R. Liu发现的,David R. Liu45将RecA内含肽结构中的非必需归巢核酸内切酶区域替换为人的雌激素受体配体结合区域(estrogen receptor-ligand binding domain,ER-LBD),得到N端剪接区-ER-LBD-C端剪接区域内含肽融合蛋白,将ER-LBD插入到RecA内含肽中可破坏其自剪接活性。当ER-LBD与高亲和力的小分子4-HT结合后,第12螺旋发生大幅的构象转变,拉近ER-LBD的N末端和C末端之间的距离,从而发生内含肽的自剪接。Peck等46随后更新出37 °C下第二代4-HT依赖性内含子37R3-2,其在哺乳动物细胞中表现出较高的剪接蛋白产量和较快的剪接速度。
Chen等20利用内含肽自剪接技术,成功构建出小分子4-HT依赖型流感减毒活疫苗。在这项研究中,4-HT调节的病毒是将37R3-2内含肽融合到病毒PA序列中第218个位置的丝氨酸位点,称为S218病毒。融合内含肽到PA序列的S218病毒突变株会阻止活的IAV的正确翻译和组装。该团队是基于插入内含肽后尽可能多地破坏PA蛋白的功能和容易接近4-HT小分子的原理47,将intein插入到PA蛋白的无规则卷曲或蛋白的外侧区域。PA蛋白对于调节病毒基因组转录和复制起着至关重要的作用,PA插入内含肽后,在缺乏4-HT的情况下,病毒无法正常组装和复制。只有在存在4-HT的情况下4-HT依赖性的内含肽发生自剪接,从而将病毒PA蛋白恢复正常,病毒才能得以正常组装和复制。在PA特定位置插入4-HT依赖的内含子后,通过反向遗传技术进行病毒的合成。实验表明,S218病毒在0.5 μmol/L、1 μmol/L和2 μmol/L 4-HT处理的人胚肾293T细胞(human embryonic kidney 293T cells,HEK 293T)和MDCK细胞中未观察到细胞毒性。S218病毒在存在4-HT时表现出高剪接活性,不存在4-HT的情况下表现出低剪接活性。4-HT存在的情况下观察到突变病毒S218的病毒大量复制和CPE表型。S218病毒粒子是一个典型的球形颗粒,直径约为100 nm,病毒粒子的包膜结构清晰可见,与野生型(wild type,WT)IAV病毒粒子的大小和形状相似,并保留病毒所有的蛋白质抗原,但病毒的复制依赖于4-HT20
S218病毒只有在4-HT存在下,内含肽发生自剪接,PA活性恢复后才能组装活的和功能性的IAV病毒,所以通过内含肽自剪接的方式可以更好地控制病毒的毒力以保证安全性,同时维持强大的免疫原性以确保有效性。4-HT依赖性病毒在体外和体内都具有高度减毒作用20。它不仅能在体外刺激人鼻黏膜细胞产生强烈的先天免疫反应,还能在小鼠体内引发强大而多样的体液、黏膜和细胞免疫,从而对同源病毒的攻击提供有效的保护(图2)。
该研究开发的小分子依赖的内含肽自剪接系统制备减毒活疫苗的应用疫苗技术,具有系统简单、高效和安全的优点,也可以实现更短的研发和生产周期,为人工合成减毒活疫苗设计提供重要的理论依据,可以为热点、难点病毒建立合成生物学病毒疫苗合成平台,可以作为应对新发、突发病毒流行的战略储备12
干扰素(interferon,IFN)系统不仅是固有免疫的重要组成部分,更是桥接固有免疫与适应性免疫的桥梁。IFN可以促进树突状细胞(dendritic cell,DC)的分化成熟、抗体的分泌和效应T细胞的成熟与活化48-49。此外,IFN对病毒有强烈的抑制效应。在病毒基因组中,通常存在多种抑制IFN激活的途径,以使其可以在靶器官中复制。因此,如果我们将对病毒中拮抗IFN的位点进行系统的氨基酸突变,使其减少对IFN的抑制,从而减少病毒复制,拥有高度减毒和IFN敏感的特性,便可作为安全性高且免疫效果好的疫苗的理想选择。Du等50-51以甲型流感A/WSN/33流感株为例,结合高通量反向遗传技术和二代测序技术(next-generation sequencing,NGS),建立了一种全新且可靠的系统生物学平台。该平台可以大规模同步鉴定流感全基因组的单核苷酸功能。利用此方法,进行了流感病毒IFN敏感位点的全基因组筛查,并筛选和验证了分布于IAV的PB2、PB1、PA、M1等多个病毒蛋白的近30个抗IFN位点。与野生型相比,有8个突变显著增加了IFN的敏感性,其中6个基因(PB2-N9D、PB2-Q75H、PB2-T76A、M1-N36Y、M1-R72Q和M1-S225T)上调IFN-β和IFN刺激基因54(IFN-stimulated genes54,ISG54)的表达,刺激IFN调节因子3(interferon regulatory factor 3,IRF3)的核易位。此外,这6个突变体在IFN分泌缺陷的Vero细胞中对IFN处理不敏感。然而,另外两个突变(PB1-L155H和PA-E181D)并没有诱导更高的IFN产生,并且在Vero细胞中仍然对IFN敏感,表明这些突变可能影响IFN产生的下游过程。因为单核苷酸突变的干扰素诱导功能有限,且存在基因复原和丢失的问题。所以,为最大程度地提高突变病毒干扰素敏感及干扰素诱导的特性,同时不显著影响病毒自身的复制能力的情况下,希望可以在多种基因上合并多个突变。于是他们合并了3个基因片段的8个点突变,包括新筛选到的6种干扰素诱导突变[3种PB2上的突变(PB2-N9D、PB2-Q75H、PB2-T76A)、3种M1上的突变(M1-N36Y、M1-R72Q和M1-S225T)]和他们团队先前验证过的NS1双突变(R38A和K41A),构建了“高干扰素敏感”(hyper-interferon-sensitive,HIS)病毒21
该毒株在多种细胞系和小鼠体内均表现出干扰素敏感与高干扰素诱导的表型。HIS在正常小鼠肺组织内没有引起任何肺部病理及炎症反应,没有检测到病毒复制,表现出强大的安全性。同时,它可以促进短时的干扰素系统的上调,并诱导强烈的T细胞反应,引发强大和多样化的体液和细胞免疫,并在小鼠和雪貂中提供对同源和异源病毒攻击的保护。此外,HIS突变不影响病毒基因组本身的复制增殖,在无干扰素的情况下与野生型复制能力无差别21
HIS是由携带流感A/WSN/33病毒基因组的8质粒反向遗传系统构建突变质粒文库52,然后将编码突变亚库的质粒与其他7个编码野生型病毒蛋白的质粒共转染,在人胚胎肾293T细胞中重建病毒突变文库,在腺癌人类肺泡基底上皮细胞A549细胞中选择了所有的病毒文库,系统地鉴定IFN调节功能21。总的来说,HIS的构建为我们从基因组层面构建高效且安全的病毒疫苗提供了一个重要典范。有望将这种精准且定量的高通量基因组学系统用于改造其他病原体或疾病相关分子,使其对干扰素敏感,可以开发出更安全、有效的疫苗或药物,为其他疾病的治疗和预防提供了新的思路和方法。
肿瘤免疫治疗是近几年的研究热点,通过重新激活机体的抗肿瘤免疫,识别并杀伤肿瘤细胞,极大地提高了部分病人的长期生存率。溶瘤病毒疗法同免疫治疗一样,可以激活人体免疫反应,是一种革命性的癌症治疗工具。迄今为止,两个基因工程溶瘤病毒已被批准作为药物上市:一个是基于腺病毒的溶瘤病毒Oncorine(H101),是中国食品药品监督管理局(China Food and Drug Administration,CFDA)于2005年批准用于头颈癌和食道癌的重组溶瘤腺病毒,其修饰为E1B缺失和E3部分缺失53-54;另一个是基于单纯疱疹病毒1型的结合粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor,GM-CSF)的第二代溶瘤病毒T-Vec,于2015年10月在美国获得FDA批准用于黑色素瘤55。像制备Oncorine和T-Vec一样,设计和操纵病毒基因组以制造非致病性病毒已成为开发溶瘤病毒的标准方法。随着现代基因工程技术的发展和对病毒基因功能和结构的认识不断增加,对于其他结构简单且基因组学、合成和感染机制研究更为清楚的病毒,其改造和控制性生产更易进行,如流感病毒,其结构简单,为含有8个基因片段的RNA病毒,通过合成生物学和反向遗传技术可以获得任何感兴趣突变的重组病毒。有研究团队已经阐明了流感病毒通过将驻留肺泡巨噬细胞训练出持久的抗肿瘤免疫能力,进而增强免疫系统抗肿瘤的能力56。这提示我们,经过修饰后提高安全性和有效性的流感病毒也可以作为溶瘤病毒的潜在候选者。随着现代生物学的发展,已有大量研究探索修饰的流感病毒对黑色素瘤或肝癌等肿瘤的作用及机制,以期将其作为溶瘤病毒在肿瘤治疗领域取得突破性的进展。
黑色素瘤是最具侵袭性和致命性的皮肤癌症,主要在肺部扩散,4期黑色素瘤肺转移患者的5年生存率不超过21%57。有研究评估鼻内应用IAV对黑色素瘤肺转移的溶瘤和免疫调节潜力,并探索联合应用免疫检查点(immune checkpoint,IC)抑制剂是否可以增强初始IAV诱导的溶瘤作用。结果发现,与对照小鼠相比,B16-F10黑色素瘤肺转移的小鼠对IAV感染的反应更强,并且消除了肿瘤相关巨噬细胞和淋巴细胞的免疫抑制表型。用亚致死剂量IAV感染黑色素瘤肺转移的小鼠,肺转移灶的数量和大小减少50%以上。当IAV与抗程序性死亡受体1(programmed death 1,PD-1)联合应用时,对抑制肺转移有更持续的效果[图3(a)58。到目前为止,黑色素瘤患者的溶瘤病毒治疗仅限于T-VEC病毒。T-VEC因3期临床试验中16%的持久缓解率和适度的生存延长,批准用于不可切除的3期和4期黑色素瘤患者的瘤内治疗59-60。然而目前没有研究表明T-VEC治疗可以减少内脏器官中已有的黑色素瘤转移,或能延长黑色素瘤转移后患者的生存期61-62。在这项研究中,首次表明IAV对已经在肺部扩散且无法进行瘤内OV递送的黑色素瘤转移也有效。IAV感染B16-F10黑色素瘤肺转移瘤小鼠不仅导致直接的溶瘤作用,还导致强烈的抗病毒反应,消除肿瘤介导的免疫抑制,其先天免疫细胞和适应性免疫细胞都恢复了功能性免疫表型。
尽管目前发现了多种肿瘤新表位,但用于特异性癌症免疫疗法的抗原递送仍然具有挑战性63-65。有研究团队利用先前在IAV感染背景下观察到的肿瘤缓解66-67,制备了一种减毒的嵌合抗原肽流感病毒(chimeric antigenic peptide influenza virus,CAP Flu)来应对黑色素瘤肺转移68。通过引入4个过早终止密码子(premature termination codons,PTC)至WT流感病毒A/WSN/33(H1N1)中,产生一种活的但非生产性的减毒IAV,与先天免疫刺激剂CpG偶联后,得到IAV-CPG。然后使用点击化学将模型抗原卵清蛋白(Ovalbumin,OVA)共价显示在IAV-CPG上,即得CAP Flu。这种CAP Flu在PTC存在的情况下,会提前终止病毒的复制,证实了CAP Flu对宿主细胞的安全性。在黑色素瘤肺转移小鼠模型中将OVA与IAV结合的嵌合抗原肽流感病毒肺部鼻内给药后,观察到肿瘤部位免疫细胞的浸润增加。与单独的肽相比,这种构建体进行的疫苗接种不仅提高了对DC的抗原摄取,而且促进了抗原的持续时间和呈递,更重要的是,在体外和体内促进了DC激活和CD8+ T细胞的交叉启动68。所有实验数据都反映了将合成肽与编码PTC的病毒结合能够显著诱导先天和适应性免疫反应。工程IAV可以搭配任何感兴趣的肿瘤新抗原来产生癌症疫苗。作为一种病毒载体,CAP Flu在肺肿瘤中工程化制备表达抗程序性死亡受体-配体1(programmed cell death-ligand 1,PD-L1)后,进一步消除免疫抑制环境,协同提高抗癌效力,增强肺转移的消退,并延长了小鼠生存期[图3(b)],该方法为合成肽引导、肿瘤特异性和个性化免疫疗法提供了一种策略。治疗肺转移性黑色素瘤是一个具有挑战性的任务,目前的减毒流感病毒作为溶瘤病毒在癌症免疫治疗方面已崭露头角,但是依然需要更多的尝试,探索更有效的治疗策略,以提高溶瘤病毒的安全性和有效性,经得住临床癌症治疗的考验。
在肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma, HCC)中,抗原呈递效率低下,主要是因为抗肿瘤T细胞反应受到免疫检查点分子PD-1或PD-L1的抑制69-70。目前发现免疫检查点抑制后,出现的抑制反应较弱71,未有效激活肿瘤T细胞反应。溶瘤病毒治疗可以解决这个问题,这种治疗可以促进肿瘤内T细胞浸润,提高疗效72。这些效应可能由于在肿瘤组织内持续性刺激导致T细胞耗竭后,溶瘤病毒自身抗原位点由碱性亮氨酸拉链 ATF样转录因子3阳性(BATF3+)DC的募集增加,进行加工和呈递,而启动CD8+ T细胞73-74,促进了特异性免疫激活和/或免疫抑制肿瘤微环境的改变,激活T细胞反应74-75,从而增强了免疫检查点抑制的疗效。于是,有研究利用流感病毒反向遗传学方法,在A/Puerto Rico/8/34(PR8)病毒背景下开发了一种新型有效的分别在PB1和PA中表达PD-L1重链和轻链的流感病毒重组PD-L1抗体癌症免疫疗法——rgFlu/PD-L176,其可高选择性地杀死HCC细胞,对正常肝细胞无影响,且可以抑制HepG2细胞中PD-L1的表达并诱导肝癌细胞凋亡。gFlu/PD-L1在体内实验中触发肿瘤坏死,心、肝、脾、肺、肾和其他器官组织没有受到显著影响,因此,rgFlu/PD-L1治疗是安全的。rgFlu/PD-L1通过激活cGas STING途径增强DC和CD8+ T细胞的活性,以及它们对HCC的浸润,靶向肿瘤进行复制并杀伤,减少肿瘤的生长[图4(a)],说明rgFlu/PD-L1可用于HCC的治疗。这一机制为肝癌提供了一种新的免疫疗法76
鉴于癌症的异质性,为了获得针对广泛癌症的持久的、一致的治疗反应,可能需要更复杂的免疫调节剂或寻找新的免疫检查点来应对。细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关抗原4(cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4,CTLA4)是T细胞上的跨膜受体,是重要的免疫检查点之一77。因此,有研究创新性地开展嵌合CTLA4的溶瘤病毒研究,使用反向遗传学产生编码人CTLA4抗体的重组流感病毒,即rFlu-huCTLA4。利用A/PR/8/34 (PR8)病毒的PB1和PA病毒片段分别表达人CTLA4抗体的重链和轻链78。随后,在体外和体内观察rFlu-huCTLA4对HCC的溶瘤效果。在体外实验中发现rFlu-huCTLA4病毒以时间和剂量依赖的方式特异性地杀死肝癌细胞,而不会损害正常肝细胞系。在HepG2移植小鼠模型中rFlu-huCTLA4可以抑制肿瘤生长,且观察到小鼠的存活率有明显的提高[图4(b)]。在对照组小鼠的肿瘤部位未观察到明显的癌症细胞坏死,肝、肺组织也未见异常79,印证了rFlu-huCTLA4的安全性和溶瘤有效性。最近,Peter Palese研究团队80发现,表达拮抗免疫检查点CTLA4(IAV-CTLA4)的单链抗体的重组流感病毒也可以延缓小鼠黑色素瘤模型中的肿瘤。
除了免疫检查点联合溶瘤病毒可以有效地治疗肝癌外,在过去的二十年里,GM-CSF也是治疗肿瘤患者的关键点81。GM-CSF是由巨噬细胞、T细胞、肥大细胞、自然杀伤细胞、内皮细胞和成纤维细胞分泌的单体糖蛋白,其起到一种细胞因子的作用82,可以通过结合相应受体调节免疫细胞生长和分化,从而调控免疫应答。有研究者利用反向遗传学方法制备了在NS1基因片段中编码GM-CSF的重组PR8流感病毒,称为delNS1-GM-CSF,它利用截短的NS1病毒片段表达GM-CSF。重组病毒delNS1-GM-CSF在各种细胞系中复制良好,且以时间和剂量依赖的方式选择性地杀死各种HCC细胞系(SMMC7721、HepG2、MHCC97L和Huh7.5),而在正常肝细胞L02中观察到很少的细胞毒性。在皮下HepG2异种移植物裸鼠模型中发现在瘤内注射delNS1-GM-CSF五次后,与对照组相比,注射delNS1-GM-CSF对HCC模型中的肿瘤生长以剂量依赖性方式显著抑制。在HCC临床样本中也发现了其可以降低细胞活性[图4(c)]。结果表明,溶瘤性delNS1-GM-CSF病毒也可能是HCC患者的一种新的治疗方法83。上述研究“rgFlu/PD-L1、rFlu-huCTLA4、delNS1-GM-CSF”因其较好的溶瘤效果和增强的免疫刺激特性,为流感病毒溶瘤打下了坚实的基础。
随着反向遗传学和合成生物学的发展,已经探索了一些减毒策略来制备LAIV,如NS1截短疫苗。然而,目前并没有完全消除大众对LAIV安全性和快速生产的担忧。此外,季节性流感病毒抗原的持续漂移和转移导致的免疫逃逸,给传统的和减毒的流感疫苗效力带来了巨大挑战。考虑到流感病毒的副作用和快速传播的特性,使用新的策略来生产有效的疫苗仍然是当务之急。上述新兴减毒策略,蛋白质水解靶向嵌合病毒、条件复制型流感减毒活病毒、高干扰素敏感病毒、编码过早终止密码子的嵌合抗原肽流感病毒所构建的减毒病毒可给我们提供新的选择,并引发思考:如何利用新的酶解通路或利用内含肽自剪接技术,设计更新、更安全和更有效的流感病毒减毒活疫苗,达到预防流感或发挥高效的溶瘤作用?虽然流感病毒本身是危害人类身体健康的主要致病源,但经改造后具备作为溶瘤病毒的潜力,其不仅可以激活机体免疫杀伤肿瘤细胞,还可以作为载体安全递送外源基因,提高抗肿瘤靶向性,从而减少对正常组织损害的能力。不可避免的是,在对流感病毒进行基因改造或实验室操作过程中可能存在一些潜在生物安全风险84,我们需要对改造流感病毒的生物安全风险进行分析,综合考虑病原性和传播性、遗传改造的稳定性等因素。通过全面评估风险,并采取适当的措施来减轻风险,确保改造流感病毒研究和实验室操作的安全性。
当前的肿瘤治疗方法包括手术切除、放疗、化疗、免疫治疗、靶向治疗和个性化治疗等。在2018年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖颁发给了代表药物为PD1/PD-L1抗体的“肿瘤免疫疗法”后,越来越多的研究者聚焦于免疫治疗,如免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitors,ICI)治疗、CAR-T细胞疗法、肿瘤疫苗等85。由于溶瘤病毒治疗在溶瘤过程中,同免疫治疗一致,均诱导特异性抗肿瘤免疫,其在抗肿瘤过程中起着重要作用,因此溶瘤病毒治疗与免疫治疗联合使用有望进一步提高疗效。上述修饰后的流感病毒作为溶瘤病毒表现出较高的安全性和较强的溶瘤作用,将减毒流感病毒作为癌症免疫治疗手段有很大前景和发展空间。结合目前溶瘤病毒的不同病毒载体(如流感病毒、腺病毒等)和不同修饰策略(如上述的新型减毒策略),提示我们可以创新性地组装溶瘤病毒,未来可能会有多种副作用小、疗效高的溶瘤病毒疗法。
总之,尽管克服流感和治疗肿瘤都是复杂而艰巨的任务,但人类在流感病毒上的减毒或基因修饰等方面的探索,为流感病毒增加有效性和提高安全性方面取得了重要的进展。随着病毒调控和免疫增强基因元件的不断发掘,更加安全有效的病毒疫苗和溶瘤病毒将会被开发,为患者带来更好的生活质量和治疗效果。
  • 国家重点研发计划“合成生物学”重点专项(2018YFA0900804)
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2024年第5卷第2期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-078
  • 接收时间:2023-11-09
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-04-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-09
  • 修回日期:2024-02-22
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国家重点研发计划“合成生物学”重点专项(2018YFA0900804)
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    青岛大学药学院药物化学系,山东 青岛 266000

通讯作者:

董铭心(1978—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为抗病毒和神经系统小分子药物及疫苗。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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