Article(id=1148989445270987466, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-071, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1696608000000, receivedDateStr=2023-10-07, revisedDate=1710172800000, revisedDateStr=2024-03-12, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751870030944, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1714406400000, pubDateStr=2024-04-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751870030944, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751870030944, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751870030944, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148989441470952447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='2', pageStart='217', pageEnd='395', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751870030037, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057315553, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068078, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068079, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=294, endPage=309, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999702444961816, articleId=1148989445270987466, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Applications of vector vaccines developed through T-cell immune responses in preventing and treating human diseases, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Human diseases, especially infectious diseases and cancers, pose unprecedented challenges to public health and the global economy, making the development of preventive and therapeutic vaccines a top priority for addressing these challenges. Among all vaccines, vector vaccines that activate T cell immune responses have significant advantages. This article reviews the immunological principles of vector vaccines, strategies for designing T cell vector vaccines, and their research advances. T cells, upon infection, can differentiate into various effector T cell subsets that play a crucial role in clearing pathogens. Research on the functions and mechanisms of effector T cells is essential for designing vaccines that can elicit T cell-mediated immunity. Currently, the development of vaccines for many viruses such as HIV and HCMV as well as cancers focuses on T cell-based vaccines. Various vectors, including viral vectors, bacterial vectors, and nucleic acid vectors, exhibit excellent performance on antigen delivery capability, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy. In addition, this article summarizes strategies for designing T-cell vector vaccines, including identifying appropriate antigen presentation pathways and vector delivery routes, ensuring biological safety, selecting suitable vaccine vectors, and evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of various vector vaccines. Notably, mRNA vaccines have played a crucial role in addressing the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Technological advancements in vector vaccines are expected to accelerate the development of novel vaccines and enhance preparedness for emerging public health events. This review provides insights for the design of vector vaccines that are both safe and efficient. With advancements in vector vaccine technology and the progress of various interdisciplinary approaches, the next generation of vaccine development will continue to drive the evolution of vaccinology.

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人类疾病,特别是传染病和癌症,对公共卫生安全和全球经济构成前所未有的挑战。预防和治疗性疫苗的开发是应对人类疾病的优先对策。本文综述了疫苗载体的免疫学原理、T细胞载体疫苗设计策略及疫苗研究进展,为新型疫苗的设计提供新的思路。T细胞可以在机体发生感染后分化成不同的效应T细胞群,它们可以起到清除病原体的作用,关于效应T细胞功能和机制的研究对于设计能够引发基于T细胞免疫的疫苗至关重要。目前很多病毒(例如HIV、HCMV感染)和肿瘤疫苗的研发都侧重于T细胞类疫苗,在所有疫苗种类中,激活T细胞免疫反应的载体疫苗具有显著优势。许多来源的载体,包括病毒载体、细菌载体和核酸载体,它们在抗原提呈能力、免疫原性和保护效力方面都有良好的表现。此外,还总结了T细胞载体疫苗设计的策略,包括确定适当的抗原提呈途径和载体递送途径、确保生物安全性、如何选择合适的疫苗的载体、各种载体疫苗的优缺点等,尤其是mRNA疫苗在应对新冠疫情中发挥了重要的作用。疫苗载体的技术进步将会加速新型疫苗的研发,并且能促进人们对突发公共卫生事件的应对。

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王斌(1962—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为人类巨细胞病毒致神经损伤的分子机制和免疫学机制。E-mail:
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江莎莎(1995—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为人巨细胞病毒疫苗的设计和研发。E-mail:

王晨(1998—),男,硕士研究生。研究方向为人巨细胞病毒疫苗的设计和研发。E-mail:

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T细胞免疫反应载体疫苗在人类疾病预防和治疗中的应用
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江莎莎 1 , 王晨 1 , 路冉 2 , 刘俸君 3 , 李俊 1 , 王斌 1, 3
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(2): 294-309
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(2): 294-309
T细胞免疫反应载体疫苗在人类疾病预防和治疗中的应用
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江莎莎1 , 王晨1 , 路冉2, 刘俸君3, 李俊1, 王斌1, 3
作者信息
  • 1 青岛大学基础医学院,病原生物学系,山东 青岛 266000
  • 2 北京市朝阳区疾病预防控制中心,微生物检验科,北京 100021
  • 3 青岛大学基础医学院,特种医学系,山东 青岛 266000
  • 江莎莎(1995—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为人巨细胞病毒疫苗的设计和研发。E-mail:

    王晨(1998—),男,硕士研究生。研究方向为人巨细胞病毒疫苗的设计和研发。E-mail:

通讯作者:

王斌(1962—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为人类巨细胞病毒致神经损伤的分子机制和免疫学机制。E-mail:
Applications of vector vaccines developed through T-cell immune responses in preventing and treating human diseases
Shasha JIANG1 , Chen WANG1 , Ran LU2, Fengjun LIU3, Jun LI1, Bin WANG1, 3
Affiliations
  • 1 Department of Pathogenic Biology,School of Basic Medicine,Qingdao University,Qingdao 266000,Shandong,China
  • 2 Microbiological Laboratory,Chaoyang District Center for Disease Control and Prevention,Beijing 100021,China
  • 3 Department of Special Medicine,School of Basic Medicine,Qingdao University,Qingdao 266000,Shandong,China
出版时间: 2024-04-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-071
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人类疾病,特别是传染病和癌症,对公共卫生安全和全球经济构成前所未有的挑战。预防和治疗性疫苗的开发是应对人类疾病的优先对策。本文综述了疫苗载体的免疫学原理、T细胞载体疫苗设计策略及疫苗研究进展,为新型疫苗的设计提供新的思路。T细胞可以在机体发生感染后分化成不同的效应T细胞群,它们可以起到清除病原体的作用,关于效应T细胞功能和机制的研究对于设计能够引发基于T细胞免疫的疫苗至关重要。目前很多病毒(例如HIV、HCMV感染)和肿瘤疫苗的研发都侧重于T细胞类疫苗,在所有疫苗种类中,激活T细胞免疫反应的载体疫苗具有显著优势。许多来源的载体,包括病毒载体、细菌载体和核酸载体,它们在抗原提呈能力、免疫原性和保护效力方面都有良好的表现。此外,还总结了T细胞载体疫苗设计的策略,包括确定适当的抗原提呈途径和载体递送途径、确保生物安全性、如何选择合适的疫苗的载体、各种载体疫苗的优缺点等,尤其是mRNA疫苗在应对新冠疫情中发挥了重要的作用。疫苗载体的技术进步将会加速新型疫苗的研发,并且能促进人们对突发公共卫生事件的应对。

T细胞  /  疫苗载体  /  免疫  /  抗原提呈  /  传染病  /  肿瘤

Human diseases, especially infectious diseases and cancers, pose unprecedented challenges to public health and the global economy, making the development of preventive and therapeutic vaccines a top priority for addressing these challenges. Among all vaccines, vector vaccines that activate T cell immune responses have significant advantages. This article reviews the immunological principles of vector vaccines, strategies for designing T cell vector vaccines, and their research advances. T cells, upon infection, can differentiate into various effector T cell subsets that play a crucial role in clearing pathogens. Research on the functions and mechanisms of effector T cells is essential for designing vaccines that can elicit T cell-mediated immunity. Currently, the development of vaccines for many viruses such as HIV and HCMV as well as cancers focuses on T cell-based vaccines. Various vectors, including viral vectors, bacterial vectors, and nucleic acid vectors, exhibit excellent performance on antigen delivery capability, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy. In addition, this article summarizes strategies for designing T-cell vector vaccines, including identifying appropriate antigen presentation pathways and vector delivery routes, ensuring biological safety, selecting suitable vaccine vectors, and evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of various vector vaccines. Notably, mRNA vaccines have played a crucial role in addressing the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Technological advancements in vector vaccines are expected to accelerate the development of novel vaccines and enhance preparedness for emerging public health events. This review provides insights for the design of vector vaccines that are both safe and efficient. With advancements in vector vaccine technology and the progress of various interdisciplinary approaches, the next generation of vaccine development will continue to drive the evolution of vaccinology.

T cells  /  vaccine carrier  /  immunization  /  antigen presentation  /  infectious diseases  /  tumor
江莎莎, 王晨, 路冉, 刘俸君, 李俊, 王斌. T细胞免疫反应载体疫苗在人类疾病预防和治疗中的应用. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (2) : 294 -309 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-071
Shasha JIANG, Chen WANG, Ran LU, Fengjun LIU, Jun LI, Bin WANG. Applications of vector vaccines developed through T-cell immune responses in preventing and treating human diseases[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (2) : 294 -309 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-071
研发新型预防和治疗性疫苗是控制人类疾病的有效方法。疫苗的发明是人类与微生物战争的转折点。尽管卫生条件的改善和全新治疗方法的应用挽救了更多生命,但疫苗仍然是历史上最具成本效益的卫生干预措施。就目前的研究进展来看,我们机体的免疫系统已经可以由不同的效应T细胞亚群来发挥不同形式的免疫反应去抵抗不同病原体感染。就辅助T细胞来讲,其中的Th1、Th2和Th17亚群可有效防止不同的病原体感染,比如细胞内病原体需要Th1驱动的CTL,而蠕虫和真菌感染分别由Th2和Th17反应控制。另外滤泡辅助T细胞(TFH细胞)能够产生白细胞介素21(IL-21)并帮助B细胞分化和记忆B细胞产生1-2。CD8+ T细胞能分化成效应T细胞,在组织中循环或驻留,同时还为包括黏膜组织等在内的免疫组织提供良好的保护,以避免感染。记忆CD4+和CD8+ T细胞又可以细分成中央记忆细胞和效应记忆细胞,每一种亚群都发挥不同的作用3。通过接种水痘病毒疫苗诱导机体产生的持续性水痘特异性T细胞,可以保护儿童和老年人免受感染和带状疱疹的再激活4-5。此外,面临HIV感染、巨细胞病毒感染、流感、肺结核和疟疾,都需要强大的T细胞反应来保护机体6-9。这些例子都很好地说明了T细胞的免疫应答在机体抗感染等方面发挥着至关重要的作用,因此在疫苗研发方面T细胞的功能及其免疫学机制是不可或缺的重要因素。
T细胞也是重要的效应性免疫细胞,在启动高度协调的分化程序后,负责诱导病毒转化或恶性细胞的细胞死亡10-11。能够活化T细胞且能诱导抗感染功能的抗原分子,需要符合两个要求:由抗原提呈细胞(APC)加工提呈;由主要组织相容性复合体(MHC)分子识别和结合12-14。T细胞的两个重要亚群,CD4+ T细胞和CD8+ T细胞,各自识别的抗原肽分子之间有较大的差别,其原因与抗原多肽的起源和分子成分相关。CD8+ T细胞最初在次级淋巴器官中与携带同源多肽表位的成熟APC相遇时,通过CD8+ T细胞表面的TCR/CD3复合物和相关的接头,以及通过CD28、SLAM等共刺激分子来整合和积累信号15。这种最初的“启动”刺激被来自APC的旁分泌细胞因子信号,例如白细胞介素12(IL-12)或Ⅰ型干扰素(IFN-Ⅰ),旁分泌和自分泌IL-2信号所增强,并允许T细胞启动快速而广泛的分裂和分化程序16-20。CD4+ T细胞主要以识别外源性分子为主,外源性分子肽在进入APC后,在其核内体上被加工,然后再与MHCⅡ结合形成抗原肽-MHCⅡ复合物后,在APC上被CD4+ T细胞识别21-23。所以了解MHC的结合特性和T细胞的识别特性对于探索T细胞类疫苗的作用机理至关重要。高效的T细胞类疫苗的前提必须是:可以让APC自我内化;可以被处理为正确的多肽序列;对MHCⅡ类分子具有适当的亲和性1013
载体疫苗能够将异源抗原递送到MHCⅠ类限制性抗原加工途径中24。其目的是产生针对来自病毒株或共有的肿瘤抗原之间高度保守的蛋白质的免疫反应,从而对不同个体中出现的病毒和肿瘤具有广泛保护作用。尽管可以直接将蛋白质引入MHCⅠ类加工途径,像乙型肝炎表面抗原颗粒24。但最近的研究表明,将编码抗原的基因递送到细胞中效果更加显著,相关表位肽可以由MHCⅠ提呈,包括直接细胞转染以及使用载体(例如病毒载体、细菌和质粒DNA)。
有研究表明,CTL与流感病毒株具有交叉反应性,人们感染了流感病毒株,无论他们是否有针对该病毒的预先存在的抗体,体内含有CTL的人没有表现出明显症状,并且研究发现,从这些人体分离的CTL能够杀死感染了流感病毒的细胞。人类记忆CTL也被发现对不同的病毒株有效。这些细胞反应中的某些是针对在不同毒株之间保守的表位。这指出载体开发和使用必须找到以产生CTL和适当的T辅助细胞反应的方式递送抗原的方法,并且能够仅递送所需的关键抗原,仅利用某些蛋白质甚至表位将免疫反应集中在关键保守区域,这些可以通过使用载体疫苗实现。早期的疫苗设计是基于整个生物体,例如牛痘和卡介苗,后来的疫苗开发将注意力转移到关键蛋白质上,例如白喉毒素、破伤风毒素和乙型肝炎表面抗原。这些关键蛋白质是抗体反应的基本靶标。因此,载体可用于递送特定的抗原,并且可以递送基因或蛋白抗原,从而产生长效持久的免疫应答。
有研究表明,不同的载体和递送模式会刺激不同的辅助性T细胞反应。辅助性T细胞反应的类型不仅影响免疫反应的类型,而且可能在限制疾病进展方面发挥重要作用。因此,人们加大了开发特定载体的力度,不仅要产生特定的CTL和抗体反应,还要促进辅助性T细胞的类型(即Th1或Th2)。
基于T细胞的载体疫苗的成功取决于两种类型的T细胞:CD8+ T细胞和CD4+ T细胞。CD8+ T细胞通过识别和杀死受感染的细胞并分泌抗病毒细胞因子来限制感染,通常被称为细胞毒性T细胞(CTL)。CD4+ T细胞为CD8+ T细胞的产生和维持提供生长因子和信号,被称为辅助性T细胞(TH)。基于T细胞的载体疫苗的优势在于能够杀死携带慢性感染因子的细胞,杀伤是亲和依赖性的,需要CD8+ T细胞与其靶细胞直接接触数分钟至1小时,之后CD8+ T细胞保持完整以进行进一步杀伤,而靶细胞则发生凋亡性死亡。活化的T细胞也产生细胞因子和趋化因子,这些细胞因子和趋化因子可在高度感染特异性机制中发挥作用,从而干扰微生物的传播或复制。T细胞识别来自外源蛋白的肽,这些肽被加工并提呈到接种疫苗的动物或人的组织相容性抗原上。CD8+ T细胞识别由主要组织相容性复合体MHCⅠ类抗原提呈8~11个氨基酸长的肽(表位)。CD4+ T细胞识别MHCⅡ类组织相容性抗原提呈10~18氨基酸表位。人类或动物群体的每个成员只识别那些由MHC分子提呈的抗原表位25
腺病毒属于腺病毒科的非包膜双链DNA病毒,具有广泛的宿主来源,可分为各种血清型26-27。它们的基因组范围为26~45 kb,同时诱导哺乳动物的先天性和适应性免疫反应28-29。当腺病毒感染宿主细胞时,在被感染细胞的细胞质中产生编码的抗原。然后,该抗原的表位在细胞的MHCⅠ类分子上表达,启动CD8+ T细胞的应答。感染细胞死亡后,抗原和其他免疫原的残留物也被释放,并随后被其他巨噬细胞摄取。这通过外源性抗原处理途径使抗原表位呈现在MHCⅡ类分子上,从而启动CD4+ T细胞的应答30。腺病毒载体可以诱导强烈的CD8+ T细胞反应,而对CD4+ T细胞反应的诱导较少31
腺病毒载体通常可分为复制性腺病毒(replication competent adenoviruses,RCAd)载体和复制缺陷性(非复制性)腺病毒(replication defective adenoviruses,RDAd)载体32,其中非复制性腺病毒载体一直是疫苗开发的主要焦点,因为人们担心在免疫缺陷个体中使用具有复制能力的腺病毒,以及人类腺病毒株的动物致癌性33-34。因此可以通过删除早期1(E1)区域来呈现具有复制缺陷的病毒。早期3(E3)基因缺失不影响病毒复制,可以删除该区域扩大转基因插入的能力3135。它的优势在于能避免DNA的复制,缺乏与宿主细胞基因组进行有效整合的能力。这种病毒能够感染多种细胞,包括分裂和非分裂细胞,如肺细胞和脑细胞等。此外,它被纯化到高滴度的水平相对容易。然而,其主要劣势在于针对宿主的高免疫原性,这在需要使用非常高剂量的载体才能达到预期效果的情况下,也引发了疫苗安全性的问题36-37
AdV载体成熟,易于操作,适合快速制备来自人类、猿猴和禽类的载体疫苗。目前针对新冠病毒和埃博拉病毒的腺病毒载体疫苗已被批准上市。
自2019年12月发现SARS-CoV-2以来,抗SARS-CoV-2疫苗的研发进展迅猛。我国研制的首个进入临床试验并获批上市的新冠重组腺病毒载体COVID-19(Ad5-nCoV)疫苗由军事医学科学院研发。该疫苗采用复制缺陷型HAdV5作为载体,表达新型冠状病毒(SARS-CoV-2)的刺突(S)蛋白。在接种28天后,对有症状新冠感染的保护效力达到57.5%,对重症新冠的保护效力为91.7%38-40
痘病毒是最大的包膜DNA病毒。在20世纪80年代,通过接种牛痘病毒(VACV)成功根除天花41-44。在同一时期,VACA作为转基因表达载体应用。痘病毒是第一批被研究作为抗原编码载体的病毒,这是因为研究人员发现牛痘病毒是一种高度免疫原性的载体,能够产生T细胞介导的细胞免疫。接种牛痘病毒后,感染的抗原提呈细胞(APC)迅速迁移到淋巴结,达到峰值后迅速下降,6小时内达到峰值。因此,人们得出结论,早期抗原表达是必不可少的,但对于CD8+ T细胞(CTL)来说,与抗原的短暂接触足以促使其增殖。感染的巨噬细胞还可能为CD8+ T细胞反应的交叉引导和产生CD4+ T细胞反应提供抗原的来源。因此,痘病毒能够引起适应性细胞介导的免疫应答45-47
几个独特的特征使痘病毒重组体成为疫苗载体的优秀候选者:①冻干疫苗的稳定性高,成本低,易于制造和施用;②基因表达的细胞质位点;③基因组的包装灵活性,这允许大量基因组丢失或缺失,并允许外源DNA整合(至少25 kb)而不丧失感染性;④在单次接种后诱导针对外源抗原的抗体和细胞毒性T细胞应答,具有持久的免疫力;⑤具有广泛的临床前和临床经验。由于天花疫苗接种在20世纪70年代天花根除后中断,接种过天花疫苗的人群患病率下降,但在天花根除计划期间在幼儿和免疫功能低下的个体中观察到的并发症引起了对重新引入VACV作为免疫剂的安全性的担忧48。第三代痘病毒载体包括李斯特氏菌克隆16m8(LC16m8)、M65、M101、改良牛痘病毒安卡拉(MVA)以及几种减毒禽痘病毒49-50
MVA通过在鸡胚上传代570代而高度衰减。由于病毒组装的阻断,MVA不会产生传染性后代,同时在大多数哺乳动物细胞中保持强大的DNA复制和抗原表达能力51。其中,MVA-572、MVA-I721和MVA-BN在编码区共享100%相同的核苷酸序列,同时表现出显著不同的表型。MVA-BN表现出比其他两种菌株更好的安全性和免疫原性52。MVA是一种优秀的第三代天花疫苗,在德国已有超过120万人接种了疫苗53。MVA-VLP HIV候选疫苗在500人的临床试验中显示出出色的安全性,受试者包括免疫功能低下的个体和HIV患者54-55。重组MVA具有遗传稳定性,易于修饰,安全性高,与其他病毒载体疫苗(如AdV载体疫苗)联合使用显示出良好的免疫原性,这些特性使MVA成为一种有前途的疫苗载体56-57
埃博拉病毒于1976年被发现以来,在感染人群中的致死率为25%~90%。目前世界上获得批准的有效抗埃博拉病毒药物较少,因此疫苗是防治埃博拉病毒的有效手段58。目前埃博拉痘病毒载体疫苗是以联合免疫的方式出现的,使用重组腺病毒载体Ad26.ZEBOV或重组痘病毒载体MVA-BN-Filo进行免疫接种未显示与疫苗相关的严重不良反应。使用Ad26.ZEBOV进行初次免疫后观察到免疫反应;MVA-BN-Filo的加强免疫可促进埃博拉糖蛋白特异性免疫力的持续升高59-60
自反向遗传学系统建立以来,水疱性口炎病毒(VSV)载体已被用于开发生物测定以研究许多不同的病原体61-63。最近,FDA批准第一种基于VSV的重组疫苗用于人类,为未来使用该平台的治疗方法铺平了道路64-65。研究发现,水疱性口炎病毒载体疫苗平台的优势包括:①高效且稳定表达外源蛋白,有助于对生物安全等级要求较高的病原体进行研究;②病毒基因组复制组装在细胞质内完成,无与宿主基因重组的风险;③基因组简单易于修饰,可插入一个或多个抗原基因组;④人体预存免疫低,无针对病毒载体的预存免疫问题,具有一定的自限性;⑤诱导强效的体液免疫和细胞免疫应答;⑥泛宿主嗜性,可迅速培养产生高滴度病毒。因此,VSV作为病毒载体疫苗候选分子具有较大潜力66-69
虽然水疱性口炎病毒作为疫苗载体具有显著的优势,但在其作为疫苗载体的应用中仍存在一些问题:①重组水疱性口炎病毒拯救困难,这是因为重组病毒的包装过程中包装效率低、稳定性差,需要进行复杂的包装体系优化实验,增加了实验的烦琐程度并导致成本较高;②活病毒载体安全性需要提高,由于VSV在用作活病毒载体时存在一定的安全风险,例如神经毒性、VSV-G抗原引起的免疫反应等,因此需要进一步提高VSV疫苗的安全性,以便在人群中广泛使用70-72。VSV作为一种工具载体具有多种应用。一种常见的用途是作为假病毒的载体,这些假病毒已被用于病毒中和测定、替代攻击病毒以及外来糖蛋白介导附着和进入的研究73-74。VSV-G的糖蛋白也因其稳定性、广泛的组织和宿主嗜性而在其他病毒中应用75。具体而言,VSV-G已被用于生产稳定的逆转录病毒和慢病毒,具有更好的转导效果,适用于各种应用,如基因治疗76。VSV-G的另一个用途是制备病毒体(基本上是VSV-G包被的囊泡),用于将抗体和DNA等多种治疗药物直接递送到细胞中77
VSV作为疫苗载体除了VSV稳定表达外源基因的能力外,该病毒作为疫苗载体也是有利的,因为它通常不会引起人类疾病,其在组织培养中能快速复制且具有高滴度,可以有效地刺激机体产生强烈的细胞和体液免疫反应78-80。大多数疫苗策略使用VSV作为有复制能力的载体,一方面通过将外源基因插入VSV基因组,另一方面用外来糖蛋白替换天然VSV-G,该载体已被用于开发各种实验性疫苗,包括针对肺结核、HIV以及埃博拉病毒(EBOV)的疫苗81-83
VSV是最早用于构建活载体病毒HIV疫苗的RNA病毒84。近年Profectus生物公司和美国国家过敏和传染病研究所开发了一种改造过的高度减毒的VSV-HIV Gag疫苗85。临床试验结果显示无疫苗相关的严重不良反应,所有受试者接受第二次免疫后VSV血清反应阳性,最高剂量受试组在加强免疫后,检测到63%的受试者有Gag特异的T细胞免疫应答86-87
水疱性口炎病毒已被证明是针对病毒感染进行免疫接种的有效疫苗载体,有研究表明VSV的鼻内递送激活了CD4和CD8特异性T细胞反应88。并且,可以增加由重组腺病毒载体疫苗引发的特异性T细胞反应,从而在预防和治疗中增强其效果。VSV也可有效启动和增强针对自身肿瘤抗原的免疫反应89。VSV作为重组癌症疫苗载体,当载体和肿瘤同时表达外来抗原时,可以诱导抗肿瘤T细胞反应。此外,VSV引导的细胞毒性T细胞反应能够迅速得到增强,这对于治疗疗程较短的疾病具有一定的潜力90
细菌作为疫苗载体可以通过口服途径发挥作用,例如沙门氏菌、志贺氏菌和某些分枝杆菌,如牛分枝杆菌91-93。值得注意的是,使用减毒细菌作为疫苗载体,或者细菌可用于在病毒启动子的控制下递送编码抗原的质粒,可以使受感染的宿主细胞产生细菌的蛋白质。因此,细菌载体的免疫学原理是细胞内细菌可以将抗原或质粒递送到细胞中以产生抗原,随后将抗原引入MHCⅠ类处理途径从而产生体液和细胞免疫反应。有趣的是,在对沙门氏菌载体的研究中,该载体作为递送编码抗原的质粒,使用原核系统表达抗原有利于载体免疫原性的保留94。口服细菌疫苗载体的一个潜在问题是异源基因如果存在于质粒上,可能会转移到其他细菌95,因此,使用细菌分泌的蛋白作为疫苗载体是一种良好的选择。例如白喉棒状杆菌分泌的白喉毒素,在蛋白的52个氨基酸的位置处进行单个突变,用谷氨酸代替甘氨酸,导致天然毒素的ADP-核糖基转移酶活性丧失。突变后的白喉毒素蛋白(CRM197)具有良好的安全性而且保留了免疫原性,被广泛用作结合疫苗的载体蛋白。例如肺炎球菌结合疫苗,该疫苗将肺炎球菌多糖抗原与CRM197载体以共价结合的方式制备,并于2000年被FDA批准上市。CRM197具有EGF受体肝素结合表皮生长因子样生长因子(HB-EGF)的结合位点,是EGF家族的成员96。由于这种受体在癌细胞上过度表达,因此使用CRM197作为抗癌疗法具有良好的前景97。癌症免疫治疗公司Imugene报告了当使用CRM197作为载体蛋白,可以作为一种免疫疗法针对HER2的B细胞肽癌症,使其抗体滴度显著改善98。CRM197作为潜在的疫苗载体用于研发针对HCMV的T细胞疫苗,目前正在对其进行评估99。该研究表明,CRM197-肽疫苗可以激活巨噬细胞表面的Toll样受体,通过激活TLR4和NF-κB信号通路介导先天免疫反应,促进巨噬细胞表面标志物MHCⅠ、MHCⅡ、CD40、CD80和CD86的表达并分泌TNF-α、IL-6、IL-1β和IL-12p70等促炎细胞因子,从而激活先天免疫应答。巨噬细胞表面的MHC-肽抗原复合物被T细胞识别,诱导CD8 T细胞分泌TNF-α、IFN-γ和IL-2,CD4 T细胞分泌IFN-γ、IL-2和IL-4,以及Th1型HCMV特异性IgG2a抗体的分泌。肽-MHC复合物被巨噬细胞吞噬并提呈给Th1细胞。受刺激的Th1细胞分泌的IFN-γ可以进一步激发巨噬细胞并引发M1样极化。CRM197载体上的多个表位重复可以产生强大的抗HCMV特异性体液和细胞免疫。因此CRM197载体偶联多肽疫苗可能是一种抗HCMV的有效候选疫苗(图1100
以细菌为提呈载体的载体疫苗有较多的优势,例如:靶细胞可将携带外源基因的细菌载体内化;细菌可保护外源DNA不被核酸酶降解;不需要扩增重组质粒和纯化过程,大大降低劳动力和成本;多数细菌载体疫苗可通过口服或鼻饲的方式免疫,减轻应激反应;细菌菌株培养方便,耗时短。但在免疫过程中仍有诸多不足之处,例如:免疫效率低;具有一定免疫抗原耐受;减毒的细菌在免疫后可能会出现毒力返强现象,危害机体健康101-103
质粒DNA被发现可以直接转染到动物体内引起免疫反应,为生产疫苗开辟了一种新的方法,这种方法的优势在于其步骤(构建质粒,然后纯化)简单,相较于基因工程的亚单位疫苗过程要简单得多104。DNA代表了一种可用于在体内持久表达转基因的载体,在大型动物模型和人类中,由于基因转移效率低或可复制性差导致取得的效果有限,与小鼠相比,DNA疫苗在大型动物和人类中引起的免疫反应明显较弱,因此其已被定期评估为疫苗载体。有几种方法可以改善DNA疫苗的抗原表达和免疫原性,包括:通过优化质粒骨架中的转录原件来提高抗原表达水平;提高目的基因的蛋白表达;通过加入免疫调节佐剂来提高免疫原性;使用下一代递送策略。然而,最近的几项研究表明,用重组DNA对患者进行疫苗接种代表了一种可行的治疗干预措施,甚至可以治愈宫颈癌,突出了使用DNA进行人类疫苗接种的潜力105。将表达了T细胞识别表位的小基因的质粒进行了转染,从而使疫苗起到活化T细胞的作用。DNA疫苗在技术上具有多重优点,既能引发对各种年龄动物的长期免疫反应,又安全稳定。
DNA疫苗的一般作用机制包括在宿主体内递送一个或多个目的基因,目的是在体内表达抗原。这些抗原的成功表达会诱导疫苗接种者的免疫反应。DNA疫苗的作用机制可以解释为三个主要阶段:抗原的摄取、产生、加工以及提呈。
接种DNA疫苗后,质粒必须被宿主细胞内化以启动抗原表达。然后使用宿主细胞自身的蛋白质表达机制产生抗原:一旦DNA质粒进入宿主细胞,它们必须转运到细胞核以确保其转录。DNA在细胞质或细胞质囊泡内自由移动,并通过核孔进入细胞核。在细胞核内,质粒作为编码抗原转录、翻译和最终表达的模板。 然后,宿主细胞表达的抗原会经历翻译后修饰。根据表达抗原的性质,它们可以作为可溶性蛋白在细胞外分泌,触发细胞内炎症途径,或提呈在主要组织相容性复合物(MHC)上。因此,DNA疫苗编码的产物可以触发先天性和适应性免疫系统的激活。DNA编码的抗原被认为遵循四种主要的抗原加工途径来启动免疫激活:①MHC-Ⅰ分子提呈的内源性抗原的加工;②MHC-Ⅱ分子提呈的内源性抗原的加工;③MHC-Ⅱ分子提呈的外源性抗原的加工;④外源性抗原的加工导致MHC-Ⅰ分子交叉提呈。尽管这些途径依赖于不同的机制来处理DNA编码的抗原,但最终都会导致抗原亚产物提呈给淋巴细胞以启动免疫反应。此外,这些途径不是相互排斥的,可以独立和/或在同一细胞内同时发生。然而,其中一些机制需要存在某些条件才能激活。例如,处理外源性抗原的机制只有在体细胞转染时才有可能。同样,这些途径的激活需要 DNA编码抗原的内化,这些抗原是在细胞外分泌的,然后APC将抗原直接提呈给幼稚T细胞。在这种情况下,抗原在APC中内源性表达,在胞质溶胶中分解成更小的肽,然后装载到细胞内质网中的MHC-Ⅰ分子上。该途径称为经典途径,被认为是具有细胞毒性活性的CD8+ T细胞活化的关键来源。或者,在细胞内体中降解的内源性抗原由MHC-Ⅱ分子提呈。体细胞的转染可能导致抗原作为可溶性蛋白的细胞外分泌或导致它们在细胞死亡时释放。这些外源性抗原通过吞噬溶酶体内化,被蛋白酶破坏,并加载到吞噬体区室内的 MHC-Ⅱ分子上,然后再转移到细胞表面。APC对这些外源抗原的摄取,不仅可以通过在MHCⅡ类分子上显示抗原来触发CD4+ T细胞的活化,还可以通过与活化的B细胞的直接相互作用来促进特异性抗体反应的诱导。最后,交叉提呈途径中,外源抗原可通过胞质内、体内低pH环境或通过吞噬溶酶体相关蛋白酶的作用被降解。由于DNA疫苗能够在转染细胞中内源性表达抗原,因此能够诱导细胞和体液免疫反应。然而,特定疫苗引发的免疫反应类型取决于编码抗原的处理和提呈环境。例如,旨在引发细胞介导的免疫的DNA疫苗偏向于1型辅助性T细胞(Th1)的诱导,需要实现负载有细胞间来源抗原的MHC-Ⅰ分子的显示。相反,为了实现抗体介导的免疫诱导,偏向于激活2型辅助性T细胞(Th2),细胞内抗原的表达是不够的,也需要抗原分泌来促进负载内源性抗原的MHC-Ⅱ分子的提呈106
肿瘤DNA疫苗是在其他几种肿瘤疫苗与核酸技术基础上发展起来的。明确定位肿瘤抗原并确定编码该抗原的DNA序列是疫苗研制的核心。许多肿瘤DNA疫苗采用的基因是重组亚单位蛋白疫苗的编码序列,但DNA疫苗更为灵活,因为它能够组合多种基因和共刺激分子以提高免疫效果,因此成为肿瘤防治的重要途径。目前已成功研制出用于乳腺癌、卵巢癌等的DNA疫苗。最新研究中,14例乳腺癌患者接受了乳腺珠蛋白-A(MAM-A)DNA疫苗治疗,初步研究显示该疫苗能够诱导CD8+ T细胞反应,延长转移性乳腺癌患者的PFS107
近年来,mRNA疫苗崭露头角,尤其在新冠疫情防控中表现出色,受到广泛的关注。1961年,Brenner等108-109首次发现了mRNA,它是将基因表达为蛋白质所必需的关键中间分子,包含与氨基酸相对应的密码子信息。1990年,Wolff等110首次证明,通过将编码相应蛋白质的纯RNA对小鼠进行肌内注射,可以在体内有效表达特定蛋白质,这项工作还提出了mRNA疫苗的概念。2020年,FDA批准了辉瑞BioNTech/BNT162b2和Moderna/mRNA-1273生产的两种基于mRNA的疫苗,用于预防COVID-19111-112。这激发了人们对mRNA疫苗研发的热情,并为mRNA癌症疫苗的突破带来了希望。2023年10月2日,瑞典卡罗林斯卡医学院诺贝尔奖委员会宣布,匈牙利科学家Katalin Karikó和美国科学家Drew Weissman荣获2023年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖,以表彰他们在mRNA技术碱基修饰方面的突破。mRNA疫苗研究所面对的难题就是mRNA不稳定。注射入人体之后,免疫系统会将mRNA分子视为非己物质,对其实施攻击,使其降解,mRNA所携带的信息根本无法有效地传递,导致体内无法产生相应的蛋白113。RNA的组成为腺嘌呤(A)、尿嘧啶(U)、鸟嘌呤(G)和胞嘧啶(C)四种碱基,哺乳动物细胞中RNA的核苷酸碱基经常被化学修饰,而体外转录合成的mRNA则没有。正是由于此差别,才导致免疫系统能够清晰地识别外源的mRNA。2005年,Karikó和Weissman发现114,将外源的mRNA进行一些特殊的修饰(如m5c、m6A、m5U、s2U或使用假尿苷替代尿苷)之后免疫系统就失去了监视能力,即便面对这些外源的mRNA,也不会出现免疫反应。该发现使得针对新型冠状病毒的mRNA疫苗得以成功研发。在新冠疫情爆发之前,mRNA疫苗技术一直专注于肿瘤治疗性疫苗研究领域,并且有一定的进展,这为新型冠状病毒mRNA疫苗的研发和应用奠定了基础115
迄今为止,研究人员已使用mRNA作为疫苗平台,例如,流感病毒、人类免疫缺陷病毒、冠状病毒、寨卡病毒、结核分枝杆菌和癌症116-121。mRNA疫苗与DNA和病毒载体携带基因插入和感染引起突变的风险不同,mRNA进入细胞质后可以直接翻译成蛋白质122。因此,mRNA疫苗是非整合性、非传染性且耐受性良好的疫苗。mRNA可以编码抗原和免疫调节分子以诱导和调节适应性和先天免疫反应,并且可以通过以下方式呈现编码的包含多个表位的全长抗原MHCⅠ类和Ⅱ类分子123-124。体外转录mRNA的生产不需要细胞,可防止蛋白质或病毒污染,并可以快速、经济地大规模生产115125-126。mRNA癌症疫苗利用编码肿瘤抗原或免疫调节分子的mRNA来递送相应的蛋白质,结合相关的递送载体和佐剂,诱导抗肿瘤反应127。IL-2是参与T细胞分化、增殖、发挥效应的关键细胞因子,已被批准用于黑色素瘤和肾细胞癌的治疗,其限制在于半衰期短、优先刺激调节性T细胞(Treg细胞)。研究者将编码IL-2的mRNA疫苗与编码IL-7的mRNA疫苗结合,观察到该疗法中IL-2半衰期延长,实验动物小鼠体内CD8+ T细胞数量相对增高128-129
mRNA疫苗不仅能像灭活疫苗一样激活以CD4+ T细胞为主的外源性免疫反应途径,而且还能激活大量涉及CD8+ T细胞的内源性免疫反应途径,从而激活效应性和记忆CD8+ T细胞130。除此之外,mRNA疫苗还可以激活APC。mRNA进入APC细胞质后可以翻译许多目的蛋白片段,从而激活MHCⅠ类分子介导的内源性抗原加工提呈途径131。mRNA疫苗可以在人体内合成,因此具有两个独特的优点:一是可以减少直接注射病毒蛋白引起的不良反应;二是mRNA疫苗可通过PCR快速扩增,在体内诱导目的抗原,这样可以节省疫苗研发的时间和资金132
在早期的研究中,mRNA受到许多疫苗研究者的关注,因为其表现优于亚单位疫苗和减毒活疫苗,可较好地诱导体液和细胞免疫应答。同时,由于mRNA存在于细胞质中,不会发生随机整合基因组的风险,因此从疫苗应用的角度来看具有较高的安全性。但由于mRNA通常不稳定且易被酶降解,导致其在疫苗研发及应用中的局限性,因此需要对mRNA的结构进行一定的优化以增强其稳定性。因为mRNA的不稳定性及转染效率低等原因,在既往的应用研究中,科学家们并不认为其是理想的、可进行临床推广使用的疫苗。近年来,随着生物技术的发展,通过结构改造和递送载体平台优化等,在很大程度上解决了mRNA存在的稳定性差和转染效率低等问题,逐步展现了mRNA疫苗的一些独特优点133
mRNA递送是mRNA作为疫苗的重要一环。脂质纳米颗粒(lipid nanoparticles,LNP)是最有前途和最常用的RNA递送系统之一。LNP使用精确的磷脂摩尔比配制,可增强气相性并增加内体逃逸,此外还具有保护mRNA分子不被TLR识别、避免先天免疫过度激活的作用134。基于LNP的疫苗载体递送的mRNA仅通过内吞作用进入细胞形成内体。在内体的酸性环境中,可电离脂质的头部被质子化为阳离子状态,阳离子和内体膜中天然存在的阴离子磷脂产生离子对,其离子对的面积小于膜融合前单个可电离脂质头部面积的总和,从而促进了膜的融合和破坏,使mRNA从内体中逸出135。mRNA被核糖体翻译成蛋白质,用作内源性抗原,并被蛋白酶体降解为抗原肽,通过MHC分子提呈给CD8+ T细胞、通过Ⅰ类分子途径激活细胞介导的免疫反应,从而构成mRNA疫苗的关键优势。此外,基于mRNA翻译的蛋白质可以分泌到细胞外环境中,从而进入循环系统被APC摄取。抗原肽作为外源性抗原通过MHCⅡ类分子提呈给CD4+ T细胞,通过分泌细胞因子和诱导相应的抗原特异性B细胞活化、增殖分化为浆细胞产生特异性抗体,发挥体液免疫作用(ADCC、调理作用和激活补体等)136
2022年7月,猴痘病毒的全球流行使得世界卫生组织将其定义为国际关注的突发公共卫生事件。由于mRNA疫苗相较于传统疫苗具有更好的免疫保护效果,使得猴痘病毒mRNA疫苗的研发成为一大热点137。杨晓明等138成功研发了全球首款猴痘mRNA疫苗,这也是世界上第一个有效针对猴痘的mRNA疫苗。该研究开发了三种编码猴痘病毒蛋白A35R和M1R的mRNA疫苗,包括A35R细胞外结构域-M1R融合(VGPox1和VGPox2),以及用于A35R和M1R全长mRNA的混合物(VGPox3)。这种新型的猴痘mRNA疫苗具有三个优点:一针疫苗即可获得有效的抗猴痘免疫反应;只含两种关键的病毒抗原,就具有显著的免疫反应;免疫反应出现较早,动物试验证明在给药后7天,即可产生早期免疫反应上述研究结果表明,VGPox系列疫苗增强了免疫原性,可以作为目前全病毒疫苗的可行替代方案来预防猴痘139
疫苗载体的原理是多种多样的:产生特定类型的免疫反应,包括CTL和特定类型的辅助T细胞,将抗原靶向某些细胞,以及诱导天然免疫应答和适应性免疫应答。
病毒载体疫苗是一种利用病毒作为载体,将目标病原体的基因插入病毒基因组,通过病毒传递基因来诱导免疫反应的疫苗。其中,腺病毒(AdV)、痘病毒(VACV)、水疱性口炎病毒(VSV)是常用的载体。在设计病毒载体疫苗时,考虑到腺病毒的免疫反应迅速而高效,尤其在感染初期引发免疫细胞产生促炎细胞因子。非复制性腺病毒载体通常通过删除早期区域(如E1和E3基因),以避免复制和提高安全性。腺病毒疫苗已被成功用于新冠病毒和埃博拉病毒的疫苗开发。痘病毒是最大的包膜DNA病毒,具有稳定性好和易于制备的优势。痘病毒载体在疫苗领域得到广泛应用,尤其是MVA,它经过高度衰减,不会产生传染性后代,同时保持强大的DNA复制和抗原表达能力。痘病毒载体已成功用于天花疫苗和其他疫苗的研发,展现了良好的安全性和免疫原性。水疱性口炎病毒(VSV)作为疫苗载体具有减弱的复制能力和高持久性的抗体水平。它被广泛用于病毒中和测定和基因治疗。VSV作为疫苗载体,通过插入外源基因和替代表面糖蛋白,已成功用于开发针对多种病原体的实验性疫苗,包括肺结核、HIV和埃博拉病毒等。
细菌载体疫苗利用细菌作为传递基因的载体,通过口服或质粒递送编码抗原,诱导宿主细胞产生抗原,引发免疫反应。常用细菌如沙门氏菌、志贺氏菌和白喉棒状杆菌。白喉毒素突变体CRM197被广泛用于疫苗开发,表现出良好的安全性和免疫原性。细菌载体疫苗具有易于制备、口服途径等优势,但仍存在免疫效率低、抗原耐受等挑战。
DNA疫苗,通过直接将质粒DNA转染到动物体内引起免疫反应,相较于传统方法具有简便的优势。尽管DNA疫苗在大型动物和人类中的免疫反应相对较弱,但最近的研究表明其在患者疫苗接种中的潜力巨大,甚至能够治愈宫颈癌。
相比之下,mRNA疫苗则是一种非整合性、非传染性、耐受性良好的疫苗,近年来得到广泛关注。辉瑞BioNTech和Moderna的COVID-19疫苗是基于mRNA的代表性例子。mRNA疫苗的优势在于可在细胞质直接翻译成蛋白质,避免了基因插入和感染引起突变的风险。这些新型疫苗通过激活T细胞和B细胞,诱导体液和细胞免疫反应,为传染病和肿瘤的防治提供了新的可能性。然而,这些方法仍需克服一些挑战,包括免疫效率、耐受性和生产复杂性等方面的问题。
这些载体疫苗其应用范围从传染病预防到癌症免疫治疗、治疗过敏和自身免疫性疾病,突出了免疫机制的多样性。从载体疫苗的临床前和临床研究中我们发现,载体在开发疫苗和免疫疗法以及阐明免疫系统的复杂性方面具有巨大潜力。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2018YFA0900802)
  • 山东省重点研发计划(2019JZZY011009)
  • 青岛市自然科学基金(20-2-3-4-nsh)
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2024年第5卷第2期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-071
  • 接收时间:2023-10-07
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-04-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-10-07
  • 修回日期:2024-03-12
基金
国家重点研发计划(2018YFA0900802)
山东省重点研发计划(2019JZZY011009)
青岛市自然科学基金(20-2-3-4-nsh)
作者信息
    1 青岛大学基础医学院,病原生物学系,山东 青岛 266000
    2 北京市朝阳区疾病预防控制中心,微生物检验科,北京 100021
    3 青岛大学基础医学院,特种医学系,山东 青岛 266000

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王斌(1962—),男,教授,博士生导师。研究方向为人类巨细胞病毒致神经损伤的分子机制和免疫学机制。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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